HE  EXTERIOR 
OE  THE  HORSE 


LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Class 


THE 


EXTERIOR  OF  THE  HORSE 


BY 


ARMAND  GOUBAUX,    AND    GUSTAVE  BARRIER, 


U 

HONORARY  DIRECTOR  OF  THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOL   OF 

ALFORT,  MEMBER  OF  THE   ACADEMY  OF    MKD1CINE 

AND    OF   THE   NATIONAL  SOCIETY   OF    AGRICULTURE  OF 

FRANCE, 


PROFESSOR  OF  ANATOMY  AND   THE    EXTERIOR,  AT    THE 

VETERINARY  SCHOOL  AT    ALFORT,   MEMBER  OF 

THE    CENTRAL   SOCIETY  OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE   OF 

FRANCE. 


SECOND  EDITION, 

With  346  Figures  and  34  Plates,  by  G.  Nicolet, 

LIBRARIAN    AT    THE    VETERINARY    SCHOOL    OF  ALFORT. 


TRANSLATED   AND   EDITED   BY 

SIMON  J.  J.  HARGER,  V.  M.  D., 

PROFESSOR  OF   ANATOMY    AND    ZOOTKCHNICS    IN   THE    VETERINARY    DEPARTMENT    OF    THE    UNIVERSITY 

OF   PENNSYLVANIA. 


LIPPINCOTT 


OMPANY' 


PHILADELPHIA: 
J.   B.  LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY. 

LONDON.    10  HENRIETTA    STREET,  COVENT   GARDEN. 
1892. 


Copyright,  1892,  by  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY. 


PRINTED  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA,  U.S.A. 


TO   THE 

MEMBERS  OF  THE  VETERINARY   PROFESSION, 

AND    ALL 

CONNOISSEURS    OF    THE    HORSE, 

THIS    WORK    IS 

DEDICATED 

BY  THE  TRANSLATOR. 


PREFACE   BY   THE   TRANSLATOR. 


PROGRESS  in  veterinary  science  implies  advance  in  investigation 
and  the  publication  of  books  setting  forth  the  results  of  that  advance. 
Numerous  volumes  of  veterinary  literature  have  of  late  years  appeared 
from  the  pens  of  both  French  and  German  writers ;  but  in  English 
there  has  been  very  little  produced  upon  the  subject ;  and  English- 
speaking  teachers,  practitioners,  and  students  constantly  find  themselves 
compelled  to  look  to  foreign  writers  for  instruction  on  points  connected 
with  their  vocation. 

In  no  branch  of  this  literature  has  this  deficiency  been  more  seri- 
ously felt  than  in  that  which  studies  the  horse  exclusively  from  the 
exterior,  considering  his  external  form  and  characters  with  relation  to 
his  mechanical  aptitude  and  his  commercial  value.  Hence  I  was  in- 
duced to  fill  this  vacancy  by  the  translation  of  Goubaux  and  Barrier's 
"  Exterior  of  the  Horse." 

In  selecting  this  book,  the  French  veterinary  text-book  par  excel- 
lence, I  was  influenced  no  less  by  the  reputation  and  standing  of  its 
authors  than  by  the  originality,  exactness,  and  fulness  of  its  treatment 
of  the  subject. 

The  difficulty  of  such  an  undertaking  can  be  fully  appreciated  only 
through  actual  experience.  I  have  endeavored  as  far  as  possible  to 
avoid  the  use  of  French  terms.  In  some  instances,  however,  it  was 
impossible  to  find  English  terms  that  would  convey  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  the  terms  of  the  original  text.  Wherever  I  have  retained  the 
foreign  terms,  it  has  been  done  solely  for  the  sake  of  brevity  and 
simplicity. 

No  pains  have  been  spared  to  make  this  one  of  the  most  complete 
books  of  its  kind.  The  numerous  plates  and  figures  thoroughly  elu- 
cidate the  more  difficult  points  of  the  text ;  and  references  are  made  to 
all  the  best  French,  German,  and  Italian  treatises  on  the  veterinary 
science.  One  of  my  special  aims  has  been  to  adapt  this  book  to  the 
English-speaking  reader.  It  contains  valuable  information  for  the 
practitioner,  the  student,  the  horseman,  and  the  breeder. 


vi  PREFACE    BY    THE    TRANSLATOR. 

I  take  occasion  here  to  acknowledge  my  obligation  to  M.  Barrier 
and  Messrs.  Asselin  and  Houzeau  for  the  loan  of  the  plates  and  cliches, 
and  also  to  express  my  gratitude  to  the  friends  who  have  assisted  me 
in  my  work,  and  particularly  to  the  publishers  for  their  generous  as- 
sistance, for  the  ability  with  which  they  have  executed  their  portion  of 
the  undertaking,  and  for  the  interest  they  have  manifested  not  only  in 
this  work,  but  also  in  all  publications  pertaining  to  veterinary  science. 
Nor  must  I  forget,  finally,  to  express  my  obligations  to  Mr.  E.  R. 
Jones  for  his  conscientious  care  in  reading  and  correcting  the  proof. 

SIMON  J.  J.  HARGER. 

205  NORTH  TWENTIETH  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA, 
December  3,  1891. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION. 


IN  the  preparation  of  the  work  herewith  offered  to  the  public,  our 
aim  has  been  to  select  from  the  science  which  treats  of  the  rational 
improvement  of  domestic  animals — the  science  of  zootechnics — that 
chapter  which  bears  upon  the  consideration  of  the  external  forms  and 
the  characteristics  of  the  horse  in  their  connection  with  his  mechanical 
aptitudes  and,  his  commercial  value. 

This  study,  for  which  we  have  retained  the  name  given  to  it  by  the 
founder  of  veterinary  schools,  merits  a  treatment  very  different  from 
the  theoretical  and  empirical  one  accorded  to  it  by  the  majority  of  our 
predecessors.  We  have  endeavored,  therefore,  on  all  important  points, 
to  base  our  opinions  upon  numerous  careful  researches  pursued  by 
ourselves  in  person ;  and  from  these  data  we  have  deduced,  or  by  them 
confirmed,  the  principles  of  a  judicious  appreciation  of  the  physical 
and  moral  qualities  of  the  horse. 

To  our  teaching  colleagues,  our  associates,  our  pupils,  and  all  others 
who  have  aided  us  in  our  task,  we  here  acknowledge  our  deep  gratitude. 
If  we  have  not  cited  the  names  and  treatises  of  all  the  authors  who 
have  written  upon  the  exterior  of  the  horse,  it  is  because  we  had  de- 
termined, in  the  matter  of  bibliography  and  out  of  consideration  for 
our  readers,  to  abstain  from  all  idle  discussions  and  uninteresting 
controversies.  As  for  the  rest,  we  think  we  have  done  them  full 
justice  in  the  numerous  citations  we  have  made  from  their  works. 

Our  labors  have  been  singularly  facilitated  by  the  friendly  interest 
and  generosity  of  our  publishers,  who  will  allow  nothing  to  stand  in 
the  way  of  the  successful  completion  of  a  book  useful  to  science,  and, 
in  particular,  of  one  useful  to  the  veterinarian. 

We  are  indebted  atao  to  M.  G.  Nicolet,  librarian  to  the  veterinary 
school  of  Alfort,  whose  artistic  skill  has  reproduced,  among  other  sub- 
jects, with  an  exactness  hitherto  unknown  in  works  of  this  kind,  the 
characteristics  of  the  dental  wear,  the  recognition  of  which  is  a  matter 
of  such  great  importance  in  determining  the  age. 

ARMAND  GOUBAUX,  GUSTAVE  BARRIER. 

ALFORT,  March  15,  1884. 

vii 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SECOND    EDITION. 


THIS  second  edition,  in  preparation  for  three  years,  has  been  the 
subject  of  a  careful  revision  and  of  numerous  alterations. 

Some  very  notable  improvements  upon  the  first  edition  have  been 
made. 

A  new  plate  upon  the  age,  and  fifty-three  original  figures,  have 
been  added. 

The  matter,  while  much  condensed  as  a  whole,  has  in  many  places 
been  rewritten  at  great  length. 

Finally,  by  the  employment  of  three  varieties  of  type,  we  are 
enabled  to  indicate  the  degree  of  importance  of  each  subject  treated, 
and  to  facilitate  the  use  of  the  volume  to  those  who  can  consult  only 
the  essential  parts. 

ARMAND  GOUBAUX,  GUSTAVE  BARRIER. 

ALFORT,  March  1,  1890. 


IX 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION   FIRST. 

PRELIMINARY    IDEAS   OF    ANIMAL    MECHANICS. 
CHAPTEK    I. 

PAGE 

OBJECT,  END,  AND  UTILITY  OF  THE  EXTERIOR 1 

CHAPTEK    II. 
CENTRE  or  GRAVITY 8 

CHAPTER    III. 
THE  LEVER  AND  MUSCULAR  MECHANISM 11 

CHAPTEK    IV. 
THE  INCLINED  PLANE  . ,    19 


SECTION    SECOND. 

STUDY    OF    THE    REGIONS. 

\  1.  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  HORSE 21 

\  2.  SOME  DEFINITIONS 31 

A.  Beauties 31 

B.  Defects 32 

C.  Blemishes 32 

D.  Vices  and  Faults 33 

F>A  RT    I. 

THE   HEAD. 

CHAPTER    I. 

ANTERIOR  FACE      .- 36 

A.  The  Forehead 36 

B.  The  Face 38 

C.  Extremity  of  the  Nose 40 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    II. 

LATERAL  FACES 41 

A.  The  Ear ' 41 

B.  The  Temple 46 

C.  The  Supra-orbit  and  the  Eyebrows      47 

D.  The  Eye 48 

E.  The  Cheek 58 

F.  The  Nostrils 59 

CHAPTER    III. 

POSTERIOR  FACE 65 

A.  Intermaxillary  Space      65 

B.  Inferior  Maxillary  Region 67 

C.  The  Chin .   .    .  68 

CHAPTER    IV. 

INFERIOR  EXTREMITY 69 

A.  The  Mouth  and  its  Subdivision 69 

1.  The  Lips 69 

"2.  The  Teeth  and  the  Gums 73 

3.  The  Bars 74 

4.  The  Lingual  Canal 75 

5.  The  Tongue * •   .    .    .  76 

6.  The  Palate 79 

B.  The  Mouth  in  General 79 

CHAPTER    V. 

POSTERIOR  EXTREMITY 82 

A.  The  Poll  or  Nape 83 

B.  The  Parotid  Region 83 

C.  The  Throat 85 

CHAPTER    VI. 

HEAD  IN  GENERAL 85 

A.  Harmonibus  Relations 86 

B.  Length      - 8? 

C.  Volume 87 

D.  Direction 

E.  Forms 

F.  Attachments 95 

G.  Movements 95 

H.  Expression 96 

F>ART    II. 
THE   BODY. 

CHAPTER    I. 

SUPERIOR  FACE .'....  98 

A.  The  Neck •  98 

The  Mane  and  the  Forelock „..,....  109 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

PAGE 

B.  The  Withers Ill 

C.  The  Back 116 

D.  The  Loins 122 

E.  The  Croup 123 

The  Haunch , 142 

CHAPTEK    II. 

ANTERIOR  EXTREMITY 144 

A.  The  Breast,  or  Pectoral  Kegion 144 

B.  The  Inter-axilla 147 

C.  The  Axilla 147 

CHAPTEK    III. 

INFERIOR  FACE 148 

A.  The  Xiphoid  Region 148 

B.  The  Ahdomen 149 

» 

CHAPTER    IV. 

LATERAL  FACES 152 

A.  The  Costal  Region  ;  Rihs  ;  Sides 152 

The  Chest  in  General 157 

B.  The  Flank    . 162 

C.  The  Groin 167 

CHAPTER    V. 

POSTERIOR  EXTREMITY 168 

A.  The  Tail 168 

B.  The  Anus 174 

C.  The  Perineum  and  the  Median  Raphe 175 

CHAPTER    VI. 

GENITAL  ORGANS 176 

\  1.  Genital  Organs  of  the  Male 176 

A.  The  Testicles  and  their  Envelopes 176 

B.  The  Sheath  and  the  Penis 181 

$  2.  Genital  Organs  of  the  Female 184 

A.  The  Vulva , 184 

B.  The  Mammae 186 

F>  A  RT     III. 

THE    MEMBERS. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 186 

1.  Action  of  the  Anterior  Member 196 

2.  Action  of  the  Posterior  Member 198 

CHAPTER    I. 

ANTERIOR  MEMBER 200 

A.  The  Shoulder 201 

B.  The  Arm  .                                                                                                          .  214 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

C.  The  Elbow 219 

D.  The  Forearm 221 

E.  The  Chestnuts      227 

F.  The  Knee 227 

CHAPTER    II. 

POSTERIOR  MEMBER 237 

A.  The  Thigh  and  the  Buttock 237 

B.  The  Stifle 244 

C.  The  Leg ,    ....  246 

D.  The  Hock 253 

E.  The  Chestnut 279 

F.  The  Canon  and  the  Tendons 279 

G.  The  Fetlock      290 

H.  The  Footlock  and  the  Ergot .    .  297 

I.    The  Pastern 298 

J.    The  Coronet 309 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE  FOOT 312 

A.  Organization 312 

1.  Internal  Parts 313 

2.  The  Hoof 316 

B.  Properties  and  Mechanism 322 

C.  Beauties 327 

D.  Defects 328 

1.  Of  Volume  and  of  Proportion 328 

2.  Of  Conformation 329 

3.  Of  the  Axis 332 

4.  Of  Quality  of  the  Horn 334 

E.  Accidents  occasioned  by  Shoeing 335 

F.  Diseases                                                                                                            .  336 


SECTION    THIRD. 

PROPORTIONS. 


PART    I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER    I. 
PRELIMINARY  IDEAS 341 

CHAPTER    II. 

HISTORICAL    .  344 


CONTENTS.  XV 


II. 

OBJECT   AND    UTILITY   OF   THE    PROPORTIONS. 
CHAPTEK    I. 

PAGE 

POINTS  OF  VIEW  FROM  WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED  .    .    .  _.    .    .    357 

A.  Kelation  of  Dimensions  between  the  Parts    .........    ....    358 

B.  Angular  Relations  of  the  Osseous  Segments  .............    365 

Theory  of  the  Similitude  of  the  Angles  and  the  Parallelism  of  the 

Bony  Segments    .......................  365 

C.  General  Relations  of  the  Ensemble,  the  Whole  Organism    ......  385 

D.  Relations  of  the  Organism  with  the  Nervous  System  .........  397 

CHAPTER    II. 

ISOLATED  EFFECTS  OF  BEAUTIFUL  PROPORTIONS  UPON  THE  ANIMAL  MA- 

CHINE   ....................       .....    .    .  404 

A.  Conditions  of  the  Motor  en  Mode  de  Masse,  or  of  Force  .......  405 

B.  Conditions  of  the  Motor  en  Mode  de  Vitesse,  or  of  Speed    ......  407 

C.  Conditions  of  the  Mixed  Motor.     (Combination  of  Force  and  Speed 

realized  )  ..........................     .  408 

D.  Excitability  ;  Impressionability  ;   Irritability   ............  410 

CHAPTER    III. 

RESULT  OF  BEAUTIFUL  PROPORTIONS  UPON  THE  ANIMAL  MACHINE    .   .   .    412 
Resistance  to  Fatigue  :  Endurance    .    .................    412 

CHAPTER    IV. 
DEFINITIVE  SYNTHESIS  ....  .    429  ' 


SECTION    FOURTH. 

THE   HORSE    IN    RELATION   TO   LOCOMOTION. 


PART     I. 
ATTITUDES   AND    MOVEMENTS   UPON   PLACE. 

CHAPTER    I. 

ATTITUDES 438 

A.  Station 438 

Axes,  Equilibrium 442 

a.  Of  the  Anterior  Members 443 

b.  Of  the  Posterior  Members 456 

B.  Lying  Down  or  Decubitus 466 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    II. 

MOVEMENTS  UPON  PLACE 468 

A.  Hearing 468 

B.  Kicking 470 

PART    II. 

MODE   OF   PROGRESSION,    OR   THE   GAITS   OF   THE    HORSE. 

CHAPTEK    I. 

GENERALITIES  OF  THE  GAITS 472 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  GAITS 479 

Systems  of  Notation  of  the  Gaits 490 

SYNTHETIC  STUDY  OF  THE  MODE  OF  PROGRESSION .  496 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE  GAITS  IN  PARTICULAR 503 

A.  The  Amble,  Pacing 504 

Broken  Amble 509 

B.  The  Trot 510 

Broken  Trot,  Flying  Trot : 522 

Racking 522 

Skipping 527 

The  Canter 527 

Running  Walk 529 

C.  The  Walk 530 

Backing 542 

D.  The  Gallop 544 

E.  Leaping 569 

Bounding  and  Bucking 575 

CHAPTER    III. 

DEFECTS  IN  THE  GAITS 576 

A.  Defects  existing  in  the  Anterior  Members  alone 577 

1.  Dragging  the  Toe , 577 

2.  Excessive  Knee-Action 578 

3.  Immobilized  or  Pegged  Shoulders 578 

B.  Defects  existing  in  the  Posterior  Members  alone 57$ 

1.  String-halt 579 

2.  Rotating  Hocks 581 

C.  Defects  dependent  upon  the  Mode  of  Association  in  raising  the  Ante- 

rior Feet  and  resting  the  Posterior 582 

Forging 582 

D.  Defects  existing  separately  or  simultaneously  in  the  Anterior  or  the 

Posterior  Members 584 

1.  Rocking 584 

2.  Strain  of  the  Loins 585 

B.  Defects  existing  indiscriminately  in  the  Four  Members     .    ; 586 

1.  Billarder,  Paddling 586 

2.  Interfering 586 

3.  Lameness 588 


CONTENTS.  xvii 

SECTION    FIFTH. 

AGE    OF    THE    HORSE. 


PART    I. 

THE    TEETH. 
CHAPTEK    I. 

PAGK 

THE  INCISORS 597 

A.  Of  the  First  Dentition 597 

B.  Of  the  Second  Dentition 601 

C.  Structure 606 

D.  Details  of  the  Dental  Table  according  to  the  Age 615 

E.  Direction 616 

The  Tusks  or  Canine  Teeth 619 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE  MOLARS 621 

1.  Supplementary  Premolars 621 

2.  Molars  Proper 622 

A.  Of  the  First  Dentition 622 

B.  Of  the  Second  Dentition 625 

C.  Development  and  Structure .  631 

CHAPTER    III. 

ERUPTION  OF  THE  TEETH 637 

A.  Of  the  Incisors 637 

B.  Of  the  Canines 640 

C.  Of  the  Molars  .                                                                                               .  640 


PART    II. 

DETERMINATION    OF   THE   AGE. 

CHAPTER    I. 
DURATION  OF  LIFE  IN  THE  HORSE 642 

CHAPTER    II. 
THE  PARTS  TO  BE  EXAMINED  FOR  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  AGE    .    .    645 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE  CHARACTERS  FURNISHED  BY  THE  TEETH ,    .   .    ,    .    643 

B 


xviii  CONTENTS. 

F>A  RT    III. 

PAGE 

IRREGULARITIES  OF  THE  DENTAL  APPARATUS 721 

1.  Number , 721 

2.  Form 726 

3.  Union  of  Two  Teeth 726 

4.  Form  of  the  Central  Enamel 727 

5.  Depth  of  the  Infundibulum  and  its  External  Dental  Cavity 729 

6.  Defect  of  Length  or  Excess  of  Width  of  one  of  the  Jaws 736 

7.  Excessive  or  Insufficient  Wear 738 

8.  Wear  resulting  from  Cribbing 752 

9.  Employment  of  Fraudulent  Mean's 762 


SECTION    SIXTH. 

CONSIDERATIONS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  DESCRIPTION  AND  IDENTIFICATION  OF 
THE  HORSE  .  .    771 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE  COATS 771 

1.  Coats  properly  so  called 771 

\  1.  Primitive  Coats 773 

A.  Simple  Coats  (Black,  Sorrel) 773 

B.  Composite  Coats  (Isabella  Bay,  Mouse-Color) 775 

C.  Mixed  Coats  (Fox-Color) 777 

\  2.  Derived  Coats  (Gray,  White,  Flea-bitten,  Roan) 778 

\  3.  Conjugate  Coats  (Piebald,  Conjugate,  Isabella) .    .    .  782 

Spotted  or  Marbled  Coats 784 

Synoptical  Table  of  the  Coats 784 

2.  Peculiarities  of  the  Coats 785 

A.  General 786 

B.  Of  the  Head 794 

C.  Of  the  Body 796 

D.  Of  the  Members 797 

Synoptical  Table  of  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Coats 800 

3.  Causes  of  the  Modifications  of  the  Coats 799 

4.  Indices  furnished  by  the  Coats  and  their  Peculiarities  as  to  the  Qualities 

of  Horses 803 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE  HEIGHT 806 

CHAPTER    III. 

CERTIFICATE  OF  DESCRIPTION -    - 813 


CONTENTS.  xix 


SECTION    SEVENTH. 

THE    APTITUDES   OR    THE    SERVICES. 
CHAPTER    I. 

PAGE 

RACE-HORSES 825. 

A.  Running-Horse 825 

B.  Steeple-Chaser 827 

C.  Trotters  (in  Harness  or  under  the  Saddle) 829 

CHAPTER    II. 

HORSES  OF  LUXURY 833 

A.  Coach-Horses  (Large  and  Small  Coach-Horses) 833 

B.  Saddle-Horses  (Hackney,  Cob,  Hunter,  Double  Pony,  Pony) 837 

CHAPTER    III. 

CAVALRY  HORSES 844 

A.  Staff  Horses 845 

B.  Troop  Horses 846 

CHAPTER    IV. 

HORSES  OF  INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 849 

A    Slow  Heavy-Draught  Horses    . 851 

B.   Fast  Heavy-Draught  Horses 852 


SECTION    EIGHTH. 

VICIOUS    HORSES. 

CHAPTER    I. 

WHIMS  AND  Vicious  HABITS     . 858 

1.  Horses  which  loll  the  Tongue,  double  it  up,  or  continually  protrude 

it  from  the  Mouth 859 

2.  Horses  which  strike  the  Lower  Lip  against  the  Upper 859 

3.  Horses  which  rub  the  Lower  Extremity  of  the  Head  against  the  Man- 

ger, or  the  Tail  against  surrounding  Objects 860 

4.  Horses  which  shake  the  Head  or  jerk  the  Reins 860 

5.  Horses  which  grasp  the  Branches  of  the  Bit  with  the  Lower  Lip    .    .    .  861 

6.  Horses  which  tear  their  Blankets  with  the  Teeth 861 

7.  Horses  which  rest  one  Hind-Foot  upon  the  other 861 

8.  Horses  which  lie  down  Cow-Fashion      -.    .    .    .  862 


XX  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

9.  Horses  which  strip  their  Halters 862 

10.  Horses  which  roll  as  soon  as  they  are  harnessed  or  when  they  return  to 

the  Stable  after  working 863 

1 1 .  Horses  which  trot  in  the  Stable : 863 

12.  Horses  which  paw  in  the  Stable 864 

13.  Horses  which  weave  in  the  Stable 864 

14.  Horses  which  eat  Earth 864 

15.  Horses  which  have  the  Vice  of  "  Wind-Sucking,"  or  swallowing  Air  .  865 

CHAPTER    II. 

VICES    PROPERLY    SO    CALLED 869 

|  1.  External  Manifestations  Proper  to  each  Vice 869 

1.  Balky  Horses 869 

2.  Horses  difficult  to  Approach  or  to  Groom .    .  870 

3.  Horses  difficult  to  Harness  or  to  Mount 871 

4.  Horses  difficult  to  Shoe 871 

5.  Biters , 872 

6.  Horses  which  rear  and  strike  with  the  Pore-Feet 873 

7.  Horses  which  back 874 

8.  Kickers 874 

9.  Timid  Horses,  Shyers 876 

10.  Aversion  to  Special  Objects 877 

11.  Runaway  Horses 879 

§  2.  General  Causes  of  Vices 882 

CHAPTER    III. 

CHOICE  OF  THE  HORSE 886 

1.  The  Seller 887 

2.  The  Purchaser 892 

3.  Examination  of  the  Horse 894 

4.  Horses  mated  or  paired 901 

5.  Horses  which  may  be  mounted  or  driven  at  will 903 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  PAOE 

1.  Situation  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity  in  the  Horse 4 

2.  Determination  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity 5 

3.  Stability  of  the  Equilibrium 10 

4.  5,  6.  The  Lever  and  Muscular  Mechanism 12,  13 

7.  Lever  of  the  First  Class It; 

8,9.  Lever  of  the  Second  and  Third  Classes 17 

10.  The  Inclined  Plane 19 

11.  Regions  of  the  Horse  seen  in  Profile 24 

12.  Kegions  of  the  Horse  seen  in  Front 25 

13.  Regions  of  the  Horse  seen  Behind 25 

14.  Regions  of  the  Horse  seen  Laterally  and  in  Front      26 

15.  Regions  of  the  Horse  seen  Laterally  and  Behind .    .    .  27 

16.  Superficial  Structures  viewed  in  Profile 28 

17.  Superficial  Structures  viewed  in  Front 30 

18.  Superficial  Structures  viewed  from  Behind 30 

19.  Regions  of  the  Head 35 

20.  Vertical  Section  of  the  Eye  of  the  Horse  (semi-schematic) 49 

21.  Examination  of  the  Eye 52 

22.  Examination  of  the  Eye 53 

23.  Normal  Eye 54 

24.  Examination  of  the  Nostril 62 

25.  Interior  of  the  Mouth  (after  Bruneau) 70 

26.  Examination  of  the  Mouth 77 

27.  Bit  of  the  Bridle 80 

28.  Directions  of  the  Head  and  the  Neck 89 

29.  Directions  of  the  Head  and  the  Neck 90 

30.  Directions  of  the  Head  and  the  Neck 92 

31.  Over-check  Rein      92 

32.  Direction  of  the  Neck 101 

33.  Direction  of  the  Neck 103 

34.  Coxse 124 

35.  The  Coxa  as  a  Bent  Lever 124 

36.  Length  of  the  Croup      , 126 

37.  Openness  of  the  Ilio-ischial  Angle .  126 

38.  Variations  in  the  Inclination  of  the  Ilium 132 

39.  Variations  in  the  Inclination  of  the  Ischium 133 

40.  Simultaneous  Variations  of  the  Ischium  and  the  Ilium 134 

41.  Influence  of  the  Misplacement  of  the  Coxae  as  a  whole .  135 

xxi 


xxii  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FTG.  PAGE 

42,  43.  Convexity  of  a  Curve .     153 

44.  Convexity  of  the  Kibs 155 

45.  State  of  the  Hairs  of  the  Tail 170 

46.  Docked  Tail,  with  the  Hairs  long 171 

47.  48,  49.  Docked  Tail,  with  the  Hairs  shortened 171,  172 

50,  61.  Horse  in  the  Act  of  Pulling 187,  189 

52,  63.  Limits  of  Extension  and  of  Flexion 191,  193 

54.  Schemes  of  the  Evolution  of  two  Congeneric  Members  during  the  Phases 

of  Contact  and  of  Elevation 194 

55.  Action  of  the  Anterior  Member  in  the  Trot 197 

56.  Action  of  the  Posterior  Member  in  the  Trot •    •    199 

57.  Length  of  the  Shoulder 204 

58.  Length  of  the  Shoulder  in  Relation  with  the  Arm 206 

59,60,61.  Direction  of  the  Shoulder • 207,208 

62.  The  Scapulo-humeral  Angle 209 

63.  Direction  of  the  Arm 216 

64.  Scheme  of  the  Muscular  Incidences  of  the  Straight  and  the  Oblique  Arm  .  217 

65.  Compensation  of  the  Straight  Shoulder  by  an  Oblique  Arm 218 

66. .  The  Olecranon  as  a  Lever-arm 220 

67.  Form  of  the  Knee 229 

fJ8,  69,  150,  161.  Direction  of  the  Knee  in  an  Antero-posterior  Sense  .   231,  232,  450 

70,  71.  Direction  of  the  Knee  in  Relation  to  the  Median  Line 233 

72.  Scheme  of  the  Direction  of  the  Thigh 241 

73,  74.  Length  of  the  Thigh 242 

75.  Scheme  of  the  Width  of  the  Leg 249 

76.  Tendons  and  Tendinous  Bursae  of  the  Hock 254 

77.  Form  of  the  Hock    .    .    .   '. 256 

78.  Scheme  of  the  Rigidity  of  the  Posterior  Member 259 

79.  Straight  Tibia 264 

80.  Oblique  Canon 266 

81.  82.  Deviations  of  the  Vertical  Axis  of  the  Hock 269 

83.  Capped  Hock     '..~¥ 270 

84,  85.  Curb  and  Spavin 273 

86.  Spavin 274 

87.  Jarde 275 

88.  Jarde  upon  the  Dissected  Hock 276 

89.  Jarde  upon  the  Macerated  Hock 277 

90.  91.  Different  Views  of  the  Dissected  Hock 278 

92,  93,  96,  97.   Bones   and   Ligaments   of  the  Canon,  Fetlock,    Pastern,  and 

Coronet * 280,  291 

94,  95.  Width  of  the  Canon 285 

98.  Mechanism  of  the  Articulation  of  the  Fetlock  .    . 292 

•99,  100.  Scheme  of  the  Length  of  the  Pastern 301,302 

101,  102,152,153.  Direction  of  the  Pastern 304,450 

103.  Disadvantages  from  Excess  or  Insufficiency  of  the  Obliquity  of  the  Pastern    305 

104,  105.  The  Pastern  as  a  Lever 306 

106.  Longitudinal  and  Median  Section  of  the  Foot 314 

107.  Normal  Foot  before  and  after  Maceration 315 

108.  Foot  viewed  in  Front 316 

109.  Profile  of  the  Hoof      317 

110.  Wall  of  the  Hoof  .  317 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xxiii 

FIG.  PAGE 

111.  Inferior  Face  of  the  Hoof 317 

112,  113.  Antero-posterior  and  Transverse  Sections  of  the  Hoof 318 

114.  Interior  of  the  Hoof 319 

115.  Transverse  Section  of  the  Hoof  (Posterior  Part) 319 

116.  Frog  and  Periople    .    / 319 

117.  Hoof  with  Perioplic  Band  detached 320 

118.  Views  of  the  Fore-foot 320 

119.  Hind-foot .~T  ~321 

120.  Foot  with  High  Heels 331 

121.  Foot  with  Low  Heels '.  331 

122.  Foot,  Pincard 333 

123.  Deformity  of  Hoof  from  Laminitis 338 

124.  Keraphyllocele * 339 

125.  The  Proportions,  after  Bourgelat 347 

126.  The  Proportions  of  Eclipse,  after  Saint-Bel 351 

127.  The  Proportions  of  the  Horse  seen  in  Profile , 360 

128.  The  Proportions  of  the  Head  viewed  in  Profile     .    .    . 362 

129.  The  Proportions  of  the  Head  viewed  in  Front 363 

130.  Comparative  Proportions  of  the  Man  and  the  Horse 364 

131.  Articular  Angles,  after  Morris 366 

132.  Anterior  Member  with  the  Oblique  Segments  inclined  Forty-five  Degrees 

to  the  Horizon 368 

133.  The  same  in  the  Posterior  Member 368 

134.  The  Articular  Angles  upon  a  Drawing,  from  a  Photograph  of  Fitz- Glad- 

iator    372 

135.  Toise , 373 

136.  Measurement  of  the  Inclination  of  the  Segments 375 

137.  Use  of  the  Arthrogoniometer 376 

138    Arthrogoniometer  for  measuring  the  Articular  Angles 376 

139.  Value  of  the  Articular  Angles  in  the  Fore  Member 381 

140.  Value  of  the  Articular  Angles  in  the  Hind  Member 381 

141.  Length  of  the  Body 388 

142.  Length  of  the  Body  not  dependent  upon  that  of  the  Vertebral  Column     .  390 

143.  Length  of  the  Body  as  modified  by  the  Obliquity  of  the  Shoulder  and  the 

Croup 392 

144.  The  Hassembler ' 440 

145.  The  Camper 440 

146.  The  Placer 441 

147.  Lines  of  Equilibrium  of  the  Horse  viewed  in  Profile  . 444 

148.  Scheme  of  the  Lines  of  Equilibrium 445 

149.  Normal  and  Abnormal  Axes  of  the  Fore  Member 446 

154.  Axes  viewed  in  Front 451 

155.  Normal  Axis  viewed  in  Front 452 

156.  Horse  too  Open  in  Front 452 

157.  Bow-legged  Horse 454 

158.  Outbow-footed  Horse __ 454 

159.  Horse  Closed  in  Front ' 455 

160.  Ox-Knee "    ....  455 

161.  Horse  Cross-footed  in  Front 455 

162.  Scheme  of  the  Axis  of  the  Hind  Member 456 

163.  Normal  and  Abnormal  Axes  of  the  Hind  Member  seen  in  Profile    ....  457 


xxiv  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

164.  Axes  viewed  from  Behind 460 

165.  Horse  too  Open  Behind 461 

166.  Bow-legged  Horse 462 

167.  Horse  Closed  Behind 463 

168.  Horse  Cow-hocked 463 

169.  Bearing 468 

170.  Kicking 471 

171.  Scheme  of  the  Movement  of  a  Member  during  the  Phases  of  Contact  and 

Elevation 475 

172    Exchange  of  Contact  upon  the  Posterior  Bipeds  in  the  Walk 476 

173.  Instrument  for  Analyzing  the  Gaits  (Marey) 480 

174.  Cylinder  of  Registration 480 

175.  Chaussure  Exploratrice  (Marey) 481 

176.  Bracelet  Explorateur  (Marey) 481 

177.  Registering  Apparatus  of  Marey  applied  to  the  Horse 482 

178.  Chaussure  Exploratrice  for  registering  the  Gaits  by  Electricity 484 

179.  Longitudinal  Section  of  the  same 484 

180.  Instantaneous  Photographs  of  the  Fast  Gallop,  after  Muybridge 487 

181.  Chrono-photograph  of  the  Walk  of  a  Man 489 

182.  Chrono-photograph  of  the  Leap  of  a  Man 489 

183.  Movement  of  the  Anterior  Member  of  the  Horse 490 

184.  Lecoq's  Method  of  Notation  of  the  Gaits 491 

185.  Hodochronometric  Scale  of  Vincent  and  Goiffon 492 

186.  Notation  of  the  Running  of  a  Man  (Marey) 493 

187.  Notation  of  the  Walk  of  Two  Pedestrians 494 

188.  Notation  of  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil 495 

189    Table  for  Artificial  Notation  of  the  Gaits 498 

190.  Model  for  Notation  of  the  Gaits  (Marey) 5dO 

191.  Model  for  Notation  of  the  Gaits 501 

192.  Synopsis  of  the  Notations  of  the  Gaits  of  the  Horse 502 

193.  The  Amble 505 

194.  Notation  of  Two  Men  Walking 506 

195.  Notation  of  the  Marched  Amble 507 

196.  Trail  of  the  Amble,  after  Lenoble  du  Teil 507 

197.  198.  Displacements  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity 508 

'199.  Trail  of  the  Broken  Amble 509 

200.  Notation  of  the  Broken  Amble 510 

201,  202,203.  Trails  of  the  Trot  (Lenoble  du  Teil)      511 

204,  205,  206.  The  Leaped  Trot        512 

207.  Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Anterior  Member  in  the  Ordinary 

Trot 513 

208.  Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Posterior  Member  in  the  Ordinary 

Trot 514 

209.  Tracing,  Notation,  and  Reactions  of  the  Trot 515 

210.  Notation  of  the  Ordinary  Trot  in  which  the  Phase  of  Suspension  is  not 

Perceptible 516 

211.  Notation  of  the  Marched  Trot 517 

212.  213.  Displacements  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity 517,518 

214,  215,  216.  The  Flying  Trot  of  the  Horse  Abe  Edington 524 

217.  Trail  of  the  Flying  Trot  of  the  Horse  Abe  Edington 524 

218.  Notation  of  the  same 525 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xxv 

FIG.  PAGE 

219.  Notation  of  the  Canter  in  Front 528 

220.  Running  Walk  :  Notation  and  Bases 529 

221.  Trail  of  the  Running  Walk ,530 

222.  Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Anterior  Member  in  the  Walk  .    .  531 

223.  Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Posterior  Member  in  the  Walk  .    .  531 

224.  Tracing  and  Notation  of  the  Walk,  with  Equality  of  the  Lateral  and  Diag- 

onal Contacts  , ^    .__.  533 

225.  226,  227,  228    Succession  of  the  Contacts  of  the  Walk 534,~535 

Notation  of  the  Ordinary  Walk 535 

Walk,  with  Predominance  of  the  Lateral  Contacts 536 

231,  232,  233.  Diverse  Trails  of  the  Walk 538 

234.  Backing ..." 543 

235.  Backing,  in  the  Horse  attached  to  a  Load 544 

236.  Diagonal  or  United  Gallop     .    .        546 

237.  Lateral  or  Disunited  Gallop 546 

238.  Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Anterior  Member  in  the  Gallop  .    .  548 

239.  Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Posterior  Member  in  the  Gallop  .    .  548 

240.  Tracings,  Notation,  and  Reactions  of  the  Gallop  of  the  Trained  Horse  .    ,  549 

241.  Notation  of  the  Gallop  in  Three  Times 550 

242.  Notation  of  the  Full  Gallop 551 

243.  244,  245,  246,  247,  248,  249,  250.  The  Full  Gallop,  its  Beats,  Bases,  and 

Projection 554,  555 

251.  Passage  from  Station  into  the  Gallop 555 

252.  Principal  Trails  of  the  Gallop  ( Barrier  and  Lenoble  du  Teil) 558 

253.  Displacements  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity 560 

254.  Instantaneous  Photographs  of  the  Running  Gallop  of  the  American  Horse 

Sallie  Gardner  (Muybridge) 564 

255.  Notation  of  the  Running  Gallop,  from  Instantaneous  Photographs  ....  565 

256.  Trail  of  the  Gallop,  furnished  by  Sallie  Gardner 565 

257.  Transition  from  the  Walk  to  the  Trot 568 

258.  Transition  from  the  Trot  to  the  Walk 568 

259.  Transition  from  the  Trot  to  the  Gallop 569 

260.  Transition  from  the  Gallop  to  the  Trot 569 

261.  Scheme  of  the  Three  Principal  Varieties  of  Leaps 570 

262.  263,  264,  265,  266.  Different  Phases  in  the  Execution  of  the  Leap  ....  571 

267.  Trail  of  the  Leap  over  a  Hedge 572 

268.  Notation  of  the  Leap  over  a  Hedge 573 

269.  Instantaneous  Photograph  of  Draught-Horses  moving  a  Heavy  Load     .    .  577 

270.  Dentition  of  the  Horse,  as  a  whole 595 

271.  Deciduous  Incisors  viewed  on  their  Anterior  Face 598 

272.  Deciduous  Incisors  (Profile  and  Dental  Tables) 599 

273.  Deciduous  Pincer • 600 

274.  Magnified  Longitudinal  Section  of  a  Superior  Virgin  Pincer  of  the  First 

Dentition,  seen  in  its  Alveolus 600 

275.  Longitudinal  Section  of  the  Jaws,  showing  the  Relative  Situation  of  the 

Milk  and  Permanent  Incisors 601 

276.  Unworn  Inferior  Pincer  of  the  Second  Dentition 602 

277.  Superior  Virgin  Incisor  of  the  Second  Dentition  (Pincer) 603 

278.  Longitudinal  Section  of  a  Permanent  Incisor  that  has  been  used      ...  604 

279.  Eccentric  and  Longitudinal  Section  of  a  Superior  and  Inferior  Permanent 

Intermediate    .                                                                                                          .  604 


xxvi  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

280.  Longitudinal  and  Median  Sections  of  the  Pincer,  Intermediate,  and  Corner 

in  each  of  the  Jaws 605 

281.  Series  of  Longitudinal  Sections  of  the  Right  Inferior  Incisors  of  a  Five- 

year-old  Horse 607 

282.  Schematic  Section  of  the  Dental  Follicle  of  an  Inferior  Incisor  of  a  Horse  608 

283.  Longitudinal  and  Median  Sections  of  a  Permanent  Inferior  Pincer  (en- 

larged)   609 

284.  Radical  Cementation  of  the  Incisors  of  a  Horse 610 

285.  Longitudinal  Antero-posterior  Section  of  an  Inferior  Pincer,  etc.     ....  611 

286.  Median  and  Longitudinal  Sections  of  Incisors,  showing,  1st,  the  Growth  of 

the  Teeth  at  their  Roots ;  2d,  the  Progressive  Wear  of  their  Tables  ;  3d, 
their  Length  and  Obliquity  according  to  the  Age  ;  4th,  Obliteration  of 

their  Pulp  Cavities  ;  5th,  finally,  their  Radical  Cementation 613 

287.  Transverse  Section  of  Inferior  Right  Pincer,  showing  the  Different  Layers 

constituting  the  Tooth,  with  their  Relative  Thickness  (Magnified  Five 

Diameters) 614 

288.  Incisive  Arcades  exposed  to  show  the  Progressive  Inclination  of  the  Teeth 

in  Relation  to  the  Plane  of  Meeting  of  the  Jaws 617 

289.  Incisors  exposed  by  their  Anterior  Face  to  show  their  Relative  Inclination 

towards  the  Median  Line 618 

290.  Double  Inferior  Right  Canine  Tooth  in  the  Ass 620 

291.  Superior  Right  Canine  Tooth 621 

292.  Longitudinal  and  Median  Sections  of  the  Canines 621 

293.  The  Three  Superior  Deciduous  Molars  (Right  Side) 623 

294.  The  Three  Inferior  Deciduous  Molars  (Right  Side) 624 

295.  Transverse  Section  of  the  Inferior  Jaw,  showing  the  Relation  in  the  Al- 

veolus  of    the   Permanent  and  Deciduous   Molars   at  the   Moment  of 

Eruption 625 

29"6.  Transverse  Section  of  the  Superior  Jaw,  showing  the  Relation  in  the  Alve- 
olus of  the  Permanent  and  Deciduous  Molars  at  the  Moment  of  Eruption  626 

297.  Superior  Permanent  Molar  (Right  Side,  Virgin  Tooth) 627 

298.  Superior  Molar  Arcade  of  the  Right  Side  of  a  Horse  Six  Years  Old  Past  .  628 

299.  Inferior  Molar  of  the  Second  Dentition  (Left  Side,  Virgin  Tooth)    ....  630 

300.  Inferior  Molar  Arcade  of  the  Left  Side  of  a  Horse  Six  Years  Old  Past  .    .  631 

301.  Superior  Right  Molar  removed  from  its  Dental  Follicle 632 

302.  Inferior  Left  Molar  removed  from  its  Dental  Follicle 633 

303.  Table  of  Superior  and  Inferior  Molars 634 

304.  Inferior  Left  Molar  Arcade  of  a  Very  Old  Horse,  showing  the  Radical 

Cementation 634 

305.  Transverse  Section  of  a  Superior  Left  Molar  (enlarged) 635 

306.  Superior  Left  Molar  Arcade  of  the  Hipparion 636 

307.  Transverse  Section  of  an  Inferior  Right  Molar  (enlarged) 636 

308.  309,  310,  311.  Supernumerary  Incisor  Teeth 722,  723 

312.  Double  Right  Inferior  Canine  in  the  Ass 724 

313.  Absence  of  the  Inferior  Corners 725 

314.  Union  of  Two  Superior  Incisors .  726 

315.  Fissure  of  the  Infundibulum  of  the  Incisors 727 

316.  Double  Infundibulum  of  the  Incisors 728 

317.  318.  Superior  and  Inferior  Brachygnathism 737 

319.  Parrot  Mouth 740 

320.  Reversed  Parrot  Mouth  .....  .742 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xxvii 

FIG.  PAGE 

321.  Incisors  of  the  Inferior  Jaw  too  Short 744 

322.  Inferior  Molar  Arcade  of  a  Very  Old  Horse,  showing  the  Radical  Cementa- 

tion, as  well  as  the  Insufficient  Length  of  the  Middle  Teeth 745 

323.  Eight  Molar  Arcades  of  a  Very  Old  Horse 746 

324.  Bevelled  Molars  from  Irregular  Wear 748 

325.  Hypertrophy  of  the  Fourth  Right  Superior  Molar 750 

326.  Abnormal  Wear  produced  by  Cribbing .  755 

327.  Abnormal  Wear  produced  by  Cribbing 750 

328.  Abnormal  Wear  produced  by  Cribbing 757 

329.  Abnormal  Wear  produced  by  Cribbing 759 

330.  Hippometer  with  Pedestal 808 

331.  Hippometer  without  Pedestal 809 

332.  Hippometric  Cane 810 

333.  Running-Horse,  Vermout,  Winner  of  the  Great  Prize  of  Paris  in  1864  .    .  826 

334.  Steeple-chase  Horse,  Bois-Roussel,  Winner  of  the  French  Derby  in  1864    .  828 

335.  Trotter  in  Harness,  Fazan,  Russian  Stallion  of  the  Orloff  Variety   ....  831 

336.  Trotter  under  the  Saddle,  Bayadere,  Anglo-Norman  Mare 832 

337.  Large  Coach-Horse,  Lahore,  Half-thoroughbred  Anglo-Norman 835 

338.  Small  Coach-Horse,  Shang-Hai,  Half-thoroughbred  Anglo-Norman    .    .    .  837 

339.  Hackney 838 

340.  Cob 840 

341.  Hunter 841 

342.  Double  Pony     842 

343.  Pony 843 

344.  Slow  Heavy-draught  Horse 851 

345.  Fast  Heavy-draught  Horse 853 

346.  Velocite,  Percheron  Mare  of  the  Compagnie  Generals  des  Omnibus     .    .    .  854 


PLATES. 


PLA.TE  PJLOE 

I.— Birth 603 

II.— About  One  Week 664 

III.— One  Month 665 

IV.— Three  Months 666 

V.— Four  Months 6C7 

VI.— Five  Months 669 

VII.— Ten  Months 671 

VIII.— One  Year 673 

IX. — Sixteen  Months 675 

X.— Twenty  Months 677 

XI.— Two  Years 679 

XII.— Kising  Three  Years 681 

XIII.— Three  Years  Past 683 

XIV.— Eising  Four  Years 685 

XV.— Four  Years 687 

XVI.— Four  Years  Past 689 

XVII.— Rising  Five  Years  .    . 691 

XVIII.— Five  Years 693 

XIX.— Six  Years 695 

XX.— Seven  Years *  697 

XXI.— Eight  Years 699 

XXII.— Nine  Years 701 

XXIII.— Ten  Years 703 

XXIV.— Eleven  Years 705 

XXV.— Twelve  Years 707 

XXVI.— Thirteen  Years 709 

XXVII.— Fifteen  Years 711 

XX VI 11. —Seventeen  Years 713 

XXIX.— Nineteen  Years 715 

XXX.— Twenty-one  Years 717 

XXXI.— Thirty  Years 719 

XXXII.— Begu.— Nine  Years 731 

XXXIII.— False  Begu.— Fourteen  Years 735 

XXXIV.— Bishoping 769 


XXVlll 


THE 

EXTERIOR  OF  THE  HORSE. 


SECTION    FIRST. 

PRELIMINARY  IDEAS  OF  ANIMAL  MECHANICS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

OBJECT,  END,  AND   UTILITY   OF   THE   EXTERIOR. 

THE  term  exterior  of  the  horse  seems  to  have  been  employed  by 
veterinarians  only  since  the  close  of  the  last  century,  dating  from 
the  period  when  Bourgelat  published  his  book  upon  the  external 
form  of  the  horse  in  1768,  six  years  after  the  foundation  of  veterinary 
schools. 

Before  his  time  veterinarians  and  horsemen  had  entered  but  super- 
ficially upon  the  study  of  the  forms  of  the  horse.  They  had  limited 
themselves  in  their  works  to  determining,  sometimes  by  figures,  the 
principles  relating  to  the  proportions.  These  efforts,  however,  had 
passed,  so  to  speak,  unperceived,  were  lost  among  the  publications  of 
the  times  and  drowned  in  the  midst  of  the  different  writings  of  which 
the  numerous  veterinary  treatises  were  composed.  Here,  as  in  the 
other  branches  of  veterinary  science,  Bourgelat  was  endeavoring  to 
establish  principles  to  guide  the  pupils  who  flocked  into  his  schools. 
If  it  be  remembered  that  this  innovator  was  an  eminent  master  as 
well  as  a  skilful  horseman,  we  will  not  be  astonished  to  see  that  he 
has  reached  with  the  greatest  ease,  in  his  treatise  on  the  exterior,  if  not 
absolute  perfection,  at  least  that  degree  of  exactness  which  it  was  just 
to  demand  at  that  epoch  from  a  man  who  turned  everything  into  in- 
struction. Bourgelat  more  than  all  others  was  conscious  of  the  great 
utility  of  the  horse,  and  the  necessity  of  preparing  in  a  special  manner 

1 


2  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  professional  men  whom  he  gave  to  the  agricultural  world.  He 
desired  that  they  should  be  well  acquainted  with  and  appreciate  the 
qualities  and  the  defects  of  this  merchandise,  which  every  day  gained 
more  importance  and  acquired  a  greater  value.  The  inauguration  of 
instruction  upon  the  exterior  dates  from  this  period. 

Its  object  is  to  enable  the  scholar  to  determine  by  a  rapid  examina- 
tion of  the  form  of  a  horse  his  relative  commercial  value  in  the  service  in 
which  he  is  to  be  employed.  In  1837,1  H.  Bouley  had  already  stated  its 
object  as  follows : 

"  Given  the  external  conformation  of  an  animal,  we  determine  the 
service  in  which  he  may  be  employed  and  estimate  the  amount  and 
duration  of  the  effects  which  his  machinery  is  capable  of  producing." 
This  study,  we  see,  is  only  a  branch  of  zootechnics,  but  differs  from 
the  latter  in  that  it  does  not  seek  the  conditions  for  the  amelioration 
of  the  equine  races.  It  is  intended,  rather,  to  be  a  guide  in  the  choice 
of  an  animal  at  the  sale.  Its  importance  to  the  horseman  is  such  that 
the  necessity  of  forming  a  distinct  course  for  its  study  and  devoting 
to  it  extended  investigations  is  understood.  This  study  is,  then,  es- 
pecially an  applied  science,  and  it  is  therefore  indispensable  before 
entering  upon  it  to  have  a  certain  knowledge  of  anatomy,  physiology, 
mechanics,  physics,  hygiene,  zootechnics,  and  pathology. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  understand  it  well,  its  theory  should  first  be 
learned.  A  knowledge  of  the  horse  is  a  problem  full  of  difficulties 
when  its  application  is  to  be  made  to  any  given  animal.  It  is  only 
through  constant  habit  that  we  can  succeed  in  forming  by  a  rapid 
examination  a  good  judgment  of  his  value  as  a  beast  of  service.  No 
doubt  this  result  may  be  obtained  without  having  undertaken  ana- 
tomical and  physiological  studies.  It  is  sufficient  to  possess  what 
tradesmen  call  judgment,  a  glance  of  the  eye ;  but  this  is  only  acquired 
by  long  practice.  We  all  know  what  perfection  in  this  respect  is 
acquired  by  certain  persons  quite  ignorant  of  the  sciences  which  are 
applied  to  the  exterior.  The  officers  of  our  remounts,  of  our  studs,  even 
simple  horse-dealers,  astonish  us  sometimes  by  the  rapidity  with  which 
they  see  in  a  horse  the  weak  point,  the  defect,  and  the  blemish ;  they 
have,  moreover,  that  veritable  tact  of  knowing  how  to  adapt  them- 
selves, in  their  purchases,  to  the  exigencies,  modes,  and  fancies  of  the 
times.  However,  the  time  which  it  has  taken  them  to  obtain  this 
result  must  be  considered.  Theoretical  ideas  have  precisely  the  effect 
of  shortening  this  time ;  they  are,  for  beginners,  aids  which  experience 

1  Maison  rustique  du  XIX«  sidcle,  t.  ii. 


CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY.  3 

will  allow  them  to  dispense  with,  but  without  which  they  could  not 
rise  above  this  empirical  knowledge,  appanage  of  the  ignorant  or  of 
the  coxcomb,  who  accepts  under  the  same  title  the  true  and  the  false, 
and  who  is  incapable  of  distinguishing  otherwise  than  by  the  routine 
with  which  he  proceeds. 

If  the  knowledge  of  the  horse  is  an  art,  it  is  especially  one  which 
consists  in  observing,  comparing,  and  judging  according  to  positive 
information.  Besides,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  reach  perfection,  to 
have  observed  much,  to  have  put  into  practice  that  faculty  which  makes 
the  clinician,  the  connoisseur,  and  the  artist.  It  is  when  such  an  edu- 
cation is  carried  to  a  considerable  extent  that  we  succeed  in  seizing  at 
once  what  good  or  defective  qualifications  the  horse  possesses,  and  that 
it  is  possible  to  form  a  just  conclusion  by  appreciating  to  what  degree 
the  good  qualities  exceed  the  bad. 


CHAPTER    II. 

CENTRE   OF   GRAVITY. 

THE  simultaneous  actions  of  the  force  of  gravity  upon  all  the  molecules 
of  a  body  may  be  considered  as  so  many  small  parallel  forces  having  the  same 
purpose  and  the  same  direction,  whose  total  sum  is  the  weight  of  the  body,  and 
whose  result  is  applied  to  one  point  which  is  the  centre  of  gravity. 

The  vertical  pressure  of  the  centre  of  gravity  to  the  ground  is  called  the 
line  of  gravitation  (line  of  gravity,  Raabe  &  Bonnal).  We  have  just  seen  that 
the  result  of  these  forces  is  equal  to  their  sum,  and  that  the  position  of  its  point 
of  application  depends  upon  the  intensity  of  its  components. 

All  the  actions  of  the  force  of  gravity  being  equal  for  each  molecule  of  the 
same  kind,  if  these  molecules  of  a  body  are  uniformly  distributed, — in  a  word, 
if  the  latter  be  homogeneous, — it  will  in  all  its  parts  be  equally  attracted  by  this 
force.  Therefore,  nothing  will  be  easier  than  to  determine  the  centre  of  gravity, 
especially  if  the  body  has  a  geometrical  form.  Special  procedures  are  employed 
to  determine  the  location  of  this  centre  in  a  body,  whatever  may  be  its  form. 
We  will  not  speak  of  this  at  present. 

Seldom,  however,  are  bodies  found  in  conditions  sufficiently  homogeneous  for 
its  determination  to  be  simple.  Certain  parts  are  much  more  dense  than  others, 
and  therefore  the  force  of  gravity  attracts  them  more.  The  result  of  this  is  that 
the  centre  of  gravity,  instead  of  being  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  body,  is 
drawn  nearer,  as  has  been  seen,  to  the  parts  which  weigh  the  most.  This  is 
observed  in  organized  bodies. 

Its  Determination  in  Animals. — In  animals  new  difficulties  arise.  The 
vital  phenomena  being  only  the  phenomena  of  movement,  the  material  particles 


4  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

at  each  instant  are  displaced  in  different  directions,  and  thus  are  modified  the 
weight  and  volume  of  the  organs  in  which  the  molecular  changes  take  place. 
Other  displacements,  much  more  considerable,  indeed  even  more  important  from 
the  point  of  view  which  concerns  us,  are  due  to  the  actions  of  the  organs,  the 
different  attitudes  of  the  body,  or  the  movements  which  are  caused  by  locomo- 
tion. We  understand,  then,  how. difficult  becomes  the  exact  determination  of 
the  centre  of  gravity,  and  the  great  importance  of  sufficiently  appreciating  its 


FIG.  1.— Situation  of  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  horse. 

displacements  when  it  is  a  question  of  obtaining  from  it  the  conditions  of  equi- 
librium. 

According  to  Borelli,1  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  horse  is  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  height  of  the  trunk,  and  the  line  of  gravitation  falls  through  the 
centre  of  the  quadrilateral  formed  by  the  four  members. 

According  to  Professor  Colin,2  it  almost  corresponds  to  the  intersection  of 
two  lines,  one  of  them  (vertical)  passing  back  of  the  xiphoid  appendix  of  the 
sternum,  the  other  (horizontal)  separating  the  middle  from  the  inferior  third  of 


1  Borelli,  De  motu  animalium,  Naples,  1734.  p.  126. 

8  G.  Colin,  Trait6  de  physiologic  comparee  des  animaux,  3e  edition,  Paris,  1886,  t.  i.  p.  460. 


CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY.  5 

the  body  (Fig.  1).  Further  on,  the  same  author  adds :  "  It  is  clear  that  the  posi- 
tion of  the  centre  of  gravity  and  the  distribution  of  the  weight  of  the  body  upon 
the  members  must  vary  very  much  according  to  the  conformation  of  animals 
whose  head,  neck,  abdomen,  and  croup  present  such  diverse  proportions." 

The  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  horse,  as  indicated  by  M.  Colin, 
seems  to  us  very  nearly  correct,  at  least  judging  from  the  experiments  which  we 
have  conducted. 

At  first,  it  seems  extremely  probable  that  this  point  is  situated  in  the  median 
plane  of  the  body.  In  effecting  a  series  of  weighings  bearing  alternately  upon 
both  of  the  lateral  bipeds  of  the  same  subject  maintained  as  much  as  possible  in 
an  invariable  attitude,  we  succeed  in  determining  that  the  left  lateral  biped,  for 
example,  supports  a  weight  very  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  right  lateral  biped. 
On  the  other  hand,  if,  from  the  example  of  MM.  Eaabe  and  Bonnal,1  we  consider 
that  the  dorso-lumbar  column  A£,  Fig  2,  measuring  the  interval  comprised  be- 


FIG.  2. 


tween  the  centre  of  the  movement  of  the  shoulder  and  that  of  the  haunch, — that 
is  to  say,  the  length  of  the  base  of  support  of  a  well-formed  horse, — is  attracted 
by  two  parallel  forces  F  and  F',  distributing  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the 
posterior  and  anterior  bipeds,  it  will  be  easy  to  determine  with  considerable 
approximation  the  position  of  the  point  P,  through  which  passes  the  line  of 
gravitation, — that  is  to  say,  the  resultant  of  these  two  forces.  It  is  known  that 
this  point  divides  the  line  AB  into  two  parts  inversely  proportional  to  the  forces 
F  and  F',  in  such  a  way  that  we  have 

~F7  =  PA 

_% 


1  Raabe  et  Bonnal,  Determination  des  lignes  de  gravite  du  cheval,  etc.    In  Archives  v6t£ri- 
naires,  1883,  p.  538. 


6  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Here  are,  in  fact,  the  results  which  we  have  obtained  by  the  aid  of  this  procedure  upon  a 
saddle-horse  of  a  fine  form  provided  with  good  equilibrium,  that  measured  1.55  m.  at  the  withers 
and  at  the  croup,  and  1.53  m.  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  point  of  the  buttock.  The 
subject,  saddled  and  bridled,  was  weighed,  the  neck  at  45  degrees  and  the  head  elevated.  Its 
base  of  support,  AB,  was  equal  to  1.20  m.  As  to  the  total  weight,  which  was  445  kilogrammes,  it 
was  distributed  thus : 

Upon  the  anterior  biped 257  kil.  (F'). 

Upon  the  posterior  biped 188  kil.  (J^). 

In  the  particular  case  of  which  we  are  speaking,  the  point  P  divides  the  line  AB,  which 
unites  the  two  forces,  into  two  parts  inversely  proportional  to  their  intensity.  We  have  then 

JL  =  IM    or    =  AB  —  PA 
F'       PA  PA 

By  the  addition  of  the  denominators  to  each  of  the  two  terms  of  this  equation  we  obtain 

F+  F'  =  AB  —  PA  +  PA  =  AB  . 
F'  PA  PA' 

whence 

PA  =  F'F*A*  =  257X4452°m'  =  °'69  m- 

and 

PB  =  120  m.  —  0.69  m.  =  0.51  m. 

The  line  of  gravitation  then  falls  upon  the  horse  submitted  to  the  experi- 
ment at  0.51  m.  posterior  to  the  anterior  biped. 

This  is  about  the  position  which  MM.  Raabe  and  Bonnal  have  assigned  to  it.  The  line  of 
gravitation  of  the  Arab  mare  upon  which  these  horsemen  experimented  was  situated  0.69  m.  in 
front  of  the  coxo-femoral  centre  and  0.47  m.  from  the  centre  of  movement  of  the  shoulder. 
The  distance  of  its  two  centres  of  movement  was  1.17  m.  instead  of  1.20  m.  As  to  its  bipeds, 
they  weighed :  the  anterior,  270  kilogrammes— the  posterior,  184.  In  this  case,  the  distribution 
of  the  weight,  although  analogous  to  that  of  our  horse,  differs  from  it,  since  in  the  latter  the 
surplus  weight  of  the  anterior  bipeds  is  only  69  kilogrammes,  whilst  in  the  mare  it  reached 
86  kilogrammes.  The  more  anterior  position  of  the  line  of  gravity  in  the  latter  is  thus 
explained. 

MM.  Kaabe  and  Bonnal  have  deduced  with  reason  the  practical  importance 
of  obtaining  as  precise  a  determination  as  possible  of  the  centre  of  gravity.  The 
ideal  to  be  realized,  when  we  think  of  placing  a  dorsal  burden  upon  a  horse, 
should,  in  fact,  consist  in  distributing  this  burden  upon  each  biped  proportionally 
to  the  weight  which  it  bears  in  the  natural  state.  In  these  conditions  the  centre 
of  gravity  preserves  its  normal  position  and  one  of  the  bipeds  is  never  relieved 
at  the  expense  of  the  other. 

In  1835,  Morris  and  Baucher1  had  already  experimentally  determined  in  the 
horse  the  displacements  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  by  changing  the  position  of  the 
head  and  neck,  as  well  as  that  of  the  rider. 

"With  this  purpose,"  says  Morris,  "  M.  Baucher,  a  horseman,  and  myself  were  going  to  the 
general  mart  of  the  Custom-House  at  Gros-Caillou  to  weigh  horses  upon  scales  of  proportion  with 
movable  planks  invented  a  few  years  ago.  .  .  . 

"  The  two  weighing-machines  were  placed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  anterior  extremities 
rested  upon  the  middle  of  the  first  and  the  posterior  extremities  upon  the  middle  of  the  second. 


1  Morris,  Essai  sur  I'ext6rieur  du  cheval,  Paris,  1857,  p.  41. 


CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY.  7 

The  two  planks  being  exactly  upon  the  same  level,  and  belonging  to  weighing-machines  of  the 
same  proportion,  could  therefore  be  taken  for  two  ^cales  of  an  ordinary  balance.  We  equipped 
a  saddle-mare  regularly  formed,  although  the  head  and  neck  were  stronger  than  the  remainder 
of  the  body.  She  was  bridled  and  saddled. 

"  The  scales  being  abandoned  to  the  weight  of  the  mare  held  in  a  complete  state  of  immo- 
bility, the  head  being  in  its  ordinary  position,  rather  low  than  high,  gave  us  the  following  results  : 

Fore  Extremity.         Hind  Extremity.        Total  Weight.  Difference. 

210k.  174k.  384k.  36k. 

"  A  fluctuation  of  from  3  to  5  kilogrammes  was  established,  which  settled  alternately  upon  the 
fore  and  hind  extremities,  on  account  of  the  movements  produced  by  the  organs  of  respiration. 

"  We  lowered  the  head  so  that  the  end  of  the  nose  reached  the  level  of  the  chest.  This 
movement  effected  and  the  immobility  obtained  in  this  position,  the  fore  extremity  increased  8 
kilogrammes,  of  which  the  hind  was  relieved. 

Fore  Extremity.         Hind  Extremity.        Total  Weight.          Difference. 
218k.  166k.  384k.  52k. 

"  The  head  being  raised  until  the  end  of  the  nose  was  on  a  level  with  the  height  of  the 
withers,  the  same  precautions  for  immobility  being  observed,  the  fore  extremity  displaced  10 
kilogrammes  of  its  weight  upon  the  hind  and  then  balanced  itself,  with  the  following  results : 

Fore  Extremity.         Hind  Extremity.        Total  Weight.  Difference. 

200k.  184k.  384k.  16k. 

"  The  head,  being  returned  to  its  former  position,  was  drawn  back  upon  the  neck  and  ele- 
vated somewhat  by  the  action  of  the  bridle.  Ten  kilogrammes  were  then  displaced  backward 
as  follows : 

Fore  Extremity.         Hind  Extremity.        Total  Weight.          Difference. 
202k.  182k.  384k.  29k. 

These  results  evidently  prove  that  the  more  the  head  is  raised,  if  not  natu- 
rally, at  least  by  the  action  of  the  hand,  the  more  its  weight  and  that  of  the  neck 
are  equally  distributed  upon  the  extremities,  if  the  position  be  not  forced. 

"  After  these  experiments  M.  Baucher  mounted  the  mare,  and  the  two  scales  poised  with 
the  following  weights : 

Fore  Extremity.         Hind  Extremity.        Total  Weight.          Difference. 
251k.  197k.  448k.  54k. 

"  The  rider  placed  in  an  academic  position,  his  weight  of  64  kilogrammes  was  distributed  as 
follows  :  41  kilogrammes  upon  the  anterior  members  and  23  upon  the  posterior. 

"  Being  seated  in  such  a  manner  that  the  upper  part  of  the  body  leaned  backward,  M. 
Baucher  displaced  10  kilogrammes  upon  the  hind  extremity.  Then  drawing  the  horse's  head 
backward  according  to  his  method,  he  again  charged  the  same  with  a  weight  of  8  kilogrammes : 
total,  18  kilogrammes.  In  this  position  we  obtain : 

Fore  Extremity.         Hind  Extremity.        Total  Weight.          Difference. 
233k.  215k.  448k.  18k. 

"  By  bearing  entirely  upon  the  stirrups,  the  weight  on  the  anterior  members  increased  12 
kilogrammes. 

"  Afterwards  we  placed  a  gray  horse  of  a  vicious  disposition  upon  the  scales,  which,  with 
differences  already  well  indicated  in  construction,  furnished  us  with  analogous  results." 


8 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


In  union  with   Bellanger,  first  veterinary  flugelman,1  Morris  instituted  a 
second  series  in  1857.     The  following*  are  the  results : 


OBSERVATIONS  UPON  HORSES. 

WEIGHT  : 
HEAD  AT  FORTY- 
FIVE  DEGREES. 

WEIGHT  : 
HEAD  RAISED  AND 
DRAWN  BACK- 
WARD. 

WEIGHT  : 
HEAD    LOWERED 
AND  DRAWN  TO- 
WARDS THE 
CHEST. 

Fore 
Extremity. 

Hind 

Extremity. 

1 

Fore 
Extremity. 

Hind 
Extremity. 

1 

Fore 
Extremity. 

Hind 
Extremity. 

1 

Average  of  eleven  horses. 
Good  conformation,  head  and  neck 
light  

Kil. 
260 

246 

240 
245 
250 

240 

260 
270 
235 

Kil. 
195 

200 

195 
200 
195 

210 

200 
200 
215 

Kil. 

455 

446 

435 
445 
445 

450 

460 
470 
450 

Kil. 

250 

240 

235 
235 
240 

236 

250 
265 
230 

Kil. 
205 

206 

200 
210 
205 

214 

210 
205 
220 

Kil. 

455 

446 

435 
445 
445 

450 

460 
470 
450 

Kil. 
267 

250 

245 
255 
260 

244 

270 
265 
240 

Kil. 
188 

195 

190 
190 
185 

206 

190 
205 
210 

Kil. 

455 

446 

435 
445 
445 

450 

460 
470 

450 

J 

Average  of  eleven  horses. 
Body  well  proportioned,  neck  short, 
head  strong   

Average  of  two  horses. 
Body  well  formed,  neck  short,  head 
ordinary  

Average  of  two  horses. 
Neck  strong,  head  light    

Average  of  two  horses. 

Neck  long,  head  ordinary    .  . 

One  horse. 
Neck   strong,    head   strong,   croup 
short  and  oblique  ,  .      .  . 

One  horse. 
Neck  and  body  well  formed,  head 
strong 

One  horse. 
Neck  strong,  head  strong  .... 

One  horse. 
Neck  strong  head  strong 

"  It  may  be  remarked,  in  considering  these  different  weights,"  General  Morris 
adds,  "  that  the  weight  of  the  fore  extremity  is  about  one-ninth  greater  than  that 
of  the  hind ;  that  the  change  of  the  position  of  the  head  causes  the  weight  of 
the  fore  extremity  to  differ  from  that  of  the  hind  by  10  kilogrammes ;  that  long 
necks  give  more  weight  to  the  fore  extremity  than  short  and  strong  ones ;  that 
the  fore  extremity  is  heavier  than  the  hind."  M.  Colin  has  repeated  the 
first  of  these  experiments  upon  two  horses,  and  arrived  at  results  entirely 
concordant. 

Our  Experiments. — We  will  say  that  most  of  these  have  been  made 
upon  fifty  horses  of  different  sizes  and  races,  chosen  from  the  hospital  of  the 
school  at  Alfort. 


1  Morris,  loc.  cit.,  p.  44. 


CENTRE    OF    GRAVITY.  9 

We  have  also  sought  to  appreciate  the  extent  of  the  posterior  and  anterior  dis- 
placements of  the  line  of  gravitation  in  other  different  conditions, — for  example,  with 
the  mounted  horse,  according  as  the  rider  sits  erect,  leans  forward  or  backward, 
or  as  he  carries  his  head  high  or  low.  The  displacements  of  this  line  are  then 
determined,  whether  in  front  of  or  behind  its  average  position,  which  oscillate  be- 
tween two  and  six  centimetres,  sometimes  more,  according  to  the  case.  Differ- 
ences of  weight,  quite  considerable,  are  equally  produced  in  weighing  both  of  the 
lateral  bipeds  when  the  head,  the  neck,  the  trunk,  or  the  rider  is  inclined  ~to 
one  side,  facts  which  show  the  importance  of  the  lateral  displacements  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  during  locomotion,  especially  the  work  of  dressing.  But  it  is 
in  horses  high  or  low  in  front  that  the  variations  of  the  weight  of  the  fore  or 
hind  extremity  assume  importance.  These  have  no  longer  the  momentary  or 
accidental  character  of  the  preceding,  and  from  this  fact  always  involve,  accord- 
ing to  the  case,  a  permanent  surcharge  of  one  of  the  two  bipeds,  anterior  or 
posterior,  and  consequently  their  premature  ruin.  Their  gravity  augments  in 
horses  low  over  the  withers  when  from  the  nature  of  their  employment  they 
are  obliged  to  carry  burdens,  as  in  the  service  of  the  saddle,  the  shafts,  or  the 
pack-saddle. 

In  order  to  prove  this,  we  weighed  successively  several  subjects,  by  placing 
them  first  upon  the  plank  of  a  weighing-machine  perfectly  horizontal ;  then  we 
raised  gradually  sometimes  the  anterior  quarters,  sometimes  the  posterior,  so  as 
to  obtain,  at  will,  horses  having  the  fore  or  hind  quarters  low.  The  height  was 
carefully  noticed  at  the  beginning  of  each  trial,  and  then  it  was  known  exactly 
how  much  the  croup  or  the  withers  were  raised  or  lowered.  The  results  were 
then  in  all  points  comparable,  since  in  all  cases  the  observations  were  made 
upon  the  same  subject.  They  were  found  to  be  in  conformity  with  the  theory, 
and  may  be  considered  as  a  corroboration  of  the  preceding  experiments.  We 
have  chronicled  them  in  the  following  tables : 


l.-ELEVATION  OF  THE   HEIGHT  AT  THE  WITHERS. 


£ 

S 

DISTRIBUTION 

_o 

£2 

DISTRIBUTION 

.2 

OF 

S  bO    - 

OF 

a 

1 

A 

^j 

WEIGHT. 

IE 

«JS| 

WEIGHT. 

Is3 

5 

ad 

2 

* 

'3 

. 

ha 

"si 

•Sog 

.      M 

..     . 

?! 

Observations. 

° 

.2  w 

s| 

$<§ 

*  1  S 

11 

•If 

|l 

o> 

•5P 

.£? 

3 

§1 

•2  rf 

S 

^1^ 

-2  oi 

S  b 

ill 

"S 

'3 

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CJ  S 

O  £5 

x 

^  S  o3 

c  s 

0  § 

M 

0 

w 

W 

H 

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OnC? 

w 

P 

m 

M.C. 

M.C. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

M.C. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

1 

1.47 

1.52 

465 

250 

215 

35 

0.10 

245 

220 

25 

Common  mare. 

2 

1.68 

1.69 

688 

374 

314 

60 

010 

368 

320 

48 

Percheron  gelding. 

3 

1.46 

1.48 

428 

245 

183 

62 

0.11 

238 

190 

48 

Common  mare. 

4 

1.44 

1.45 

314 

184 

130 

54 

0.11 

175 

139 

36 

Barb.  mare. 

5 

1.58 

1.63 

488 

272 

216 

56 

0.04 

268 

220 

48 

Thorough,  horse. 

6 

1.62 

1.61 

526 

308 

218 

90 

0.06 

306 

220 

86 

Norman  gelding. 

7 

1.65 

1.66 

570 

310 

260 

50 

0.06 

308 

262 

46 

Percheron  gelding. 

8 

1.65 

1.62 

550 

310 

240 

70 

0.06 

307 

243 

64 

Norman  mare. 

9 

10 

1.39 
1.47 

1.39 
1.50 

330 
445 

200 
260 

130 
185 

70 
75 

0.06 
0.06 

195 
255 

135 
190 

60 
65 

Corsican  gelding. 
Irish  cob. 

11 

1.65 

1.61 

630 

370 

260 

110 

006 

365 

265 

100 

Boulon.  gelding. 

12 

1.54 

1.53 

455 

288 

167 

121 

0.06 

284 

171 

113 

Percheron  gelding. 

13 

1.51 

1.52 

410 

245 

165 

80 

0.06 

230 

180 

50 

Corsican  gelding. 

14 

1.59 

1.60 

465 

260 

205 

55 

0.06 

250 

215 

35 

German  gelding. 

15 

1.15 

1.20 

235 

137 

98 

39 

0.06 

125 

110 

15 

Female  ass. 

10  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

2.-ELEVATION  OF  THE  HEIGHT  AT  THE  CROUP. 


e 

2" 

DISTRIBUTION 

8 

33  J3 

DISTRIBUTION 

g 

c? 

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OF 

"c  bo 

OF 

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WEIGHT. 

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£o| 

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Observations. 

O 

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c  £* 

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£ 

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W 

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W 

5 

<§ 

£$ 

M.C. 

M.C. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

M.C. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

Kil. 

! 

1.47 

1.52 

465 

250 

215 

35 

0.10 

258 

207 

51 

Common  mare. 

3 

1.68 
1.46 

1.69 
1.48 

688 
428 

374 
245 

314 
183 

60 
62 

0.10 
0.11 

380 
252 

308 
176 

72 
76 

Pereheron  gelding. 
Common  mare. 

4 

1.44 

1.45 

314 

184 

130 

54 

0.11 

186 

128 

58 

Barb.  mare. 

5 
6 

1.58 
1.62 

1.63 
1.61 

488 
526 

272 
308 

216 
218 

56 
90 

0.04 
0.06 

279 
323 

209 
203 

70 
120 

Thorough,  horse. 
Norman  gelding. 

7 
8 

1.65 
1.65 

1.66 
1.62 

570 
550 

310 

310 

260 
240 

50 
70 

0.06 
0.06 

312 

315 

258 
235 

54 

80 

Pereheron  gelding. 
Norman  mare. 

9 

1.39 

1.39 

330 

200 

130 

70 

0.06 

203 

127 

76 

Corsican  gelding. 

10 

1.47 

1.50 

445 

260 

185 

75 

0.06 

230 

215 

15 

Irish  cob. 

11 

1.65 

161 

630 

370 

260 

110 

0.06 

372 

258 

114 

Boulon.  gelding. 

12 
13 
14 

1.54 
1.51 
1.59 

1.53 
1.52 
1.60 

455 
410 
465 

288 
245 

260 

167 
165 
205 

121 

80 
55 

0.06 
0.06 
0.06 

293 
260 
265 

170 
150 

200 

123 
110 
65 

Pereheron  gelding. 
Corsican  gelding. 
German  gelding. 

15 

us 

1.20 

235 

13, 

98 

39 

0.06 

142 

93 

49 

Female  ass. 

Let  us  see  now  what  is  understood  by  the  terms  equilibrium  and  base  of 
support. 

Equilibrium  in  mechanics  is  the  state  of  a  body  induced  by  the  forces 

which    destroy   one    another   or   which    are 
annulled  by  a  resistance  (Littre). 

In  animals  the  body  seldom  rests  upon 
the  ground  by  a  continued  surface  (decubitus). 
It  is  supported  by  four  broken  columns  ar- 
ticulated from  distance  to  distance  and  desig- 
nated by  the  name  of  members.  The  polygon 
formed  by  the  lines  joining  the  four  points 
which  touch  the  ground  at  rest  represents 
what  is  called  the  base  of  support.  This 
polygon  is  sometimes  a  triangle;  at  other 
times  the  base  of  support  is  reduced  to  a 
line ;  finally  it  may  -be  only  a  point.  What- 
ever may  be  the  form  and  extent  of  the  base 
of  support,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain 
equilibrium,  that  the  line  of  gravitation  does 
not  meet  the  ground  outside  of  this  base. 

The  equilibrium  will  be  so  much  more 
stable  as  the  base  of  support  becomes  larger, 
the  centre  of  gravity  placed  lower,  and  the 
line  of  gravitation  nearer  the  centre  of  the 
base.  It  will  be  unstable  in  the  contrary  con- 
ditions. In  fact,  in  the  solid  here  represented 
(Fig.  3)  it  will  be  seen  that  if  the  centre  of 

gravity  is  displaced  from  A  to  (7,  having  reached  to  the  point  (7,  the  slightest 
oscillation  of  one  side  or  the  other,   (7(7  for  example,  will  cause  the  line  of 


THE    LEVER    AND    MUSCULAR    MECHANISM.  11 

gravitation  to  come  outside  of  the  base  and  provoke  a  fall.  Therefore,  a  horse 
having  a  heavy  body  mounted  upon  long,  slender  members  drawn  close  to  the 
median  plane  will  be  endowed  with  an  equilibrium  relatively  unstable.  As  the 
base  of  support  has  the  form  of  an  elongated  rectangle,  with  the  horse  at  rest, 
the  displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity  from  in  front  backward  will  be  much 
less  dangerous  for  the  integrity  of  its  equilibrium  than  those  which  take  place 
from  side  to  side,  because  the  line  of  gravitation  will  be  moved  much  easier  from 
the  base  of  support  in  the  latter  case  than  in  the  former.  This  explains-4o  us 
why  falls  during  rapid  paces  scarcely  ever  take  place  upon  a  straight  line,  but 
are  produced,  on  the  contrary,  in  turning ;  why  the  ambling  horse,  which  moves 
his  members  by  lateral  bipeds,  goes  faster  and  falls  more  frequently  than  the 
trotting  horse,  which  moves  his  members  by  diagonal  bipeds ;  why  the  leaping 
horse,  which  displaces  the  centre  of  gravity  greatly,  falls  down  so  often ;  why 
sliding  sideways  is  more  dangerous  than  moving  forward  or  backward,  etc. 

That  instability  of  equilibrium  gives  the  measure  of  speed  has  been  justly 
said.  It  is  easy  to  account  for  this.  If,  from  the  fact  of  its  displacements,  or 
from  its  situation  being  more  or  less  raised,  it  is  carried  outside  of  the  base  of 
support,  it  will  cause  the  members  to  be  displaced  with  a  greater  rapidity  to  sup- 
port the  body,  as  the  fall  is  more  imminent. 

The  race-horse  lengthens  his  body,  extends  his  head  and  neck,  and  seems 
almost  to  lie  down  upon  the  ground  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring,  as  much  as 
possible,  the  centre  of  gravity  in  advance  of  the  movement.  The  dressed  horse 
raises  himself  in  a  strong  proportion  in  order  to  execute  more  easily  the  varied 
movements  which  at  every  instant  his  rider  exacts  from  him.  His  paces  are 
shortened,  raised;  his  equilibrium  is  more  stable,  the  displacements  of  his 
centre  of  gravity  less  extended  but  more  numerous.  On  account  of  his  acquired 
speed,  and  especially  because  of  the  instability  of  his  equilibrium,  the  hippo- 
drome-horse can  scarcely  make  progress  upon  a  straight  line ;  the  slightest  lateral 
displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  a  little  sudden,  causes  him  to  fall. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE   LEVER   AND   MUSCULAR   MECHANISM. 

THE  lever  is  denned  as  a  "rigid  and  inextensible  rod  supported  upon  a 
fixed  point."  The  form  and  nature  of  the  substance  of  which  this  stalk  is  com- 
posed have  no  importance  from  the  point  of  view  which  concerns  us.  It  is  seen, 
then,  that  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  are  properly  considered  as  levers,  since  they 
enter  into  the  definition  which  we  have  just  given. 

Every  lever  may  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  several  forces,  but,  whatever 
may  be  their  number,  we  know  that  it  is  always  easy  to  reduce  them  to  two. 
When  it  is  a  question  of  ascertaining  the  conditions  of  the  equilibrium  of  this 
machine,  only  two  forces  are  usually  recognized.  The  former  will  be  in  equi- 
librium when  the  resultant  of  the  forces  which  move  it  is  annulled  by  the  reac- 
tion of  the  point  of  support.  If  equilibrium  does  not  result,  the  effect  of  the 
forces  is  to  determine  a  rotation  of  the  stalk  around  the  fixed  point. 


12  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Of  the  two  forces  which  act  upon  the  lever,  one,  which  is  called  the  power, 
is  destined  to  equalize  the  other,  which  is  called  the  resistance,  or  to  overcome 
its  action.  The  object  of  the  lever  is  to  favor  one  of  these  forces  at  the  expense 
of  the  other.  We  will  see  later  on  what  its  consequences  are.  In  the  animal 
economy,  these  forces  are  represented  by  the  muscles,  and  the  levers  by  the  bones. 

For  convenience  of  demonstration,  we  will  suppose  that  the  two  forces  which 
incite  the  lever  are  situated  in  the  plane  of  the  latter.  In  most  instances  it  is 
not  thus :  the  forces  and  the  lever  are  placed  in  different  planes. 

An  example  will  explain  this  better.  Suppose  it  to  be  a  question  of  the  adductor  muscle 
of  the  arm.  The  lever  upon  which  it  is  inserted  is  the  humerus,  the  resistance  which  it  must 
overcome  is  the  weight  of  the  member  applied  to  the  articulation  of  the  elbow.  It  is  then  easy 
to  determine  that  the  humeral  and  vertical  axis  passing  through  the  centre  of  this  articulation, 
forms  a  plane  in  which  the  adductor  muscle  of  the  arm  is  not  situated.  If  it  were  located  there, 
it  would  determine  flexion  alone  of  that  bone,  which  is  not  the  case,  since  it  promotes  adduction. 

Among  the  muscles  of  the  members,  it  is  only  the  direct  extensors  and 
fiexors  that  are  situated  in  the  plane  of  their  respective  levers.  It  is  the  same 
for  the  muscles  of  the  spinal  column.  All  the  others  act  in  different  planes. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  conditions  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  lever  are  not 
applicable  to  the  former,  but  the  developments  into  which  we  must  enter  in  order 
to  resolve  particular  cases  would  lead  us  too  far  away. 

In  mechanics,  the  moment  of  a  force  in  relation  to  an  axis  is  the  product  of 
the  projection  of  this  force  upon  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  through  the 
distance  of  this  force  to  the  axis. 

When  the  idea  of  moment  is  applied  to  the  study  of  the  lever,  it  may  be 

denned  thus :  The  product 
of  the  force  by  the  arm  of  the 
lever,  because  the  forces, 
being  situated  in  the  same 
plane,  are  themselves  their 
projection ;  as  to  the  axis, 
it  is  supposed  to  pass 
through  the  point  of 
support. 

Suppose  the  two  forces  F 
and  F'  inciting  the  lever  AB 
(Fig.  4).  The  whole  system  is 
situated  in  the  plane  of  the  ac- 
tion. The  forces  then  project 
FIG.  4.  themselves  following  FA  and 

F'B.    Let  us  suppose  now  an 

axis  perpendicular  to  this  plane  and  piercing  it  at  the  point  0.  It  is  evident  that  the  distances 
of  these  two  forces  to  this  axis  are  measured  by  the  perpendiculars  OC and  OD.  The  moment 
of  force  /'will  be  FX  OC;  that  of  the  force  F  .  F'  x  OD. 

The  perpendiculars  OC  and  OD  are  called  lever-arms  extending  from  the 
point  of  support  in  the  direction  of  the  forces  .Fand  F'. 

Whence  it  results  that  in  the  lever  the  moment  of  a  force  is  the  product  of 
that  force  by  its  lever-arm.  It  is  demonstrated  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
lever  is  in  equilibrium  when  the  moments  of  the  two  forces  are  equal.  We  will 

therefore  obtain ; 

FXOC=F'XOD. 


THE    LEVER    AND    MUSCULAR    MECHANISM. 


Whence  is  produced : 


OD 
C 


FIG.  5. 


That  is  to  say,  that  the  forces  are  to  each  other  inversely  as  the  arms  of  their  lever  • 
great  force,  small  lever-arm,  and,  reciprocally,  large  lever-arm,  small  force. 

Again,  the  intensity  of  the  forces  varies  according  to  their  degree  of  inclina- 
tion. The  three  following  cases  may  present  themselves : 

1st.   The  force  makes  a  right  angle  with  the  lever-arm. 

It  acts  then  with  its  maximum  of  intensity.     This  is,  in  fact,  the  case  where 
the  lever-arm  is  the  most  considerable;  it  is  measured  by  the  distance  of  the 
point  of  application  of  the 
force  to  the  point  of  relation. 

2d.  The  force  makes  an 
acute  angle  (Fig.  5). 

Let  the  force  F  act  upon  the 
lever  AOB.  If  it  acted  perpendic- 
ularly, its  lever-arm  would  be  AO. 
Now,  OA  is  >  than  OC,  as  oblique 
upon  AFvtith  reference  to  the  per- 
pendicular OC,  arm  of  the  lever  of 
F.  Thus  a  certain  part  of  the  force 
employed  in  repelling  the  fixed 
point  is  lost  for  the  movement  of 
the  point  A.  This  is  seen  by  de- 
composing F  into  two  forces,  AE 
and  AD,  acting  upon  the  point 
A,  following  the  directions  indi- 
cated. AD  is  the  quantity  em- 
ployed to  repel  the  fixed  point. 

It  may  be  conceived  that  the  more  the  angle  formed  by  the  force  with  its 
lever-arm  is  acute,  the  greater  will  be  the  increase  of  AD  at  the  expense  of  AE, 
and  the  force  utilized  for  the  movement  will  thus  be  less.  The  disposable  force 
will  be  null  if  F  becomes  parallel  to  the  arm  of  its  lever. 

3d.   The  force  makes  an  obtuse  angle  (Fig.  6). 

In  this  case  the  arm  of  the  lever  OC  is  smaller  than  if  F  were  perpendicular  to  OA,  since  it 
would  be  OA  itself.  Thus  a  certain 
part  of  F  is  lost  in  drawing  A  tow- 
ards AD  at  the  expense  of  the 
movement.  The  more  the  inclina- 
tion of  F  is  obtuse,  the  more  the 
component  AD  will  increase  rela- 
tively to  the  component  AE,  alone 
useful  for  the  movement.  The 
parallelism  of  F  with  its  arm  would 
cause,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  total 
annulment  of  AE,  without  there 
being  any  possible  movement. 

Thus  it  results  from  the 
preceding  remarks  that  every 
time  a  force  is  not  perpen- 
dicular to  its  lever-arm,  a 

i?  IG«  O. 

part  of  its  intensity  will  be 

attracting  or  repelling  the  point  of  support  according  to  the  nature  of  the  angle 

formed. 


14  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Muscular  Mechanics. — These  ideas  can  be  at  once  applied  to  muscular 
mechanics.  A  muscle  which  contracts  tends  to  draw  its  two  extremities  equally 
towards  its  centre.  Each  one  is  usually  inserted  upon  a  distinct  bone.  The 
bones,  however,  are  not  all  movable  to  the  same  degree.  Whence  it  follows  that 
every  muscle  has  a  fixed  and  a  movable  insertion,  the  latter  being  situated  upon  the 
bone  which  is  displaced  during  the  contraction. 

As  the  muscles  of  the  apparatus  of  locomotion  are  voluntary,  the  animal 
can  at  will  change  a  movable  insertion  into  a  fixed  insertion,  and  vice  versa.  In 
other  terms,  a  muscle,  for  example,  which  extends  from  the  head  to  the  arm 
(mastoido-humeralis)  can  as  well  become  a  motor  of  the  head  as  an  extensor  of 
the  arm.  It  suffices  that  the  other  muscles  contract  in  order  to  fix  and  render 
immovable  the  head  or  the  arm.  The  multiplicity  of  the  muscular  fibres  is  in 
proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  contraction ;  their  length,  on  the  contrary,  agrees 
with  its  extent.  Or,  if  preferred,  the  volume  of  the  muscles  gives  the  measure 
of  force  ;  their  length,  that  of  speed. 

It  is,  then,  we  believe,  an  error  to  think  that  the  extent  of  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles  is  not  measured  by  the  length  of  their  fleshy  portion,  but  by  the 
length  of  the  fibres  which  form  them.  This  is  only  partly  true,  for  in  compound 
muscles,  if  the  fibre  be  interrupted  by  aponeurotic  or  tendinous  intersections,  if 
it  be  shorter  than  in  simple  muscles,  things  occur,  so  to  speak,  as  if  the  fibre  rep- 
resented the  length  of  the  fleshy  body.  The  extent  of  the  contraction  is  the 
result  of  several  distinct  actions  which  are  added  to  one  another  to  determine  the 
total  effect.  The  intersections,  therefore,  only  give  greater  support  to  the  con- 
traction of  the  fibre ;  they  furnish  it  with  greater  resistance  to  the  tractions  of 
weight,  for  the  muscles  in  which  they  are  encountered,  besides  their  active  role 
in  locomotion,  are  still  important  passive  agents  in  station. 

In  most  instances,  in  the  members  especially,  the  muscles  are  applied  along 
the  length  of  the  bones,  and  are  found,  on  that  account,  in  conditions  very  dis- 
advantageous. Their  manifest  tendency  towards  parallelism  with  the  lever-arm 
seems  to  have  little  connection  with  the  theoretic  ideas  which  we  have  just 
given,  since  a  large  part  of  their  force  is  regarded  as  lost  for  movement. 

This  is  of  no  account,  however,  and  it  is  easy  to  determine  that  this  disposition 
is,  on  the  contrary,  most  fortunate,  whatever  may  have  been  said  concerning  it. 

Indeed,  if  the  muscle  at  the  beginning  of  its  contraction  acts  with  a  defective 
incidence,  this  incidence  becomes  more  and  more  favorable  as  the  contraction 
progresses,  and  the  muscle  will  then  profit,  at  the  moment  its  action  is  most 
powerful,  by  the  entire  quantity  of  movement  already  acquired  by  overcoming  the 
resistance.  But  if  the  insertion  at  the  beginning  be  more  perpendicular,  the 
muscular  action,  instead  of  acquiring  intensity,  will  gradually  lose  it,  and  the 
movement  produced,  while  overcoming  the  resistance,  will  be  less  extended. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  to  parallelism  determines  in  the  members 
of  animals  those  slender  forms  which  we  know  are  in  accordance  with  speed.  It 
is  certain  that  the  muscular  interstices  are  much  more  considerable  as  the  mus- 
cles are  more  removed  from  their  bony  columns  and  therefore  more  perpendicular 
to  them.  This  is  observed  in  animals  with  massive  forms  and  slow  movements. 
Here,  the  heaviness  of  the  gait  is  due  to  the  enormous  size  of  the  mass  as  well 
as  to  the  feeble  degree  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  for  speed  we  should  seek  absolute 
parallelism  of  the  muscles  with  their  levers.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this 


THE    LEVER    AND    MUSCULAR    MECHANISM.  15 

parallelism  is  a  hinderance  to  the  execution  of  the  initial  movement ;  hence  the 
utility  of  the  eminences  which  the  bones  of  the  members  present,  more  particu- 
larly in  the  vicinity  of  their  extremities.  These  projections,  upon  which  the 
muscles  are  inflected  or  attached,  have  the  effect  of  removing  them  from  the 
bones  and  increasing  the  intensity  of  their  action.  Such  is  the  role  of  the  great 
sesamoids,  the  supra-carpal  bone,  the  olecranon,  the  coracoid  process,  the  calca- 
neum,  the  anterior  tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  the  patella,  the  trochanter,  etc.  Such 
is  the  advantage  presented  by  the  enlarged  extremities  of  the  bones-of— the 
members,  and  such  the  result  of  the  inclination  of  the  different  bones  upon 
each  other.  These  diverse  dispositions  retain  the  advantages  of  parallelism, 
whilst  avoiding  the  manifest  inconveniences  at  the  beginning  of  the  muscular 
action. 

Again,  the  study  of  the  lever  teaches  us  that  the  paths  described  by  the  lever- 
arms  are  in  direct  ratio  to  their  length,  since  they  describe  circumferences  which 
are  to  each  other  as  their  radii.  If,  consequently,  one  of  the  forces  act  upon  an 
arm  shorter  than  another,  the  arm  of  the  latter  will  traverse  a  path  much  more 
considerable.1 

In  organisms  it  is  very  remarkable  to  find  that  the  lever-arm  of  the  muscles 
is  usually  very  weak,  especially  when  the  latter  are  charged  with  the  production 
of  speed.  As  Lecoq2  judiciously  remarks,  power  acts  in  this  case  with  much 
less  intensity,  but  it  may  become  much  greater  through  the  multiplicity  of  the 
muscular  fibres,  which,  having  only  to  produces  a  contraction  slightly  marked, 
can  be  disposed  obliquely  and  be  much  more  numerous  in  the  muscle.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  muscles  have  their  insertion  very  far  from  the  point  of  sup- 
port, their  contraction,  by  removing  them  from  this  point,  deprives  the  member 
of  its  slender  form. 

From  what  we  have  said  above,  a  propos  of  the  inclination  of  the  forces 
upon  their  lever-arms,  it  is  easy  to  determine  the  force  utilized  at  each  instant 
of  the  muscular  contraction.  It  is  clearly  seen  that,  according  as  a  muscle  is  at 
the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  its  contraction,  there  is  a  tendency  to  an  approx- 
imation or  a  separation  of  the  articular  surfaces. 

It  is  said  that  a  muscle  is  at  its  moment  when  its  traction  is  exercised  per- 
pendicularly to  the  displaced  bone ;  but  a  great  many  muscles  cease  their  action 
before  reaching  that  position ;  they  often  only  commence  the  movement  which 
is  terminated  by  the  intervention  of  other  muscles.  This  takes  place  in  the 
flexors  of  the  metacarpus,  for  example,  whose  parallelism  to  the  lever-arm  is 
almost  complete ;  if  the  flexors  of  the  phalanges  did  not  initiate  the  flexion  of 
the  metacarpus,  these  muscles  could  perhaps  not  produce  it  by  themselves. 

In  all  the  instances  which  we  have  just  considered  the  mobile  bone  repre- 
sents a  lever  upon  which  we  always  find  the  three  fundamental  points :  the  point 
of  support  and  the  points  of  application  of  the  power  and  of  the  resistance. 

The  point  of  support  is  nearly  always  situated  on  a  level  with  the  articula- 
tion with  the  fixed  bone ;  this  is  also  the  centre  of  movement.  The  power  is 
always  applied  at  the  mobile  insertion  of  the  motor  muscle.  As  to  the  resistance, 
it  is  situated  upon  the  lever,  at  that  variable  point  where  the  weight  or  the 
obstacles  to  the  displacement  of  the  mobile  bone  act,  whatever  they  may  be. 


1  See,  for  further  details,  G.  Colin,  Physiologic  compared,  t.  i.  p.  396,  3e  £d. 

2  F.  Lecoq,  Recueil  de  medeeine  veterinaire,  1843,  p.  493. 


16  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

According  to  the  relative  position  of  these  three  points,  we  recognize  three  classes 
of  levers. 

In  the  one  called  the  first  class  (Fig.  7),  the  fixed  point  A  occupies  an  inter- 
mediate position  to  the  two 
others,  P  and  R.  It  is 
called  inter-fixed  lever. 

A  certain  number  of 
muscles  act  upon  this  class 
of  lever.  It  is  exemplified, 
for  instance,  in  the  exten- 
sion of  the  head  upon  the 
neck.  The  fixed  point  (oc- 
cipito-atloid  articulation)  is 
always  situated,  whatever 
may  be  the  position  of  the 
FlG-  7-  head,  between  the  resist- 

ance  (centre  of  gravity  of 

the  latter)  and  the  power  (occipital  insertion  of  the  muscles  of  the  nape  of  the  neck). 
The  cervical  ligament  in  our  larger  domestic  species  also  equalizes  the 
weight  of  the  head  by  an  analogous  mechanism. 

It  is,  however,  not  correct  to  consider  the  head  as  an  inter-fixed  lever  at  the 
moment  of  flexion,  as  some  persons  think.  According  to  their  view,  in  fact, 
the  obstacles  depend  on  the  antagonists  (extensor  muscles)  and  the  elasticity  of 
the  cervical  ligament.  These  would  be  the  elements  of  resistance,  the  weight 
of  the  head  becoming,  according  to  this  opinion,  an  auxiliary  of  the  power 
(flexor  muscles). 

No  doubt  it  is  sometimes  thus  when  the  head  and  neck  are  elevated,  but 
things  are  very  different  when  these  regions  are  directed  towards  the  ground. 
The  weight  of  the  head  then  becomes  to  the  flexors  a  veritable  resistance  to  be 
overcome,  and  the  lever  is  no  longer  of  the  first  class ;  it  is  of  the  third,  as  we 
will  see  further  on. 

Besides,  in  order  to  understand  the  action  of  a  muscle  well,  it  is  necessary  to 
investigate  it  as  if  it  alone  were  attached  to  the  lever,  without  regarding  the 
manner  of  existence  of  the  antagonistic  ones.  In  most  instances  the  latter  do  not 
oppose  any  resistance,  but  allow  the  former  to  execute  the  movement  freely. 
The  extension  of  the  forearm,  and  that  of  the  metatarsus,  the  femur,  the  pelvis, 
the  spine,  etc.,  take  place  through  the  mechanism  of  an  inter-fixed  lever  in  which 
the  arm  of  power  is,  according  to  the  case,  the  olecranon,  the  calcaneum,  the  tro- 
chanter,  the  ischial  tuberosity,  the  spinous  or  transverse  apophyses  of  the  vertebra. 
In  the  economy  the  lever  of  the  first  class  appears  to  be  more  particularly  reserved 
for  extension.  It  is  also  the  lever  of  speed,  for  the  arm  of  power  is  never  equal  to 
that  of  resistance :  the  latter  is  always  much  longer. 

In  man,  whose  standing  position  is  vertical,  in  whom  falling  forward  is 
easy,  on  account  of  the  particular  situation  of  the  organs,  the  lever  of  the  first 
kind  is,  with  good  reason,  to  be  considered  as  the  lever  of  station.  We  shall  see 
that  in  animals  it  is  that  of  the  second  class  in  which  this  usage  can  be  prefer- 
ably recognized. 

In  the  lever  of  the  second  class  the  resistance  occupies  the  intermediate  posi- 
tion (Fig.  8).  The  name  inter-resisting  is  applied  to  it.  In  this  case,  whatever 


THE    LEVER    AND    MUSCULAR    MECHANISM.  17 

may  be  the  respective  positions  of  the  three  points,  the  lever-arm  of  power  exceeds 
that  of  resistance,  since  PA  always  remains  hypothetically  longer  than  RA..  This 
lever  is,  then,  very  truly  that 
of  force,  but  has  more  disad- 
vantage concerning  the  pro- 
duction of  speed,  for,  the 
latter  being  proportional  to 
the  lever-arm,  the  path  of  the 
resistance  will  never  be  as 
long  as  that  of  the  power. 

Several  examples  are  seen 
in  animals.  It  is  well  known 
that  while  standing  the  weight 
of  the  body  tends  to  close  all 
the  articular  angles  of  the 
members  upon  each  other.  FIG.  8. 

There  are  also  observed,  on 

the  convex  side  or  the  summit  of  the  latter,  muscles  which  are  opposed  to  this 
closing,  by  acting  as  levers  of  the  second  class.  It  is  thus  that  the  supra-spina- 
tus,  the  coraco-radialis,  the  sub-spinatus,  the  subscapular,  sustain  the  scapulo- 
humeral  angle.  The  insertions  of  these  different  muscles  are  all  situated  a  little 
beyond  the  articulation,  which  represents  the  point  of  application  of  the  resist- 
ance to  be  overcome,  whilst  the  point  of  support  is  placed  at  the  articulation  of 
the  elbow.  It  is  in  the  same  manner  that  the  extensors  of  the  forearm  sustain 
the  humero-radial  articulation  upon  which  are  transmitted  the  actions  of  the 
weight,  that  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  maintains  this  region,  that 
the  gastrocnemius  and  the  perforatus  muscles  of  the  leg  retain  the  calcaneum, 
that  the  middle  gluteal  muscle  prevents  the  closing  up  of  the  coxo-femoral  angle. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  all  these  muscles  act  as  levers  of  the  first  class  when  the 
members  do  not  serve  as  a  support,  so  that  the  organism  has  no  need  of  inter- 
posing new  anatomical  dispo- 
sitions in  order  to  develop 
force.  The  same  levers  adapt 
themselves  with  the  same 
powers  to  different  conditions 
in  order  to  produce,  according 
to  the  necessity  of  the  move- 
ment, either  force  or  speed. 

Finally,  a  third  case  pre- 
sents itself  in  the  relative 
situation  of  the  three  funda- 
mental points  of  the  lever.  It 
is  that  in  which  the  power 
is  placed  between  the  resist-  FIG.  9. 

ance  and  the  point  of  support. 
This  lever  is  designated  the  lever  of  the  third  class,  or  inter-puissant  (Fig.  9). 

Here  the  arm  of  resistance  is  always  hypothetically  longer  than  that  of  the 
power,  and  the  velocity  is  increased  at  the  expense  of  the  force.  Like  that  of 
the  first  class,  it  can  also  be  called  the  lever  of  speed. 

9 


18  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  economy  offers  numerous  examples  of  this  variety.  All  the  flexor  mus- 
cles act  as  levers  of  this  kind.  The  large  psoas  muscle  flexes  the  femur  by  this 
mechanism.  The  point  of  support  is  at  the  coxo-femoral  articulation,  the  resist- 
ance (the  weight  of  the  member)  is  applied  at  the  femoro-tibial  articulation,  and 
the  power  is  exerted  at  the  internal  trochanter.  The  flexors  of  the  leg,  meta- 
tarsus, arm,  forearm,  metacarpus,  phalanges,  head,  spinal  column,  etc.,  act  upon 
levers  of  the  third  kind.  We  are  right  in  saying  that  this  lever  is  that  of  flexion 
in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  first  kind  is  the  lever  of  extension. 

In  the  animal  mechanism  all  the  levers  are  not  distributed  in  the  same 
number.  The  manner  of  articulation  of  the  bones  and  the  function  of  the  parts 
demand  here  the  use  of  the  inter-fixed  lever,  there  that  of  the  inter-puissant 
lever,  and  elsewhere  that  of  the  inter-resisting. 

We  have,  however,  a  right  to  ask  why  the  organism  utilizes  two  levers  of  speed, 
the  first  and  the  third  class,  since  one  of  them  may  become  that  of  force.  We 
have  seen,  indeed,  that  the  bones  which  act  as  levers  of  the  first  kind  when  the 
member  is  raised  become  the  second  kind  during  support,  by  the  simple  dis- 
placement of  the  fixed  point  and  of  the  resistance.  It  cannot  be  thus  for  those 
which  act  as  levers  of  the  third  kind.  In  other  words,  the  lever  of  flexion  can- 
not be  of  the  first  kind ;  it  belongs  especially  to  the  third.  For,  were  it  otherwise, 
we  should  find  in  the  sinus  of  the  articular  angles  apophyses  analogous  to  the  ole- 
cranon,  the  calcaneum,  the  trochanter,  the  sesamoids,  or  the  patella,  peculiarities 
destined  to  substitute  the  lever  of  the  first  class  for  that  of  the  third.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  see  that  the  movement  of  flexion,  already  sufficiently  limited  by  the 
interposition  of  the  muscular  masses  occupying  the  articular  sinus,  would  be 
almost  impossible.  The  presence  of  these  eminences  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
locomotory  angles  does  not  cause  any  inconvenience,  for  the  extension  is  never 
complete,  and,  were  it  so,  it  would  place  the  two  segments  in  prolongation  with 
each  other,  which  would  not  limit  the  normal  movement.  In  flexion  it  is  different ; 
the  concavity  of  the  angles  should  be  free  in  order  that  certain  points  of  the  movable 
segment  do  not  meet  too  soon  the  fixed  segment  and  therefore  limit  its  displacement. 

In  all  the  preceding  cases  we  have  supposed  the  muscular  action  isolated  in 
order  to  analyze  it  better.  It  is,  however,  never  thus.  Every  muscle  which  con- 
tracts to  displace  a  bone  is  aided  in  its  role  by  the  contraction  of  one  or  more 
neighboring  muscles.  These  latter  have  the  effect  of  fixing  the  one  of  the  two 
segments  which  should  not  be  moved.  Not  one  of  the  pieces  of  the  machine  is 
arranged  in  an  immovable  manner,  since  all  are  agencies  to  produce  movement. 
It  is  then  important,  in  order  to  avoid  the  discharge  of  force,  that  certain  ones 
among  them  be  immovable,  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  the  contraction  of  a 
muscle  is  always  assisted  by  that  of  a  congener.  This  fact,  most  of  the  time  diffi- 
cult to  determine,  becomes  most  evident  at  the  time  of  the  production  of  the  effort. 

Finally,  we  remark  that,  if  the  organism  frequently  employ  the  lever,  the 
simplest  of  machines,  in  the  functions  of  its  locomotive  apparatus,  this  animal 
lever  differs  much  from  the  ordinary  one  and,  with  still  greater  reason,  from 
the  mathematical.  If  we  apply  to  it  the  laws  of  the  latter,  we  simply  arrive 
at  a  sufficient  approximation  of  its  action  without  seeking  to  establish  any  abso- 
lute principle. 

With  M.  Mignon,1  we  think  that  in  the  animal  lever  the  point  of  support  is 

*  Mignon,  M6canique  animate,  in  Recueil  de  mSdecine  v£t6rinaire,  1841,  p.  67. 


THE   INCLINED    PLANE. 


19 


neither  invariable  nor  certain ;  the  insertion  of  the  forces  neither  well  established 
nor  very  precise ;  their  intensity  always  approximative.  Whatever  may  be  the 
exactness  of  the  idea  which  may  exist  in  regard  to  volume,  length,  direction,  the 
structure  of  the  muscle,  its  angle  of  insertion^  the  arm  of  the  lever  which  it 
moves,  the  amount  of  contractility — that  is  to  say,  the  value  of  the  force  itself — 
escapes  us. 

"  In  the  organized  machine  resistance  is  only  a  power  disguised  alone  by 
the  name.  It  is  indeed  weight  at  first,  but  it  is  also  muscular  contraction  wJiich 
opposes  and  resists  the  action  of  the  lever.  It  is  an  unknown  quantity  to  be 
overcome  by  another  equally  unknown." 

Let  us  add  that  the  forces  of  extension  have  their  maximum  of  intensity  at 
the  beginning  of  their  action,  whilst  those  of  flexion  have  it  at  the  termination. 
This  is  explained  by  the  difference  of  the  result  which  they  should  produce.  The 
first  resist  the  weight  of  the  body  at  the  same  time  that  they  overcome  in  loco- 
motion the  inertia  of  the  regions  situated  below  them ;  the  second  only  have  to 
raise  the  member  to  permit  it  to  advance  over  the  ground,  and  are  nearly  dis- 
charged from  the  role  which  the  first  fulfil  during  station.  The  insertion  of  the 
extensors  is  ordinarily  more  advantageous  than  that  of  the  flexors,  because  these 
latter  have  but  to  employ  velocity  against  the  others,  which  should,  in  addition, 
develop  force. 


CHAPTER    IV. 


THE    INCLINED    PLANE. 

THE  inclined  plane  is,  with  the  lever,  the  other  of  the  two  simple  machines 
employed  by  the  organism  in  the  construction  of  the  locomotory  apparatus. 

It  is  known  that  in  the  inclined  plane  (Fig.  10)  a  solid,  0,  incited  by  the 
weight  F,  is  drawn  the 
length  of  this  plane  by 
a  force,  /,  which  is  cal- 
culated by  the  follow- 
ing formula : 
/=  OF  sin  F=  sin  a. 

In  other  words, 
the  force/  is  the  prod- 
uct of  the  weight  of 
the  body  0  by  the  sine 
of  the  angle  of  inclina- 
tion of  the  plane. 

The  larger  this 
angle  becomes,  the  FIG.  10. 

more  the  component  / 

increases  at  the  expense  of  the  other  component,  Od,  destroyed  by  the  resistance 
of  the  plane.  The  articular  surfaces  represent  a  multitude  of  inclined  planes  which 
decompose  the  weight  of  the  mass  upon  the  bony  levers  and  the  tendinous  and 
ligamentous  cords  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  articulations. 


20  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

At  the  superior  part  of  the  members  the  articular  surface  is  a  cavity  more 
or  less  deep.  It  may  be  considered  as  being  formed  by  a  succession  of  inclined 
planes  whose  inclination  diminishes  from  the  periphery  to  the  centre.  It  thus 
disseminates  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  head,  which  is  adapted  to  it.  The 
latter  acts  in  the  same  manner  a  second  time,  alternating  the  actions  of  the  mass 
by  disseminating  them  upon  the  ligaments  at  the  same  time  as  upon  the  bones. 
On  a  level  with  the  second  articulation  of  the  members  we  find  other  inclined 
surfaces ;  these  surfaces  are  multiplied  towards  the  carpus  and  tarsus ;  finally, 
they  are  found  in  the  articulations  of  the  hand  and  foot. 

Thus  more  and  more  the  weight  of  the  body  is  disseminated  upon  the  bony 
columns  through  the  existence  of  these  diverse  inclinations,  and  the  volume  of  the 
bones  decreases  in  proportion  to  the  efforts  which  they  support. 

Another  mode  of  dispersion,  again  very  remarkable,  is  that  which  M. 
Mignon  l  calls  the  inclined  plane  of  the  segment,  in  contradistinction  to  the  pre- 
ceding, which  he  names  inclined  plane  of  surface. 

"  In  order  to  establish  the  existence  of  these  planes  in  animal  machinery," 
he  says,  "  it  is  sufficient  to  observe  that  in  the  members  the  bony  segments  super- 
pose themselves  by  being  diversely  inclined  and  by  thus  forming  a  series  of  angles 
at  their  reciprocal  points  of  union.  As  these  angles  do  not  become  closed,  as  the 
action  of  the  weight  is  one  by  its  direction, — that  is  to  say,  vertical, — and  as  the 
oblique  segment,  immediately  inferior,  receives  this  action,  the  latter  is  then  trans- 
mitted in  the  direction  of  the  osseous  segment ;  and,  since  it  has  followed  this  in- 
clined segment,  it  undergoes  the  influence  of  this  oblique  plane  which  conducts 
and  supports  it ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  decomposed  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  is 
perpendicular  to  the  segment,  the  other  parallel  to  it  and  follows  its  direction. 

"The  flexible  supports  upon  which  the  segments  or  inclined  planes  act 
therefore  become  one  of  the  elements  of  these  planes. 

"  If  we  now  examine  the  mechanical  dispositions  of  the  support,  we  find  that 
the  weight  of  the  body  is  dispersed  and  attenuated  upon  a  series  of  inclined  planes, 
which  receive,  decompose,  and  transmit  this  weight;  that  the  solid  segments, 
more  and  more  numerous,  support  that  portion  of  the  weight  transmitted  parallel 
to  the  plane  and  decompose  it  in  their  turn ;  that  the  flexible  parts  sustain  like  a 
spring  the  other  portion  of  the  weight  perpendicular  to  the  different  planes ; 
finally,  that  the  levers  and  pulleys  favor,  aid,  or  increase  the  action  of  these 
springs  which  move  and  extend  intelligent  forces  that  graduate  and  measure  in 
some  manner  the  entire  influence  claimed  by  the  necessity  of  the  moment. 

"  Such  is  the  mechanical  system,  as  simple  as  it  is  ingenuous,  which  concen- 
trates or  disseminates  action,  produces  and  directs  it,  increases  or  diminishes  it, 
resists  or  combats  it." 

These  primary  ideas  being  well  understood,  we  may  now  begin  the  particular 
study  of  the  regions. 

1  Mignon,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  69  et  71. 


SECTION    SECOND. 

STUDY  OF  THE  REGIONS. 


§  1.  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  HORSE. 

MOST  authors  who  have  written  upon  the  exterior,  since  Bourgelat, 
have  adopted  the  division  of  the  horse  into  fore  extremity,  body,  and 
hind  extremity ;  others  have  preferred  the  anatomical  division  into 
trunk  and  members.  All  have  acted  under  the  influence  of  three  good 
reasons. 

Horsemen,  with  Bourgelat,  have  only  considered  the  saddle-horse, 
and  have  regarded  it  as  a  machine  under  the  rider,  extending  beyond 
him,  in  front  and  behind.  For  all  those  who  practise  horsemanship, 
the  rider  in  the  management  of  his  mount  has  two  resistances  to  over- 
come, two  parts  to  direct :  the  fore  part, — that  is  to  say,  all  that  part 
of  the  horse  in  front  of  him, — and  the  hind  part,  all  that  which  is 
behind.  The  body  is  under  him,  he  feels  its  action  directly,  and  it 
cannot  escape  him.  It  is  not  thus  with  the  fore  and  the  hind  parts, 
whose  movements  are  often  far  from  being  correlative,  and  upon  which 
he  should  fix  his  attention. 

The  authors  who  have  preferred,  contrary  to  the  preceding,  the 
division  of  the  horse  into  trunk  and  members,  quickly  perceived  that  the 
division  of  Bourgelat,  whilst  applying  itself  very  well  to  the  service 
of  the  saddle,  becomes  defective  when  applied  to  the  heavy  or  the  light 
draught-horse.  It  would  be  useless  to  insist  upon  this  point.  The 
contradiction  in  the  terms  is  still  greater  when  it  becomes  a  question 
of  studying  the  external  conformation  of  other  domestic  animals,  such 
as  the  ox,  the  sheep,  and  the  dog. 

We  will  adopt  the  following  division,  because  it  is  more  general 
and  more  convenient,  and  because  this  book  is  not  alone  addressed  to 
horsemen. 

Whatever  may  be  the  animal  examined,  or  its  service,  it  may  always 

21 


22  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE, 

be  divided  into  three  parts :  the  head,  the  body,  and  the  members  ;  and 
the  expressions  fore  extremity  and  hind  extremity  may  be  replaced  to 
advantage  by  those  of  anterior  quarters  and  posterior  quarters. 

The  head  and  the  body  are  the  most  important  parts  of  the  animal 
machinery,  for  they  contain  the  organs  that  are  indispensable  to  the 
maintenance  of  life. 

The  members,  broken  columns  articulated  from  space  to  space,  sup- 
port the  trunk  and,  by  their  movements,  transport  it  from  one  place 
to  another. 

Besides  these  principal  divisions,  there  are  secondary  ones ;  these 
are  faces  or  planes  which  limit  the  animal  in  front,  behind,  above, 
below,  and  laterally. 

The  lateral  faces,  in  ordinary  language,  are  sometimes  designated 
in  a  particular  manner.  Thus,  horsemen  often  call  the  left  side 
(mounting  side)  the  near-side,  in  opposition  to  the  right,  which  they 
call  the  off-side.  As  it  is  usually  on  the  left  side  from  which  a  rider 
mounts  a  horse,  these  expressions  are  only  suitable  for  the  training- 
horse,  and  would  be  out  of  place  in  all  other  cases. 

Drivers  also  employ,  for  the  same  reasons,  denominations  which 
it  is  well  to  understand.  One  who  drives  draught-horses  is  always 
stationed  on  the  left  of  the  team,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  this 
side  is  designated  under  the  name  of  the  side  of  the  man,  the  right 
being  called  the  off-side  of  the  man. 

In  Paris  and  in  a  large  number  of  departments  there  are  reasons 
for  the  use  of  these  expressions,  but  in  certain  localities,  Finistere  and 
the  northern  coast,  for  example,  they  would  be  void  of  sense,  since 
men  often  drive  horses  on  the  right  side. 

We  have  so  far  only  indicated  the  primary  divisions  of  the  horse. 
Each  of  them  is  again  subdivided  into  secondary  regions,  which  we 
have  consigned  to  the  following  synoptical  table  as  well  as  to  the 
explanatory  figures  which  are  annexed  to  it. 

In  order  to  facilitate  for  persons  little  familiar  with  dissection  a 
knowledge  of  the  summary  anatomical  description  which  accompanies 
each  region,  we  have,  by  guiding  the  artists  in  the  exact  representation 
of  the  forms  of  the  horse,  reproduced  Figs.  16,  17,  and  18,  indicating 
the  various  structures.  In  fact,  all  the  prominences — bony,  ligamentous, 
tendinous,  and  muscular — which  exist  under  the  skin  and  may  become 
apparent  on  the  exterior  are  illustrated  here. 


STUDY    OF    THE    REGIONS. 


23 


TABLE  OF  THE  REGIONS. 


1.—  HEAD  (17  regions). 

Anterior  Face. 

Posterior  Face. 

Lateral  Faces. 

Inferior 
Extremity. 

Superior 
Extremity. 

1.  Forehead. 
2.  Face. 
3.  Extremity   of 
the  nose. 

4.  Lower  jaw. 
5.  Intermaxillary 
space. 
6.  Chiii. 

7.  Ear. 
8.  Temple. 
9.  Supra-orbit. 
10.  Eyebrow. 
11.  Eye. 
12.  Cheek. 
13.  Nostrils. 

14.  Mouth, 
a.  Lips. 
6.  Teeth, 
Gums. 
c.  Bars. 
d.  Lingual 
canal. 
e.  Tongue. 
/.  Palate. 

15.  Poll. 
16.  Parotid  re- 
gion. 
17.  Throat. 

2.—  BODY  (20  regions). 

Superior            ] 
Face. 

nferior 
Face. 

Lateral 
Faces. 

8.  Ribs. 
9.  Flank 
10.  Groin. 

Anterior 
Extremity. 

Posterior 
Extremity. 

Genital  Organs. 

1.  Neck,          6.  5 
Mane, 
Forelock.     7.  A 
2.  Withers. 
3.  Back. 
4.  Loins. 
5.  Croup, 
Haunch. 

[iphoid 
region, 
.bdomen. 

11.  Chest. 
12.  Interaxilla. 
13.  Axilla. 

14.  Tail. 
15.  Anus. 
16.  Perineum. 

Male. 
17.  Testicles  and 
envelopes. 
18.  Sheath  and 
penis. 

Female. 
19.  Vulva. 
20.  Mammae. 

3.—  MEMBERS  (16  regions). 

Anterior. 

Posterior. 

Regions  Common  to  the  Two  Members. 

1.  Shoulder. 
2.  Ann. 
3.  Elbow. 
4.  Forearm. 
5.  Knee. 

6.  Thigh  and  buttock. 
7.  Stifle. 
8.  Leg. 
9.  Hock. 

10.  Chestnut. 
11.  Canon  and  tendons. 
12.  Fetlock. 
13.  Footlock  and  ergot. 
14.  Pastern. 
15.  Coronet. 
16.  Foot. 

24 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


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STUDY    OF    THE    REGIONS. 


25 


i  •"•• 


FIG.  12.— Regions  of  the  horse  seen  in  front. 


FIG.  13.— Regions  of  the  horse  seen  behind. 


1.  Ear. 

2.  Forelock. 

3.  Forehead. 

4.  Supra-orbit. 

5.  Eyebrow. 

6.  Eye. 

7.  Face. 

8.  Extremity  /  of   the 

nose. 

9.  Nostril. 

10.  Superior  lip. 

11.  Shoulder. 


13.  Neck. 

14.  Chest. 

15.  Interaxilla. 
-16.  Axilla. 

17.  Forearm. 

18.  Knee. 

19.  Canon. 

20.  Fetlock. 

21.  Pastern. 

22.  Coronet. 

23.  Foot. 

24.  Ribs. 


1.  Mane. 

2.  Neck. 

3.  Withers. 
4v  Croup. 
5*  Tail. 

6.  Thigh. 

7.  Buttock. 

8.  Cord  of  the  hock. 


9.  Point  of  the  hock. 

10.  Hock. 

11.  Canon. 

12.  Fetlock. 

13.  Coronet. 

14.  Foot. 

15.  Flank. 

16.  Ribs. 


12.  Point  of  the  shoul- '^25.  Hollow  of  the  flank, 
der  or  of  the  arm.^86.  Haunch. 


26 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


19     20 


FIG.  14.— Regions  of  the  horse  seen  laterally  and  in  front. 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Jugular  gutter. 

3.  Withers. 

4.  Breast. 

5.  SMTmlder. 

6.  Angle  of  the  shoulder. 

7.  Arm. 

8.  Axilla. 

9.  Elbow. 

10.  Forearm. 

11.  Knee. 

12.  Canon. 

13.  Fetlock. 

14.  Pastern. 
15  Coronet. 
16.  Foot. 


17.  Back. 

18.  Loins. 

19.  Croup. 

20.  Tail. 

21.  Haunch. 

22.  Flank. 

23.  Ribs. 

24.  Thigh. 

25.  Stifle.  g 

26.  Abdomen.         •-, 

27.  Leg. — - 

28.  Hock. 

29.  Canon. 

30.  Fetlock. 

31.  Xiphoid  region. 


STUDY    OF    THE    REGIONS. 


27 


FIG.  15. — Regions  of  the  horse  seen  laterally  and  behind. 


1.  Shoulder. 

2.  Point  of  the  shoulder. 

3.  Arm. 

4.  Elbow. 

5.  Forearm. 

6.  Chestnut. 

7.  Knee. 

8.  Canon. 

9.  Fetlock. 

10.  Pastern. 

11.  Coronet. 

12.  Foot. 


13.  Withers. 

14.  Back. 

15.  Ribs. 

16.  Flank. 

17.  Haunch. 
i  '  V  Thigh. 

-r  fe  Croup. 

20.  Buttock. 

21.  Tail. 

22.  Stifle. 

23.  Leg. 


28 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


STUDY    OF    THE    REGIONS. 


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30 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  17.— Superficial  structures  viewed 
in  front. 


FIG.  18.— Superficial  structures  viewed 
from  behind. 


12.  Sterno-maxillaris. 

13.  Mastoido-humeralis. 

23.  Short  extensor  of  the  forearm. 

31.  Anterior  extensor  of  the  metacarpus. 

32  bis.  Sterno  humeralis. 

34.  Anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges. 

37.  Oblique  extensor  of  the  metacarpus. 


44.  Anterior  portion  of  superficial  gluteus. 
47.  Lateral  extensor  of  the  phalanges. 

49.  Posterior  portion  of  superficial  gluteus. 

50.  Middle  gluteus. 

51.  Semi-tendinosus. 

52.  Femoral  biceps. 

54.  Gastrocnemius. 

55.  Deep  flexor  of  the  phalanges. 

56.  Cord  of  the  hock. 


SOME    DEFINITIONS.  31 

•  * 

«.     §  2.  SOME  DEFINITIONS. 

In  the  language  of  the  exterior,  certain  expressions  are  often  em- 
ployed whose  signification  should  be  exactly  known.  They  are  the 
following :  Beauty,  Defect,  Blemish,  Vice,  Fault. 

A. — Beauties. 

Beauty,  says  Bourgelat,  resides  in  the  fitness  and  the  relation 
of  the  parts.  This  definition  is  incomplete,  for  it  refers  only  to  the 
proportions  of  the  whole  and  excludes  those  of  the  parts  taken  sepa- 
rately. Indeed,  it  may  be  that  the  general  harmony  in  a  horse  is 
defective,  although  some  of  the  parts  are  absolutely  beautiful;  the 
whole  may  be  composed  of  elements  badly  arranged,  notwithstanding 
that  certain  of  them  are  not  incompatible  in  subjects  of  the  best 
conformation. 

A  more  precise  sense  should  therefore  be  attached  to  the  word 
beautiful,  and  we  should  assert  that  it  indicates  the  perfect  adaptation 
of  the  organ  to  its  function,  or  of  the  subject  to  the  service  for  which 
he  is  destined.  It  is  not  that  which  pleases  the  eye,  as  is  often  under- 
stood by  persons  ignorant  of  these  kinds  of  study,  but  that  which  is 
'qualified  as  fit  by  the  connoisseur,  the  competent  man.  Beauty  is 
therefore  synonymous  with  fitness.  It  is  seen,  then,  that  a  beautiful 
region  is  a  good  region,  a  beautiful  horse  is  a  good  horse,  the  beauty  of 
the  whole  results,  as  Bourgelat  says,  from  the  beauty  and  reciprocal  fit- 
ness of  all  the  parts.  One  of  these  may  be  beautiful  without  the  whole 
possessing  that  quality. 

This  acceptation  of  the  word  beautiful  is  applied  generally  as  well 
as  particularly,  and  it  is  the  only  one  which  should  be  accepted  when 
the  word  is  employed. 

There  is  still  another  distinction  to  be  established  among  the 
beauties :  some  are  absolute,  others  are  relative. 

Absolute  beauties  are  always  sought  for  whatever  may  be  the  ser- 
vice,— the  saddle,  or  light  or  heavy  traction.  A  spacious  chest,  large 
articulations,  dense  and  voluminous  muscles,  regular  equilibrium,  and 
powerful  attachments  are  absolute  beauties  to  be  exacted  indiscrimi- 
nately from  all  horses,  for  these  characters  indicate  the  strength  and 
energy  necessary  for  all  services. 

Relative  beauties,  on  the  contrary,  denote  a  specialization  for  such 
and  such  a  service.  Thus,  we  prefer  largeness  of  the  chest,  massive 
shoulders,  voluminous  muscles,  short,  vigorous  members,  a  body  close 
to  the  ground,  wide  loins,  etc.,  in  the  slow  and  heavy  motors  which 


32  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

must  overcome  resistance  by  the  mass  and  the  power  of  their  effort ; 
whilst  we  seek  a  more  elevated  and  narrower  body,  a  longer  neck,  a 
light  head,  long  bones, — in  a  word,  a  smaller  mass  and  more  subtle  and 
extended  movements, — for  the  rapid  motor.  These  are  beauties  rela- 
tive to  these  two  kinds  of  utilization,  which  would  become  prejudicial 
if  instead  of  being  applied  to  one  they  were  applied  to  the  other. 

B.— Defects. 

The  word  defect  is,  in  its  etymology,  the  opposite  of  beauty.  It 
characterizes  the  want  of  adaptation  of  the  thing  to  the  end  for  which 
it  is  destined. 

Defects  are  absolute,  relative,  congenital,  or  acquired. 

Absolute  defects  are  causes  for  the  rejection  of  the  horse,  for  they 
are  injurious  to  every  kind  of  utilization.  Thus,  a  flat  costal  region 
lessens  the  capacity  of  the  chest,  flat  feet  render  the  application  of  the 
shoe  difficult  and  expose  the  foot  to  contusions  of  the  heels  and  the 
sole;  a  retracted  abdomen  indicates  a  capricious  appetite;  slender 
members  are  soon  ruined ;  small  articulations  diminish  the  extent  of 
the  movements ;  unstable  equilibrium  predisposes  to  falls,  to  excessive 
use  of  the  members,  etc.  These  are  so  many  absolute  defects. 

On  the  contrary,  defects  are  relative  when  they  only  injure  the  em- 
ployment of  a  horse  for  a  determined  service.  A  concave  back  is 
defective  for  the  pack-saddle ;  a  croup  too  oblique  and  a  very  large 
chest  will  not  be  suitable  for  the  rapid  gaits,  whilst  they  are  not  preju- 
dicial in  the  draught-horse ;  the  same  is  true  of  the  low  withers  and 
*,he  high  withers,  the  horizontal  croup  and  the  double  croup,  etc.  It 
is  apparent,  then,  from  these  examples,  that  what  is  a  beauty  for  one 
service  may  become  a  defect  for  another. 

Congenital  defects  are  those  which  the  horse  possesses  at  birth ; 
acquired  defects,  those  which  are  the  result  of  his  utilization. 

A  knee-sprung  horse — that  is  to  say,  one  whose  knee  is  naturally 
displaced  forward — is  affected  with  a  congenital  defect;  whilst,  if  this 
lefect  be  the  result  of  usage,  he  is  said  to  be  possessed  of  an  acquired 
defect.  Most  defects  are  malformations  which  the  animal  possesses  at 
birth,  and  are  therefore  of  a  congenital  nature ;  however,  there  are  a 
large  number  which  he  acquires  through  work. 

C. — Blemishes. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  a  good  definition  of  the  word  blemish,  be- 
cause the  first  condition  to  fulfil  in  order  to  define  a  thing  is  that  the 
thing  itself  be  defined  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  word.  At  this  present 


SOME    DEFINITIONS.  33 

time  the  number  and  nature  of  the  blemishes  are  far  from  being  deter- 
mined. Nothing  is  more  absolute,  nothing  more  relative ;  all  depends 
upon  the  idea  which  is  formed  of  them. 

The  words  blemish,  vice,  and  fault  are  very  often  employed  synony- 
mously Avhen  applied  to  the  horse.  They  appear,  however,  to  have  a 
particular  signification.  Thus,  by  the  term  blemish  is  designated  a 
cause  of  depreciation  superficial  and  apparent.  Vice  and  fault  seem 
rather  to  convey  in  themselves  something  concealed. 

Among  the  numerous  definitions  which  are  given  of  a  blemish,  that 
of  Littre  seems  to  us  to  be  the  most  complete :  "  A  blemish  is  a  defect 
of  whatever  origin,  pathological  or  otherwise,  which  has  its  seat  in  the 
skin  or  the  subjacent  parts,  and  which  diminishes  more  or  less  the  value 
of  the  horse." 

As  the  word  defect  has  another  sense  in  the  exterior ;  as,  besides,  it 
is  of  little  importance  to  explain  the  variety  of  the  origin  of  blemishes, 
since  this  origin  may  or  may  not  be  pathological,  we  will  modify  this 
definition  in  the  following  manner :  A  blemish  is  every  apparent  trace 
of  depreciation  having  its  seat  in  the  skin  or  in  the  subjacent  tissues. 
This  trace  need  not  be  persistent.  A  horse  may  indeed  be  blemished 
to-day  and  not  be  so  eight  days  hence.  A  very  slight  fall  upon  the 
knees  sometimes  leaves  an  immediate  trace  which  then  blemishes  the 
subject,  while  oftentimes  soon  afterwards  nothing  is  visible. 

However  it  may  be,  we  add  that  most  usually  the  name  blemish 
is  given  to  cicatrices,  tumors  resulting  from  accidents,  operations  which 
the  animal  has  undergone,  or  different  diseases  which  have  left  apparent 
lesions.  Let  us  give  some  examples.  A  horse  one  of  whose  articula- 
tions has  been  cauterized  is  blemished.  A  horse  which  presents  en- 
largements around  the  hock  is  blemished.  The  same  thing  follows 
when  blisters  are  applied  to  the  walls  of  the  thorax,  and  the  hairs  are 
not  replaced  at  the  place  of  their  application.  A  horse  which  after 
having  been  bled  has  contracted  an  inflammation  of  the  jugular  vein, 
with  a  consecutive  obliteration  of  the  latter,  is  a  blemished  horse. 

Blemishes,  as  may  be  conceived,  are  of  more  or  less  gravity,  and 
diminish,  on  that  account,  the  value  of  the  animal  which  possesses  them. 
There  are  some  to  which  no  importance  is  attached.  We  will  return 
to  them  in  the  examination  of  the  regions. 

D. — Vices  and  Faults. 

These  two  expressions  have  not  always  the  same  meaning  in  the 
language  of  the  exterior.  In  certain  cases  the  word  vice  is  synonymous 
with  disease  or  defect,  as  is  seen,  for  example,  in  the  first  article  of  the 

3 


34  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HOUSE. 

law  of  August  2,  1884,  which  treats  of  the  sale  and  exchange  of 
domestic  animals.  This  law  gives,  in  fact,  the  enumeration  of  all  the 
vices,  faults,  or  diseases  reputed  redhibitory, — that  is  to  say,  which 
cause  a  cancelling  of  the  sale  or  exchange.  In  other  cases,  vice  results 
from  the  bad  character  of  the  animal  or  from  his  imperfect  educa- 
tion. A  horse  which  bites,  strikes,  rears,  and  pulls  backward  without 
being  induced  to  do  so,  is  a  vicious  horse. 

Generally  there  exists  a  certain  gradation  between  vices  and  faults. 
To  the  word  vice  is  usually  given  the  sense  of  a  serious  moral  imperfec- 
tion ;  to  the  word  fault,  that  of  a  slight  moral  imperfection ;  finally,  to 
the  word  defect,  that  of  a  physical  deficiency  more  or  less  serious.  We 
repeat,  however,  that  these  three  expressions  are  often  employed  in  the 
same  sense  in  ordinary  language,  although  they  are,  as  we  have  just 
seen,  quite  clearly  defined.  t 


PART   I. 

THE    HEAD. 


Divisions. — Situated  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  trunk,  the 
head  represents  a  resistance  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  arm  of  a 
lever  formed  by  the  neck, — a  resistance  whose  relative  situation,  on  ac- 
count of  the  extensive  movements  which  it  executes,  has  a  great 
influence  in  changing  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity. 

Studied  as  a  whole,  it  presents  for  consideration  four  faces,  a  superior 
extremity,  continuous  with  the  neck,  and  an  inferior,  occupied  by  the 
oral  opening. 

Each  one  of  these  primary  divisions  is  subdivided  into  a  number 
of  regions  enumerated  in  Fig.  19. 

Faces. — 1st.  The  anterior  face  presents  successively,  from 
above  to  below,  the  forehead,  the  face  or  nose,  and  the  extremity  of  the 
nose. 

2d  and  3d.  The  lateral  faces  present  the  ear,  the  temple,  the 
supra-orbit,  the  eye,  the  masseteric  region,  the  cheeks,  and  the  nostril*. 

4th.  The  posterior  face  offers  the  branches  of  the  inferior  max- 
illa, the  intermaxillary  space,  and  the  chin. 

5th.  Inferior  Extremity. — This  is  entirely  occupied  by  the  mouth, 


THE    HEAD. 


35 


which  comprises  several  secondary  regions, — namely,  the  lipSj  the  teeth, 
the  gums,  the  bars,  the  lingual  canal,  the  tongue,  and  the  palate. 

6th.  Superior  Extremity. — It  comprises  the  structures  inter- 
mediary to  the  head  and  neck  :  above,  the  poll  or  nape ;  below,  the 
throat  or  pharyngo-laryngeal  region  ;  on  each  side,  the  parotid  region. 

Such  are  the  different  regions  of  the  head,  which  we  will  examine 
presently. 


13 


1.  Mouth. 

2.  Superior  lip. 

3.  Inferior  lip. 
3  bis.  Chin. 

4.  Extremity  of  the  nose. 

5.  Nostril. 


FIG.  19. 

6-6.  Face. 

7.  Forehead. 

8.  Inferior  maxilla. 

9.  Cheeks. 
10.  Eye. 


11.  Supra-orbit. 

12.  Temples. 

13.  Ear. 

14.  Parotid  region. 

15.  Throat. 

16.  Neck. 


36  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

CHAPTER    I. 

ANTEKIOR    FACE   OF   THE   HEAD. 


A.— The  Forehead. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base.— The  forehead  is 
that  symmetrical  region  which  occupies  the  superior  part  of  the  ante- 
rior face  of  the  head.  It  is  limited  above  by  the  external  occipital  pro- 
tuberance and  the  poll;  below  by  the  face;  1  on  each  side,  passing  from 
above  to  below,  by  the  ear,  the  temple,  the  supra-orbit,  and  the  eye.  it  is 
partly  concealed  by  a  tuft  of  hairs,  the  forelock,  floating  over  its  surface. 

It  has  for  its  osseous  basis  the  anterior  reflection  of  the  occipital  bone  and 
the  corresponding  portions  of  the  frontal  and  the  parietal  bones.  On  each  side 
of  the  median  line,  where  the  frontal  bone  is  directly  covered  by  the  integument, 
are  the  temporal  fossae,  occupied  by  the  temporal  muscles,  separated  from  the 
skin  by  the  external  and  internal  temporo-auricularis  muscles.  Whatever  may 
be  the  general  form  of  the  forehead,  there  always  exists  over  the  temporal  fossaa 
a  convexity  of  variable  volume  which  is  due  to  these  muscles ;  for  the  remainder 
of  its  extent  the  region  is  almost  perfectly  plane. 

This  region  should  be  examined  in  relation  to  its  width  and  its 
direction. 

The  width  of  the  forehead  is  an  absolute  beauty.  This  is  an 
incontestable  fact  upon  which  all  are  in  accord,  but  to  which  authors 
have  very  often  given  false  interpretations.  Most  writers  exert  them- 
selves to  demonstrate  that  this  width  is  in  relation  with  the  intelligence, 
and  deduce  from  this  the  indication  of  its  beauty.  That  this  assertion 
may  be  established  it  is  necessary  to  prove :  1st,  that  the  width  is  in 
direct  relation  with  the  volume  of  the  encephalon  ;  2d,  that  the  volume 
of  the  latter  is  proportional  to  the  development  of  the  intelligence. 

Relative  to  the  first  proposition,  we  should  not  forget  that  the 
frontal  diameter  depends  upon  the  volume  of  the  surrounding  muscles 
as  well  as  upon  the  amplitude  of  the  frontal  sinuses,  filled  writh  air 
and  comprised  in  the  thickness  of  the  cranial  parietes.  We  may  even 
suppose  that  in  most  instances  it  is  the  resultant  of  both  causes  united, 
and,  above  all,  of  the  latter,  rather  than  of  the  actual  capacity  of  the 
cranial  cavity.  What,  then,  becomes  of  the  interpretation  given  above  ? 
Let  the  reader  draw  his  own  conclusion. 

Concerning  the  second  assertion,  its  explanation  will  be  of  but  little 

1  On  a  line  connecting  the  internal  canthi  of  the  eyes.    (Harger.) 


ANTERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    HEAD.  37 

more  consequence.  It  is  true  that  in  the  animal  scale  the  development 
of  the  encephalon  is  in  relation  with  that  of  the  intelligence ;  but  we 
are  not  justified  to  conclude  with  the  positive  assertion,  that  in  isolated 
individuals  of  the  same  species  this  relation  is  still  constant.  Con- 
tradictory observations  against  the  argument  are  numerous  in  man,  in 
whom  the  facts  have  been  well  studied.  In  the  horse,  such  seem  to  be 
the  facts  by  the  concurrence  of  the  authors  who  have  adhered  tothis 
theory.  Vallon 1  reports  that  at  the  great  cavalry  school  at  Saumur, 
where  large  numbers  of  vicious  and  unyielding  horses  from  the  army 
are  sent,  there  are  many  which,  compared  with  others,  are  not  deficient 
in  the  transverse  measurement  of  the  forehead.  The  intelligence, 
therefore,  is  not  in  constant  relation  with  the  width  of  this  region. 
Some  subjects,  without  doubt,  are  more  endowed  with  this  faculty  than 
others ;  but  it  is  a  fact  which  can  only  be  proved  by  following  the 
animals  in  their  future  career. 

Among  the  Arabians  the  forehead  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  four 
principal  characteristics  of  the  horse.  This  maxim  is  true,  but  for 
reasons  very  different  from  those  which  they  have  invoked. 

Again,  the  forehead  should  be  wide  because  its  transverse  develop- 
ment indicates  that  of  the  temporal  muscles  and  of  the  frontal  sinuses, 
dependencies  of  the  respiratory  apparatus.  Theoretically,  a  strong 
muscularity  of  a  certain  region  is  always  an  absolute  beauty,  for 
not  only  does  it  indicate  a  great  aptitude  for  the  execution  of  its  par- 
ticular function,  but  it  is  also  a  sign  of  muscular  puissance  of  the  loco- 
motory  system  in  general.  For  analogous  reasons  a  spacious  frontal 
sinus  is  to  be  sought,  as  the  dimensions  of  one  organ  are  proportional 
to  those  of  the  other  organs  in  the  same  organic  apparatus.  From  the 
principle  that  the  function  makes  the  organ  it  will  follow  that  the 
more  developed  it  be  the  more  perfect  will  its  function  be. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  spacious  sinuses  are  an  absolute  beauty, 
and  not,  as  Merche 2  thinks,  because  their  object  is  "  the  exaltation  of 
the  sense  of  smell."  The  olfactory  cells  exist  not  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  sinuses,  but  in  the  pituitary  membrane  along  the  course 
of  the  first  pair  of  encephalic  nerves. 

In  the  young  animal,  as  the  foal  and  the  colt,  the  forehead  is  very 
prominent,  from  the  fact  that  the  sinuses  have  not  acquired  the  same 
capacity  that  they  will  have,  from  the  absorption  of  bone,  as  the  animal 
advances  in  age.3 

1  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie.  t.  i.  p.  306. 

2  Merche,  Nouveau  Traite  des  formes  exterieures  du  cheval,  p.  15,  Paris,  1868. 

3  The  vertical  diameter  of  the  forehead  is  the  distance  between  the  external  angle  of  the  eye 
and  the  base  of  the  corresponding  ear;  the  transverse  diameter  is  the  distance  from  the  base 


38  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  direction  of  the  forehead  is  closely  related  to  the  general 
form  of  the  head,  and  varies  with  the  race.  It  is  straight  when  its 
surface  is  rectilinear  in  every  sense ;  concave  when  it  is  depressed  in  its 
inferior  portion  ;  convex  when  the  profile  is  arched  from  above  to  below. 
These  diverse  forms  designate  the  head  as  square,  flat,  arched,  or  hare- 
faced.  We  will  return  to  this  a  propos  of  the  general  form  of  the  head. 

The  form  of  the  forehead  is  sometimes  modified  by  the  presence 
of  small  eminences  known  under  the  name  of  horns,  from  their  analogy 
with  similar  appendages  observed  on  animals  of  the  bovine  species. 
The  horses  which  present  this  anomaly  are  rare.  They  are  called 
harned  in  ordinary  language.1 

We  will  study,  in  the  article  on  the  robes,  the  peculiarities  relative 
to  the  color  and  disposition  of  the  hairs  of  the  forehead. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  most  common  lesions  of  this  region  are 
cicatrices  and  excoriations  resulting  from  falls,  blows,  and  other  traumatisms. 
Among  other  affections  more  rare  and  more  serious  are  tumefactions  which  result 
from  diseases  of  the  frontal  sinuses.  Sometimes  cicatrices  are  situated  on  the 
middle  or  inferior  part  of  its  surface  to  either  side  of  the  median  line,  indicating 
that  trepanning  has  been  practised,  with  a  view  of  giving  exit  to  pus  contained  in 
the  sinus.  When  these  are  observed,  it  is  necessary  to  complete  our  examination 
by  that  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  and  the  submaxillary  lymphatic  ganglia, 
because  an  insidious  purulent  collection  of  the  sinuses  may  be  a  complication  of 
glanders. 

Merche,2  following  Bourgelat  and  many  others,  mentions  a  fraud  sometimes 
committed  by  horse-dealers  attempting  to  mate  horses  intended  for  sale.  It  con- 
sists in  producing  a  white  coloration  in  the  region  of  the  forehead  by  cauterizing 
the  skin  with  a  hot  iron  or  with  boiling  water,  etc.  The  hairs  will  soon  become 
exfoliated  and  be  replaced  by  those  of  a  white  color.  This  artifice  can  be  easily 
detected  by  the  fact  that  in  the  centre  there  is  a  denuded  spot  around  which  the 
hairs  are  less  numerous  than  in  the  surrounding  parts.  (Bourgelat.)  The  proof  of 
such  a  deception  is  much  more  detrimental  to  the  reputation  of  those  who  employ 
it  than  to  the  value  of  the  animals  on  which  it  is  practised. 

B.— The  Face  or  Nose  (Fig.  19). 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  face  is  a  sym- 
metrical region  situated  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  head,  limited 
above  by  the  forehead,  below  by  the  extremity  of  the  nose,  and  on  each 
side  by  the  eye,  the  cheek,  and  the  nostril. 


of  one  ear  to  that  of  the  other.  Their  relative  development  gives  three  classes  of  foreheads  • 
1.  Brachycephalic  (square-headed),  when  the  two  measurements  are  nearly  or  quite  equal:  it 
includes  the  Aryan,  African,  Irish,  and  English  (shire)  horses ;  2.  Dolichocephalic  (long-headed), 
When  the  vertical  diameter  is  in  excess,  as  in  the  Belgian,  Frisian,  German, and  Percheron  races; 
3.  Mesocephalic,  which  is  intermediary  between  the  two  preceding.  (Harger.) 

1  A.  Goubaux,  Note  sur  les  chevaux  cornus,  in  Comptes  rendus  de  la  Socie'te'  de  biologic. 
1852,  p.  25. 

2  Merche,  Nouveau,  Traite  des  formes  ext6rieures  du  cheval,  p.  16. 


ANTERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    HEAD.  39 

The  bones  entering  into  its  formation  are  the  nasal  anteriorly,  and 
the  lachrymal,  superior  maxillary,  and  incisive  laterally.  Three  pairs 
of  muscles  occupy  the  lateral  moieties, — the  supermaxillo-labialis,1 
supernaso-labialis,  and  inferior  palpebral  or  lachrymalis. 

The  study  of  this  region  is  very  interesting,  because  it  circum- 
scribes the  nasal  fossae,  whose  development  is  always  in  direct  relation 
with  that  of  the  respiratory  apparatus  in  general.  A  wide  transverse 
diameter  of  the  face  is  therefore  its  first  condition  of  beauty  as  well  as 
of  utility. 

The  face  is  divided  into  three  regions,  a  middle  and  two  lateral. 

1.  Middle  Region. — This  must  be  studied  as  to  its  direction  and 
its  width. 

a.  The  direction  or  form  of  the  face  or  nose  gives  to  the  head 
particular  names. 

Thus,  when  it  is  straight  or  rectilinear  from  above  to  below,  the 
head  is  called  flat  or  square.  When  it  is  convex  in  the  same  sense,  the 
head  is  designated  as  having  a  ram's  nose  or  a  Roman  nose,  if  the  con- 
vexity be  limited  to  the  face ;  when  the  convexity  extends  to  the  fore- 
head as  well  as  to  the  nose,  the  head  is  arched.  Finally,  when  it  is 
concave  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  the  head  is  likened  to  that  of  a 
rhinoceros,  and  is  also  called  camel-nosed. 

The  various  forms  may  be  congenital  or  acquired.  The  latter  are 
due  to  pressure  on  the  nasal  bones  from  the  improper  employment  of 
the  nose-band  of  the  bridle  or  the  halter.  Fortunately,  this  does  not 
interfere  with  the  capacity  of  the  nasal  fossae,  which  are  as  capacious 
as  in  natural  conditions.  It  will  be  otherwise,  however,  if  this  confor- 
mation be  occasioned  by  fracture  of  the  nasal  bones,  as  we  shall  see 
further  on. 

Although  the  straight  form  or  square  head  is  the  most  agreeable  to 
the  eye,  the  other  forms  of  the  face  do  not  imply  anything  derogatory 
to  the  development  of  the  respiratory  apparatus. 

6.  The  width  of  the  middle  region  can  be  easily  determined  by 
examining  its  anterior  surface.  The  width  is  in  all  cases  an  index  of 
the  respiratory  capacity,  and  should  be  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  fore- 
head to  preserve  the  harmonious  relation  of  the  integral  parts.  We 
cannot  oppose  too  strongly  the  erroneous  teaching  of  some  authors  who 
regard  a  convex  face,  under  the  pretence  that  it  is  narrow,  as  a  predis- 


1  This  muscle,  covering  the  maxillary  sinuses  below  the  eye,  can  be  easily  outlined.  Its 
external  border  is  separated  from  the  maxillary  spine,  with  which  it  is  almost  parallel,  by  a  space 
about  twenty-five  centimetres  in  width.  This  space  should  be  selected  for  trepanning,  so  as  not 
to  injure  the  muscle.  (Harger.) 


40  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE 

posing  cause  of  roaring.     This  affection  does  not  have  its  seat  in  the 
nasal  fossae.     Narrowness  of  the  face  is  an  absolute  defect. 

2.  Lateral  Regions.— The  lateral  divisions  present  but  little  of 
importance.  We  will  observe,  nevertheless,  that  they  do  not  present 
altogether  the  same  conformation  at  different  periods  of  the  animal's 
life.  Thus,  they  are  more  prominent  in  young  horses,  because  the 
molar  teeth  are  more  deeply  implanted  into  the  alveoli  of  the  superior 
maxilla ;  as  age  advances  and  the  teeth  are  continually  worn,  the  latter 
are  pushed  from  their  sockets,  and  these  regions  appear  more  concave. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  blemishes  of  the  face  are : 

1.  Deformities  consequent  to  fracture  of  the  nasal  bones  from  traumatisms 
received  by  the  parietes  of  this  region.    These  fractures  are  rare,  not  only  because 
the  bones  themselves  possess  a  marked  degree  of  resistance,  but  also  because  the 
elasticity  of  the  air  contained  in  the  nasal  fossae  to  a  great  extent  breaks  the 
momentum  of  blows  received  upon  their  surface.     Nevertheless  there  is  danger 
of  producing,  either  by  the  displacement  of  the  bones  or  the  consequent  forma- 
tion of  a  callus,  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  free  passage  of  the  air  during  ordi- 
nary respiration  and  particularly  during  exercise.     Other  deformities  may  exist 
upon  the  lateral  parietes  of  the  face.    These  are  tumefactions  which  result  from  a 
chronic  lesion  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  maxillary  sinuses,  due  to  necrosis 
of  a  tooth  or  other  alterations  of  a  diverse  nature,  whose  gravity  varies  with  the 
cause. 

2.  Traces  of  Cauterization. — At  the  present  time  cauterization  of  the  face 
is  seldom  practised.     The  Arabs  employed  it  in  the  treatment  of  strangles  and 
benign  affections  of  the  superior  respiratory  passages.     With  these  exceptions, 
such  blemishes  indicate  that  the  animal  has  been  or  is  still  suffering  from  a 
grave  disease  of  the  nasal  cavities. 

3.  Cicatrices  which  are  the  result  of  traumatisms,  excoriations,  or  thicken- 
ings of  the  skin  caused  by  the  halter  or  bridle ;  finally,  cicatrices  of  an  angular 
or  semicircular  shape,  arousing  the  suspicion  that  the  maxillary  sinuses  have 
been  trephined.    These  last  are  situated  within  the  maxillary  spine  towards  the 
internal  angle  of  the  eye. 

When  any  of  the  blemishes  enumerated  are  present,  it  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete our  examination  by  a  minute  inspection  of  the  nasal  sinuses,  the  molar 
teeth,  and  the  subrnaxillary  lymphatic  ganglia. 

C. — Extremity  of  the  Nose  (Fig.  19.) 

Situation  ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  extremity  of 
the  nose  is  situated  at  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  face,  between  the 
nostrils  and  above  the  superior  lip. 

Anatomically  it  comprises  for  its  base  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  septum 
nasi  and  the  comma-shaped  cartilages  which  encircle  the  internal  alse  of  the 
nostrils.  The  external  face  of  the  latter  is  covered  by  the  transversalis  nasi 
muscle,  which  is  separated  on  the  median  line  from  the  fine  integument  of  this 
region  by  the  terminal  tension  of  th°  maxillo-labialia  muscle. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  41 

All  authors  who  have  described  this  region  have  confounded  it  with 
the  superior  lip,  whose  organization  is  entirely  different.  They  have, 
therefore,  erred  anatomically  in  saying  that  it  has  an  extensive  nerve- 
supply,  and  physiologically  none  the  less  seriously  in  considering  it  as 
the  principal  organ  of  touch  in  the  horse.  The  superior  lip  fulfils  the 
latter  role.  It  follows  from  this  that  we  will  describe  neither  beauty 
nor  defect  of  this  region,  excepting  that  it  should  be  large  as  an  index 
of  the  respiratory  functions. 

It  is  more  important  to  assure  ourselves  that  it  is  exempt  from  blemishes. 
When  they  exist,  they  are  nearly  always  the  result  of  falls  which  the  animal  has 
received.  It  is  necessary,  then,  to  examine  with  care  the  state  of  the  incisor 
teeth,  the  lips,  the  gums,  and  the  plumb-line  of  the  extremities,  to  determine  as 
nearly  as  possible  whether  the  blemishes  resulted  from  an  accident  or  from  a 
weakness  of  the  fore  limbs,  the  effect  of  usage.  They  are  never  produced  by  the 
application  of  the  twitch, — a  means  of  torture  employed  to  divert  the  attention 
of  the  animal,  and  which  can  only  be  placed  upon  the  superior  lip,  whatever 
precaution  in  this  respect  be  taken. 


CHAPTER    II. 

LATERAL   FACES   OF   THE    HEAD. 


A.— The  Ear  (Fig.  19). 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  ear  is  situated 
at  the  superior  extremity  of  the  lateral  face  of  the  head,  to  one  side 
of  the  forehead  and  the  dependency  of  the  mane  known  under  the 
name  of  forelock,  in  front  of  the  poll,  above  the  parotid  gland  and 
behind  the  temple. 

Anatomically,  this  region  is  easily  visible,  and  has  for  its  base  the 
conchal  and  scutiform  cartilages.  These  give  attachment  to  ten  pairs 
of  muscles  which  endow  the  ear  with  movements  either  general  or 
partial.  The  former  carry  it  backward,  outward,  forward,  inward, 
and  rotate  it  on  its  adipose  cushion.  The  latter  (mastoido-auricularis) 
are  destined  to  move  the  concha  so  as  to  adjust  the  volume  of  air  in 
the  auditory  chamber  (hiatus)  to  sounds  of  different  intensities. 

Diverse  beauties  are  recognized  in  this  organ  which  are  depend- 
ent upon  its  length,  thickness,  situation,  direction,  and  movements. 

1.  Length. — As  Bourgelat  has  remarked,  some  prefer  a  long  ear, 


42  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

others  a  short  one.  He  adds,  with  much  prudence,  that  good  judgment 
does  not  approve  of  an  excess  of  length,  and  that  this  organ,  being  an 
integral  part  of  the  head,  should  be  in  proportion  with  it.  It  is  a  fact 
worthy  of  remark,  that  horses  in  which  they  are  short  are  usually 
energetic  and  courageous.  We  must  also  add  that  small  ears  diminish 
the  apparent  size  of  the  head,  render  the  physiognomy  more  pleasant 
and  expressive,  and  brighten  the  eye.  In  this  respect  the  Aryan  horse 
has  greatly  influenced  the  English  thoroughbred ;  the  Boulonnais,  the 
Flemish  ;  the  Irish,  the  Percheron,  etc. 

2.  Thickness. — The  thickness  of  the  ear  denotes  the  quality 
of  the  race  and  of  the  subject.      This  is  indicated  by  several  other 
organs  which  in  addition  reveal  clearly  his  origin.     When  the  skin  of 
the  concha  is  thick,  and  garnished  on  the  inside  with  numerous  long 
hairs,  when  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue  is  abundant  and  obliter- 
ates the  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  wre  have  evidences  that  the  subject  is 
common  and  lymphatic.     A  concha  small,  firm,  and  elastic,  covered 
by  a  skin  fine  and  adherent,  with  fine  and  scanty  hairs  in  the  interior, 
and  blood-vessels  well    outlined,  characterizes   an   animal  of  distin- 
guished ancestry.     This  is  so  well  known  to  horse-merchants  that  they 
never  fail  to  tamper  with  the  hairs  of  the  ears  of  common  horses  in 
arranging  their  toilet  prior  to  offering  them  for  sale. 

3.  Situation. — The  situation  of  the  ear  merits  consideration. 
Its  distance  to  one  side  of  the  median  line,  though  dependent  in  part 
upon  the  development  of  the  muscles  of  this  region,  allows  us  to  appre- 
ciate, to  a  certain  degree,  the  width  of  the  cranial  cavity.     If  this 
separation  gives  more  expression  to  the  head  and  presages  greater  intel- 
ligence, it  is  nevertheless  necessary  to  guard  ourselves  against  an  error 
of  which  we  have  spoken,  in  according  to  this  character  more  impor- 
tance than  it  deserves.     The  same  argument  applies  to  ears  situated  too 
high  ;  they  have  an  unpleasant  effect  on  the  eye  and  are  often  an  index 
of  a  timid  and  sulky  disposition. 

4.  Direction   and   Movements. — It  is  considered  a  mark  of 
beauty  if  a  horse  freely  directs  his  ears  to  an  angle  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees  with  the  axis  of  the  head.     It  is  thus  that  they  present 
themselves  in  active  and  energetic  subjects :  if,  besides,  they  are  short 
and  well  placed,  they  are  designated  as  bold  or  cunning. 

Ordinarily  they  are  moved  in  various  directions  to  receive  sound- 
waves, by  means  of  wrhich  the  animal  obtains  a  direct  knowledge  of 
certain  conditions  of  the  exterior.  Animals  in  which  the  ears  are 
motionless  are  sluggish  and  indolent  or,  what  is  more  serious,  suffer 
from  a  variable  degree  of  deafness. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  43 

Let  us  refer  to  certain  movements  which  have  not  been  considered. 
These  are  forward  and  backward  oscillations  of  the  ears  of  some  horses 
during  work,  and  particularly  during  laborious  efforts.  At  each  step 
or  at  each  effort  the  animal  carries  the  ears  quickly  forward,  then  back- 
ward to  their  primitive  position,  and  repeats  this  action  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  work.  We  know  of  no  appropriate  expression  to 
qualify  these  singular  oscillations. 

En  resume,  the  ear  is  beautiful  when  it  is  short,  directed  forward, 
well  situated,  clean,  fine,  covered  by  a  thin  and  adherent  skin,  with  few 
hairs  in  the  interior  of  the  concha. 

Defects. — Ears  long,  thick,  and  transversely  horizontal  designate 
a  horse  as  being  lop-eared.  This  ungraceful  carriage  does  not  neces- 
sarily detract  from  the  good  qualities  of  the  animal.  There  are  many 
lop-eared  horses  none  the  less  excellent  for  service.  Nevertheless  this 
defect  is  more  common  in  lymphatic  horses  than  in  those  of  the  finer 
races. 

We  speak  also  of  horses  whose  ears  are  held  in  a  horizontal  di- 
rection and  undergo,  during  locomotion,  alternate  elevations  and  de- 
pressions. It  has  been  said  of  such,  more  picturesquely  than  properly, 
that  they  limp  at  the  ear.  This  peculiarity  may  exist  on  the  right,  011 
the  left,  or  on  both  sides  simultaneously. 

When  the  ear  is  thick,  large,  and  decidedly  pendulous,  overhanging 
the  parotid  region,  it  is  called  swine-ear.  This  defect  is  no  more  grave 
than  the  preceding,  but  it  is  more  unpleasant  to  the  eye. 

The  ears  are  restless  or  uncertain  Avhen  the  animal  keeps  them 
in  continual  motion  in  the  stable  as  well  as  during  exercise.  This  is 
an  evidence  of  a  timid  nature,  impaired  vision,  or  even  total  blindness. 
It  seems  that  in  the  last  two  instances,  as  H.  Bouley l  has  said,  the 
animal  endeavors  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  vision  by  turning  the 
auditory  apparatus  in  various  directions ;  he  endeavors  to  see  by  the 
sense  of  hearing. 

In  the  language  of  horsemen,  horses  are  skittish  if  they  worry  and 
fret  at  the  least  noise  when  they  are  driven  into  such  or  such  a  place  in 
the  stable  or  made  to  execute  certain  movements  ;  it  is  often  remarkable. 

Finally,  some  horses  carry  the  ears  backward  against  the  superior 
border  of  the  neck.  It  is  evidence  of  a  bad  disposition  and  an  inclina- 
tion to  strike  or  bite  when  approached. 

Blemishes. — The  blemishes  of  this  region  are  numerous. 

1st.  It  is  quite  common  to  observe  draught-horses  whose  ears  are 

1  H.  Bouley,  Maison  rustique,  t.  ii.  p.  195. 


44  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

lacerated.  They  may  become  deformed,  thickened,  and  acquire  a  faulty 
direction.  Fractures  of  the  conchal  cartilage  result  ordinarily  from 
blows  inflicted  by  brutal  drivers ;  they  have  no  serious  consequences. 

2d.  At  the  present  time  horses  with  the  ears  cropped  in  the  middle 
of  their  length  are  almost  unknown.  We  have  met  with  only  two 
instances.  It  appears,  however,  that  this  was  the  custom  during  the 
last  century.  Horses  which  had  undergone  this  operation  were  called 
crop-eared.  If  at  the  same  time  the  tail  had  been  amputated,  they 
were  designated  by  the  term  docked  (J.  B.  Huzard).  Yallon  *  reports 
that  this  mutilation  was  formerly  common  in  Algeria,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Arabians  in  their  military  expeditions  to  establish  proofs 
of  ownership.  Under  other  circumstances,  amputation  of  the  ears  is 
sometimes  effected  by  the  application  of  the  twitch,  most  often  by 
brutal  farriers,  upon  horses  difficult  to  shoe  or  to  dress.  It  will  not  be 
difficult  to  convince  the  reader  of  the  danger  which  the  employment 
of  such  procedures  may  occasion. 

3d.  It  is  not  less  rare  to  meet  horses  whose  ears  are  split.  This 
incision  was  made  upon  the  left  ear  of  cavalry  horses  under  eight  years 
of  age,  discharged  from  the  French  army.  The  purchasers  did  not 
delay  to  unite  the  two  flaps.  When  the  incision  had  existed  for  a  long 
time,  they  freshed  the  edges  with  a  cutting  instrument  and  united 
them.  Nothing  more  than  a  cicatrix  persisted  afterwards,  which  was 
often  concealed  by  the  hairs. 

In  Algeria,  says  Vallon,2  as  in  the  states  of  the  Mussulmans,  it  is 
the  custom  under  certain  circumstances  to  split  the  ears  of  colts.  We 
can  therefore  purchase,  without  fear,  such  horses  as  have  been  subjected 
to  the  operation.  This  is  also  practised  on  the  Western  prairies  of  the 
United  States  as  a  brand  of  ownership. 

4th.  We  sometimes  observe  at  the  base  of  the  ear  denudations  or 
circular  cicatrices  which  result  from  the  repeated  application  of  the 
twitch  to  this  region.  It  is  to  be  feared,  then,  that  the  animal  has 
been  treated  for  a  disease  of  long  standing  which  required  repeated 
dressing,  or  that  he  is  difficult  to  shoe,  harness,  etc.  Certain  horses 
during  the  summer,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  perspire,  experience 
violent  itching  in  the  interior  of  the  ear,  which  causes  disordered 
movements  of  the  head.  Cleanliness,  hygienic  precautions,  and  de- 
tersive lotions  are  the  remedies  for  the  affection. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  fraudulent  means  employed  to  hide  the 
defects  and  blemishes  of  this  region. 

i  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  317.  2  Ibid. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD. 


1st.  The  simplest  and  most  harmless  among  them  consists  in  clip- 
ping" the  hairs  of  the  ears.  In  this  part  of  the  animal's  toilet,  the 
dealer  carefully  cuts  the  long  and  abundant  hairs  which  exist  in  a 
normal  state  at  the  entrance  of  the  concha  and  which  act  undoubtedly 
as  organs  of  protection  to  the  auditory  apparatus.  These  hairs  are  less 
abundant  in  horses  of  the  finer  races,  as  stated  above.  It  is  also  in- 
tended by  this  procedure  to  give  lightness  to  the  head,  fineness  to"  the 
ear,  and  distinction  to  the  animal,  characteristics  which  do  not  belong 
to  common  horses.  This  fraud — for  it  is  a  procedure  whose  object  is 
to  deceive  the  buyer  as  to  the  real  qualities  of  the  merchandise  which 
is  oifered — is  not  easily  detected  except  by  those  who  are  experienced 
with  horses.  This  is  so  generally  resorted  to  that  certain  dealers,  very 
honest  otherwise,  are  unwilling  to  expose  horses  for  sale  unless  they 
have  been  thus  prepared.  When  questioned  as  to  this  practice,  they 
respond  that,  the  parts  being  cleansed  with  difficulty,  the  removal  of 
the  hairs  renders  this  more  easy.  We  often  find  on  the  internal  sur- 
face of  the  concha  a  thick  layer  of  sebaceous  matter — cerumen — which 
becomes  irritating,  provokes  pruritus  during  the  summer,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  attracts  insects.  This  material  is  most  abundant  in  horses 
whose  sanitary  conditions  are  neglected.  Particles  of  fodder  and 
atmospheric  dust  will  adhere  to  it,  against  the  invasion  of  which  the 
hairs  thus  shortened  can  offer  no  obstruction.  In  the  army  this  custom 
has  been  abolished. 

2d.  Another  common  means  is  the  use  of  a  hood,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  protection  from  insects.  It  should  always  be  removed,  as  it 
may  hide  the  marks  of  the  twitch,  for  example,  if  it  be  difficult  to 
shoe  or  harness  the  animal ;  or,  again,  a  leaden  ball  suspended  by  a 
thread  and  placed  in  the  interior  of  the  ear  to  quiet  nervous  subjects. 

3d.  When  the  ears  are  long  and  pendulous  they  can  be  made,  by 
horsemen,  to  assume  a  good  direction  by  means  of  a  silk  thread  which 
is  covered  by  the  hairs  of  the  forelock.  Being  thus  adducted  towards 
the  median  line,  they  may  entirely  hide  this  defect. 

4th.  Certain  operations  were  formerly  practised  upon  these  organs, 
whose  effect  was  to  straighten  them.  They  are  not  employed  at  the 
present  time,  but  have  been  abandoned,  not  because  of  a  moral  view, 
but  because  they  are  recognized  as  being  dangerous  and  inefficient.  It 
is  not  rare  to  see  horsemen  attempt  to  shorten  the  ears  by  means  of  the 
ear-cutter.  This  instrument  is  a  sort  of  mould  composed  of  two  lateral 
halves,  into  which  the  concha  is  received.  Whatever  projects  beyond 
the  edges  of  the  instrument  is  carefully  removed  with  a  bistoury. 

We  have  not  included  deafness  among  the  defects  of  the  ear  because 


46  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

this  infirmity  is  often  difficult  of  appreciation,  although  it  may  occasion 
great  inconveniences  in  animals  which  are  governed  by  the  voice  of 
their  master. 

As  M.  Richard l  remarks,  in  deaf  horses  the  ears  are  generally 
fixed,  directed  forward  or  laterally,  vainly  endeavoring  to  perceive 
sound.  This  attitude,  by  itself  alone,  does  not  permit  us  to  recognize 
this  defect  at  the  time  of  sale.  In  most  instances  it  passes  unperceived, 
and  is  only  observed  after  the  animal  has  been  worked  for  some  time. 
Deaf  horses  are  ordinarily  docile,  both  in  harness  and  in  the  stable,  and 
respond  quickly  to  all  the  indications  of  the  bridle  and  bit.  The 
Arabians,  with  almost  self-love  for  their  horses,  urge  them  with  the 
voice  as  well  as  with  the  hand,  and  reject  those  which  are  deaf  as 
being  fit  only  for  the  pack-saddle,  and  of  little  value  as  saddle-horses. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  more  prejudicial  in  draught-horses.  Those  that  are 
mounted  are  more  easily  guided  by  the  action  of  the  bridle. 


B.— The  Temple  (Fig.  19). 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — This  is  a  double 
region,  more  or  less  prominent,  situated  on  the  lateral  faces  of  the 
head.  It  has  for  its  anatomical  base  the  exterior  of  the  temporo- 
maxillary  articulation,  and  is  limited  below  by  the  cheek,  behind  by  the 
parotid  region,  and  in  front  and  above  more  or  less  directly  by  the  ear, 
the  eye,  and  the  supra-orbit. 

The  principal  qualifications  which  we  seek  here  are  its  distinct- 
ness and  its  freedom  from  blemishes. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — Denudations,  excoriations,  and  wounds  of  this 
region  deserve  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  first  are  the  result  of  friction 
from  disordered  movements  of  the  head,  as  in  animals  tossing  themselves  about 
when  suffering  from  colic,  vertigo,  epilepsy,  or  grave  diseases  of  the  feet,  when 
the  animal  assumes  a  prolonged  decubitus,  etc.  The  second,  on  the  contrary,  are 
the  consequences  of  severer  causes,  as  traumatisms  of  various  kinds,  which  may 
primarily  or  secondarily  open  the  articulation,  allow  the  escape  of  the  synovial 
fluid,  and  produce  a  fistula.  The  last  accident  is  serious,  the  horse  being  unable 
to  masticate  his  aliment  properly  on  account  of  the  pain  which  the  movements 
of  the  jaws  produce.2  It  is  not  astonishing  that  an  affection  of  such  a  nature 
might  be  concealed  by  a  hood  which  covers  the  ears  to  protect  their  interior 
from  foreign  bodies  and  insects.  At  any  rate,  the  animal  should  always  be  un- 
covered during  the  examination,  and  such  an  alteration  of  the  temple  should 
never  escape  the  attention  of  the  observer. 


1  Richard.  £tude  du  cheval,  6e  M.,  p.  66. 
2  A.  Goubaux,  Comptes-RendusdelaSoci6t£  vC'terinaire  (seance  du  27  avril,  1876). 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  47 

This  is  the  region  in  which  the  first  white  hairs,  common  in  old  horses  of  a 
dark  color,  make  their  appearance.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  we 
may  find  gray  temples  in  younger  horses  as  well  as  in  colts  and  foals. 


C.— The  Supra-orbit  and  Eyebrows  (Fig.  19). 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  supra-orbit 
is  an  asymmetrical  depression  situated  above  the  eye,  on  the  side  of 
the  forehead,  and  above  the  cheek  and  the  temple. 

This  region,  which  corresponds  to  the  most  superficial  part  of  the 
temporal  fossa,  is  filled  with  a  mass  of  adipose  tissue  more  or  less 
abundant.  It  indicates  nothing  as  to  the  quality  of  the  animal,  but 
it  permits  us  to  make  an  approximate  inference  of  his  age.  It  is 
a  well-known  fact  that  in  old  horses  the  supra-orbits  become  hollow 
from  the  absorption  of  the  fat  which  in  the  young  animal  completely 
occludes  them.  This  fact  is  not  so  constant  that  very  much  im- 
portance can  be  attached  to  it. 

Although  the  first  condition  does  not  lessen  the  real  value  of  the 
animal,  horse-merchants,  in  order  to  obliterate  these  cavities  when 
empty,  have  endeavored  to  fill  them  by  a  very  simple  method  which, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  occasions  no  inconvenience.  It  consists  in 
making  a  deep  puncture  into  the  region  with  a  large  needle  or  the 
sharp  blade  of  a  knife  until  the  connective  tissue  of  the  temporal  fossa 
is  reached.  Having  made  the  incision,  the  mouth  is  applied  over  the 
opening  and  the  connective  tissue  is  forcibly  inflated  witji  air.  (A 
hollow  needle  would  be  more  expeditious.)  We  have  seen  one  instance 
in  which  an  abscess  complicated  this  operation. 

To  detect  this  deception,  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  pressure  with 
the  fingers  over  the  region,  which  will  produce  crepitation  due  to  the 
passage  of  the  air  through  the  connective  tissue. 


Some  authors  have  admitted  a  region  of  the  eyebrows.  Huzard 
the  elder  and  Merche  have  absolutely  denied  their  existence.  Lecoq  * 
refutes  with  good  reason  the  latter  opinion  by  remarking  that  in  the 
foetus  the  arches  of  the  eyebrows  are  visible,  in  a  very  distinct  manner, 
a  little  before  the  remainder  of  the  body  is  covered  with  hairs.  Later, 
they  are  confounded  with  the  surrounding  parts  and  lose,  for  this  reason, 
all  interest  from  a  point  of  view  of  the  exterior.  We  will  not  dwell 
any  longer  on  this  point. 

1  F.  Lecoq,  Exterieur  du  eheval,  4e  6d.,  p.  215. 


48  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

D.— The  Eye  (Fig.  20  and  Fig.  23). 

Situation  ;  Limits. — The  eye  constitutes  a  double  region  situ- 
ated upon  the  lateral  planes  of  the  head,  above  the  cheek  and  the  face, 
below  the  supra-orbit,  and  on  each  side  of  the  forehead. 

Anatomical  Base. — The  essential  part  of  the  visual  apparatus 
consists  of  a  membranous  sphere  called  the  ocular  globe,  transparent 
in  front,  whose  interior  is  lined  by  a  nervous  membrane,  the  retina, 
sensitive  only  to  luminous  rays. 

It  is  protected  over  its  greater  extent  by  a  deep  osseous  cavity,  the 
orbital  cavity,  to  the  bottom  of  which  it  is  fixed;  in  front  also  by 
two  mobile  curtains,  the  eyelids,  which  complete  the  orbit  in  front  and 
regulatp  the  quantity  of  light  which  should  be  admitted  into  its  inte- 
rior. Ten  pairs  of  muscles  endow  it  with  various  movements ;  finally, 
special  organs  of  a  glandular  nature  lubricate  its  anterior  surface  and 
protect  it  from  the  constantly  desiccating  influence  of  the  atmosphere. 
Such,  in  a  general  way,  is  the  organization  of  the  ocular  region. 

1st.  Essential  Organs  of  Vision,  or  the  Globe  of  the  Bye. — This  is 
a  membranous  envelope,  completely  closed,  whose  interior  is  filled  with  trans- 
parent substances  of  a  variable  density,  known  under  the  generic  name  of  the 
media  of  the  eye. 

This  sac,  most  bulging  in  front,  is  constituted  here  by  a  transparent,  thick, 
and  resisting  expansion,  the  lucid  cornea,  covering  one-fifth  of  its  peripheric  sur- 
face. Posteriorly  it  is  composed  of  three  layers,  to  which  are  assigned  different 
functions.  These  are,  proceeding  from  without  to  within : 

a.  The   sclerotic  (1),  white,  sometimes   pigmented,  'fibrous,  resisting,  and 
thick,  which  is  vulgarly  often  known  under  the  name  of  the  white  of  the  eye, 
and  which  is  visible  from  the  exterior  by  its  white  coloration  around  the  periph- 
ery of  the  cornea  whenever  the  eyelids  are  separated  from  each  other.     Its  ex- 
ternal surface  gives  attachment  to   the  motor  muscles  of  the  eye-globe.     Its 
anterior  elliptical  opening  is  closed  by  the  cornea  by  bevelled  edges  after  the 
manner  of  the  crystal  fitting  into  the  case  of  a  watch. 

b.  The  choroid  (2),  very  thin,  black,  not  visible  from  the  exterior,  which 
plays  the  role  of  an  absorbing  surface  for  an  excess  of  luminous  rays,  and  con- 
verts the  interior  of  the  eye  into  a  veritable  dark  chamber,  into  which  the 
images  of  external  objects  are  received  to  be  appreciated  by  the  retina. 

This  membrane,  in  front,  where  it  is  called  the  ciliary  body,  presents  numer- 
ous radiating  folds,  the  ciliary  processes,  which  circumscribe  the  edges  of  the  crys- 
talline lens  (7).  Through  the  ciliary  ligament  it  gives  attachment  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  iris  (4),  an  elliptical  diaphragm  pierced  in  its  centre  by  an  opening, 
the  pupil  (5). 

The  iris  and  the  pupil  are  visible  through  the  transparent  cornea.  The 
former  divides  the  space  anterior  to  the  crystalline  lens — anterior  chamber — into 
two  communicating  compartments,  an  anterior  (8)  and  a  posterior  (8')  practically 
obliterated.  The  coloration  of  its  anterior  face  is  of  a  yellowish-brown,  but  it  may 
vary  in  different  subjects ;  that  of  the  posterior,  on  the  contrary,  is  black,  due  to 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD  49 

the  presence  of  pigment  called  the  "  uvea,"  variable  masses  of  which,  called  "  cor- 
pora nigra,"  or  "  soot-balls,"  l  are  sometimes  suspended  from  its  edge  into  the 
pupillary  opening. 


FIG.  20.— VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  EYE  OF  THE  HORSE  (semi-schematic). 

1,  sclerotic;  2,  choroid ;  3,  ciliary  processes;  4,  iris;  5,  anterior  compartment,  with  the 
aqueous  humor;  6,  retina;  7,  crystalline  lens;  8, anterior  chamber ;  8'. posterior  chamber:  9,  pos- 
terior compartment  of  the  eye,  with  the  vitreous  humor;  10,  ocular  sheath  ;  11,  tarsal  cartilages; 
12,  integument  of  the  eyelids;  13,  conjunctiva;  14.  section  of  the  small  oblique  muscle;  15,  lach- 
rymal gland  ;  16,  cornea;  17,  transverse  section  of  the  superior  half  of  the  orbicularis  muscle; 
18.  posterior  straight  muscle;  19  superior  straight  muscle;  20,  elevator  of  the  superior  eyelid; 
21,  section  of  the  orbital  arch  ;  22,  optic  nerve;  23,  transverse  section  of  the  inferior  moiety  of  the 
orbicularis  muscle ;  24,  section  of  the  floor  of  the  orbit. 


c.  The  retina  (6),  transparent,  very  thin  and  delicate,  adherent  to  the  choroid 
and  its  dependencies,  which  is  an  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  and  upon  which 
the  impressions  of  light  are  directly  perceived. 

Media  of  Refraction.— a.  Crystalline  Lens  (7). — This  is  a  bi-convex, 


1  These  are  found  in  most  eyes,  and  when  not  excessive,  so  as  to  obstruct  the  light,  are  not 
an  ursoundness.    (Harger.) 

4 


50  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

transparent l  organ,  more  convex  on  its  posterior  face,  and  appears  behind  the 
pupil.  It  is  closely  applied  against  the  posterior  face  of  the  iris,  and  divides  the 
interior  of  the  eye  into  two  great  compartments,  an  anterior  (5)  and  a  posterior  (9). 

b.  Vitreous  Humor  (9). — It  is  a  transparent,  limpid,  and  gelatinous  sub- 
stance which  occupies  the  whole  of  the  posterior  chamber. 

c.  Aqueous  Humor  (8). — The  aqueous  humor,  slightly  more  dense 
than  water,  occupies  the  anterior  chamber  (8  and  8X)  of  the  eye.     It  bathes  both 
surfaces  of  the  iris.     It  is  under  external  as  well  as  internal  pressure,  and  readily 
escapes  when  the  cornea  is  perforated. 

The  function  of  these  three  media  of  the  eye  is  to  concentrate  the  rays  of 
light,  by  refraction,  upon  the  surface  of  the  retina,  where  they  make  an  image. 
The  lens,  being  more  convex  behind  than  in  front,  converges  them  for  this 
reason  and  brings  them  to  a  focus  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  retina.  Its 
relative  position  is  thus  necessitated  by  this  function ;  if  too  distant  from  the 
retina,  the  image  is  formed  anterior  to  the  latter  and  is  not  perceived  by  that 
membrane ;  if  too  close,  the  rays  converge  posterior  to  the  retina  and  the  image 
really  would  tend  to  be  formed  outside  of  the  ocular  globe  and  again  is  not 
appreciated  by  this  structure. 

2d.  Protective  Organs  of  the  Eye-Globe. — These  include  the  orbital 
cavity,  the  eyelids,  and  the  nictitans  membrane. 

a.  The  orbital  cavity  is  a  conical,  deep  cavity,  surrounded  by  a  fibro-osseous 
wall  with  an  osseous  opening  in  front.  Its  parietes  are  formed  by  the  ocular 
sheath  (10),  conical  and  resisting,  attached  behind  to  the  crest  of  the  orbital  hiatus, 
whose  base  is  attached  to  the  orbital  opening  and  thence  prolonged  into  the 
eyelids,  whose  base  they  constitute.  Superiorly,  the  eye  is  only  protected  by  the 
adipose  cushion  which  forms  the  base  of  the  supra-orbital  region.  Internally 
and  inferiorly,  the  orbital  cavity  is  osseous.  The  opening  of  the  orbital  cavity 
is  circumscribed  by  the  orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone  (21)  and  a  portion  of 
the  lachrymal  and  zygomatic  bones  (24).  We  also  find  on  its  floor  and  towards 
the  internal  side  the  lachrymal  fossa  and  the  superior  orifice  of  the  canal  of  the 
same  name. 

6.  The  eyelids,  distinguished  as  superior  and  inferior ,  are  two  mobile  mus- 
culo-membranous  valves  which  protect  the  part  of  the  eyeball  exposed  to  the 
exterior.  Their  free  border,  more  curved  in  the  superior  than  in  the  inferior, 
presents  the  excretory  orifices  of  the  Meibomian  glands  as  well  as  a  series  of  ten- 
tacular hairs  longer  above  than  below,  known  under  the  name  of  eyelashes.  The 
eyelids  offer,  besides,  two  commissures  or  angles, — a  temporal  or  external,  and  a 
nasal  or  internal. 

The  external  face  is  covered  by  an  adherent  (12)  delicate  skin  provided  with 
numerous  short  hairs.  The  internal  face  moulded  on  the  eye-globe  is  covered  by 
a  delicate  mucous  membrane — the  conjunctiva  (13) — which  is  very  sensitive  to 
foreign  bodies.  The  conjunctiva  in  the  healthy  animal  is  of  a  rosy  color  and 
becomes  reflected  over  the  choroid  and  the  nictitans  membrane,  and  is  pro- 
longed into  the  lachrymal  canal.  It  becomes  arrested  at  the  edge  of  the  cornea 
and  its  epithelial  layer  alone  covers  that  structure.  At  the  free  border  of  the 
eyelids  exists  a  cartilaginous  lamina  called  the  tarsus,  on  which  the  extremity  of 
the  ocular  sheath  terminates. 


1  It  sometimes  has  a  bluish  color,  due  to  the  reflection  of  the  variegated  colors  at  the  poste- 
rior part  of  the  choroid.    (Harger.) 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  51 

The  Meibomian  glands,  embedded  in  the  deep  face  of  the  tarsus,  secrete  a 
sebaceous  matter  which  prevents  the  escape  of  the  tears  in  a  normal  state  and 
obliges  them  to  follow  the  natural  passages  in  reaching  the  exterior. 

The  orbicularis  palpebral  muscle  approximates  the  two  lids  and  the  levator 
palpebra  elevates  the  superior ;  the  inferior  is  depressed  by  its  own  weight. 

c.  The  membrana  nictitans,  or  third-  eyelid  (haw),  is  a  nucleus  of  very 
mobile  cartilage  surrounded  by  adipose  and  connective  tissue  and  the  conjunc- 
tiva, situated  at  the  internal  canthus  of  the  eye.  It  becomes  continuous  with 
the  adipose  tissue  enveloping  the  ocular  muscles.  It  has  no  inherent  movements 
of  its  own,  but  mechanically  protrudes  when  the  eye  is  compressed,  and  liberates 
the  latter  from  foreign  bodies.  It  glides  over  the  surface  of  the  cornea  when  the 
•eye  is  retracted  into  its  orbit,  and  can  be  easily  rendered  visible  when  the  globe 
is  compressed  and  drawn  into  the  bottom  of  the  ocular  cavity. 

3d.  Apparatus  of  Lubrication  of  the  Eye.— This  apparatus  com- 
prises the  lachrymal  gland  (15),  situated  between  the  orbital  process  of  the 
frontal  bone  and  the  eyeball.  It  secretes  the  tears.  These  are  distributed  over 
the  surface  of  the  cornea  by  the  hygrophthalniic  canals,  which  open  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  superior  eyelid  towards  its  temporal  angle,  and  thence  they  gain 
the  nasal  commissure,  where  they  open  through  the  puncta  lachrymalia  into  the 
lachrymal  ducts.  A  small  tubercle,  the  caruncula  lachry mails,  a  dependency 
of  the  conjunctiva  occupying  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye,  directs  them  towards 
these  two  conduits,  whence  they  pass  successively  through  the  lachrymal  sac  and 
the  lachrymal  canal  to  make  their  exit  through  the  orifice  on  the  floor  of  the 
nostril,  where  they  are  liberated  on  the  exterior. 

4th.  Apparatus  of  Locomotion. — The  movements  of  the  eye  are  protec- 
tive and  functional.  The  former  have  for  their  object  the  mechanical  protrusion 
of  the  nictitans  membrane  upon  the  ocular  surface  by  retracting  the  eye  into 
the  bottom  of  its  orbit.  It  is  accomplished  by  the  posterior  rectus  muscle.  The 
latter  elevate,  depress,  deviate  laterally,  rotate  the  eye,  and  control  the  size  of  the 
pupillary  opening  of  the  iris  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  light  which  enters  the 
eye.  Elevation,  depression,  and  lateral  inclination  of  the  eye-globe  are  executed 
by  the  contraction  of  the  superior,  inferior,  external,  and  internal  recti  muscles ; 
rotation,  by  the  superior  and  inferior  obliques,  muscles  which  are  physiological 
antagonists.  These  muscles  are  inserted  posteriorily  into  the  bottom  orbital 
hiatus  and  anteriorily  on  the  external  surface  of  the  sclerotic.  Their  anterior 
insertion  can  be  exposed  by  making  lateral  traction  on  the  eye-globe  with  a 
tenaculum. 

Method  of  Procedure  in  the  Examination  of  the  Eye. — 
Long  ago,  Bourgelat *  bad  clearly  indicated  the  precautions  to  be  taken 
in  executing  such  an  examination  skilfully.  It  is,  perhaps,  needless 
to  recommend  that  the  head  should  be  divested  of  all  harness,  more 
particularly  of  blinkers,  and  that  the  surroundings  should  be  such  as 
not  to  obstruct  the  view  or  communicate  abnormal  reflections  to  the 
eye.  The  head  is  turned  towards  the  entrance  of  the  stable,  and  the 
eye  is  carefully  inspected  in  semi-daylight  to  observe  any  pathological 


1  C.  Bourgelat,  Traite  de  la  conformation  exterieure  du  cheval,  5e  ed.,  p.  57. 


52 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


alterations.  For  this  purpose  the  ophthalmoscope  may  sometimes  be 
used  with  advantage.  Then  the  animal  is  taken  into  broad  daylight 
to  see  how  the  eye  acts  under  the  influence  of  the  solar  rays.  To  de- 
termine simply  the  integrity  of  vision  the  following  procedure  is  pur- 


FIG.  21.— Examination  of  the  eye. 

sued :  The  observer  places  himself  in  front  of  the  animal,  strikes  the 
side  of  the  face  lightly  with  the  hand,  and  suddenly  withdraws  it  in 
elevating  it  to  a  level  with  the  corresponding  eye.  The  latter,  if  vision 
is  not  impaired,  will  suddenly  close  from  fear  of  being  struck.  If  the 
sight  is  impaired  or  lost,  the  eyelids  remain  stationary.  This  manoeuvre 
is  repeated  with  the  opposite  eye.  The  movements  of  the  hand  must 
not  be  too  forcible,  as  excessive  vibration  .of  the  air  may  even  affect  a 
blind  eye,  particularly  in  one-eyed  horses.  If  it  be  desired  to  examine 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD. 


53 


the  conjunctiva,  the  nictitanous  membrane,  the  lachrymal  caruncle,  the 
media,  etc.,  with  more  care,  and  the  eyelids  are  not  .sufficiently  sep- 
arated, the  following  manipulation  is  employed  (Fig.  21  and  Fig.  22) : 
Having  quieted  the  animal,  one  hand  is  placed  upon  the  face  to  pre- 


FIG.  22.— Examination  of  the  eye. 

vent  his  advancing,  or  upon  the  inferior  lip,  if  the  head  be  held  too  low. 
Then,  with  the  thumb  and  index  finger  of  the  free  hand,  the  eyelids 
are.  separated  and  the  eye-globe  is  compressed  into  the  orbital  cavity. 
The  nictitans  will  then  protrude  and  expose  a  large  area  of  the  con- 
junctiva, and  render  pathological  growths  or  foreign  bodies  visible. 

Beauties  of  the  Eye. — Whatever  may  be  the  physiological 
integrity  of  the  eye,  its  absolute  beauty  resides  in  the  following 
phenomena  : 

1 .  Its  separation  from  the  median  line,  which  coincides  with  a  wide 
forehead  and  a  wide  nose. 

2.  Its  degree  of  prominence  over  the  surrounding  regions,  which 


54 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


indicates  a  fulness  of  the  ocular  cavity  and  the  temporal  fossa,  the  size 
and  development  of  the  muscular  system  in  general,  and  the  amplitude 
of  the  field  of  vision. 

3.  Its  perfect  equality  with  that  of  the  opposite  side. 

4.  Its  deep  coloration  and  the  intensity  of  its  reflection,  a  white  or 
pale  color  being  symptomatic  of  more  or  less  serious  diseases. 

5.  Its  freedom  from  blemishes  of  the  cornea  and  the  transparency  of 
the  media.     Alteration  in  these  always  manifests  itself  by  an  opacity 

and  the  appearance  of 
abnormal  colorations,, 
whence  results  a  vari- 
able degree  of  imper- 
meability to  light. 

6.  The  extent  and 
•£  quickness  of  the  move- 
ments  of  the  iris,  im- 
mobility indicating 
complete  insensibility 
of  the  retina  to  the  im- 
pressions of  luminous 
vibrations.  The  pupil 
should  contract  in  the 
presence  of  light,  and 
dilate  in  darkness,  in 
order  to  proportion  the 
retinal  sensibility  to  the  functional  delicacy  of  this  membrane. 

7.  A  mean  convexity  of  the  cornea,  too  much  or  too  little  character- 
izing a  myopic,  a  hypermetropic,  and  not  a  normal  eye. 

8.  The  black  coloration  of  the  pupil,  which  denotes  a  perfect  trans- 
parency of  the  crystalline  lens,  and  indicates  the  reflection  of  the  black 
color  of  the  choroid  and  the  ciliary  body  situated  behind. 

9.  The  integrity,  fineness,  absence  of  blemishes,  and  mobility  of  the 
eyelids,  all  other  qualities  of  these  organs  indicating  imperfections  and 
functional  impairment. 

10.  A  rosy  tint  of  the  conjunctiva,  its  redness,  paleness,  and  infiltra- 
tion being  symptomatic  of  a  general  or  local  inflammatory  state,  of  a 
congestive  state,  or  of  profound  organic  debility. 

11.  The   clearness   and  little  abundance  of  the  tears,  the  dryness 
of  -the  eyelids,  the  large  development  and  good  direction  of  the   eye- 
lashes. 

1,2.  Finally,  the  vivacity,  changeableness,  and  frankness  of  the  ex- 


FIG.  23.— Normal  eye. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  55 

pression,  which  denote  the  energy,  the  nobleness,  and  the  distinction 
of  the  horse. 

Such  are  the  numerous  beauties  sought  for  in  this  region. 

Defects. — The  defects  of  the  eye  are  not  less  important  to 
consider.  We  mention  : 

1.  The  small  eye,  or  pig's  eye,  in  which  the  ocular  globe  is  little 
developed,  the  palpebral  opening  narrow,  and  the  eyelids  thick.     It 
accompanies,  in  general,  a  lymphatic  temperament  and  a  eonimon  an- 
cestry.    It  is  said  to  be  an  index  of  a  predisposition  to  diseases  of  this 
region. 

2.  The  concealed  eye,  ordinarily  small  and  but  little  salient,  but 
surmounted  by  a  prominent  and  voluminous  eyelid  which  partly  con- 
ceals it,  implies  a  sullen  and  treacherous  disposition  and  a  natural 
aggressiveness. 

3.  The  bovine  eye,  or  gross  eye,  characterized  by  an  excessive  con- 
vexity of  the  cornea,  is  very  salient  between  the  eyelids,  little  mobile, 
ungraceful,  and  without  expression.    It  is  often  predisposed  to  myopia. 

4.  The  hollow  eye  is  seen  only  in  old  horses  and  in  those  deterio- 
rated by  age  and  hard  labor.     It  is  retracted  into  its  orbit,  covered 
by  flabby  eyelids,  surmounted   by   a   hollow   supra-orbit,  and   often 
weeping. 

5.  The  circled  or  bordered  eye  is  one  in  which  a  portion  of  the  scle- 
rotic around  the  edge  of  the  cornea  is  visible  through  the  palpebral 
opening.     It  is  very  unseemly. 

6.  The  eyes  are  sometimes  unequal  in  size;  either  from  excess  or 
deficiency  of  growth.     When  this  disproportion  is  not  congenital,  it  is 
a   subject  of  apprehension,  from  always  being  a  constant  result  of 
repeated  attacks  of  periodic  fluxion.     The  eye  which  has  experienced 
repeated  attacks  of  this  disease  is  always  the  smaller.     Its  function  is 
practically  lost. 

7.  The  myopic  eye  is  very  convex ;  it  resembles  much  the  bovine 
eye,  save  the  volume,  which  is  not  exaggerated.     It  is  observed  most 
frequently  in  young  animals,  and  renders  them  irresolute  and  liable 
to  shy. 

8.  The  hypermetropic  eye  is,  on  the  contrary,  not  sufficiently  con- 
vex.    Such  animals  as  possess  it  discern  very  poorly  objects  which  are 
near,  whilst  those  which  are  at  a  distance  can  be  easily  recognized.     It 
predisposes  them  to  stumbling  and  uncertainty  of  the  limbs. 

9.  A  wall-eye  is  one  in  which  the  iris  is  of  a  pearly-white  color, 
being  deprived  of  its  pigment.    Apart  from  the  visual  effect,  it  is  none 
the  less  excellent  functionally. 


56  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Diseases. — The  diseases  of  the  eye  are  numerous  and  more  or 
less  grave.  They  are  : 

Nuage  is  constituted  by  a  slight  opalescence  of  the  cornea. 

Albugo  is  a  complete  opacity  of  a  variable  area. 

Leucoma  is  a  cicatrix  of  the  cornea, 

Glaucoma  is  a  greenish  coloration  of  the  vitreous  humor.     It  is  grave. 

Cataract  is  indicated  by  a  partial  or  total  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens.  It 
is  a  serious  affection. 

Amaurosu  or  goutte  sereine  is  due  to  a  paralysis  of  the  retina.  •  It  may  exist 
only  on  one  or  on  both  sides. 

Hydropsy  is  an  augmentation  of  the  volume  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  due  to  a 
hypersecretion  of  the  aqueous  humor. 

Simple  ophthalmia  is  an  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva. 

Periodic  fluxion  is  a  periodic  inflammation  of  the  whole  eye,  which  termi- 
nates in  the  total  abolition  of  sight  by  the  formation  of  a  cataract  after  a  variable 
period. 

Lippitude  is  an  inflammation  of  the  Meibomian  glands  and  the  free  border 
of  the  eyelids.  The  eye  often  becomes  covered  with  the  secretion  of  these 
glands.  It  is  called  blear-eye. 

Trichiasis  consists  of  an  inversion  of  the  superior  eyelashes  against  the  ocu- 
lar globe. 

Encanthis  is  a  hypertrophy  of  the  caruncula  lachrymalis. 

Melanotic  deposits  may  form  on  the  preceding  structure ;  warts  may  grow  on 
the  eyelids. 

Onglet  is  nothing  else  than  an  inflammation  of  the  nictitans  membrane.1 

Blemishes. — The  blemishes  of  the  region  of  the  eyes  are  denu- 
dations, abrasions,  and  wounds  of  the  superciliary  arches.  They  are  the 
consequences  of  injuries  received  by  striking  the  head  against  resisting 
objects,  etc.,  or  of  diseases,  as  epilepsy,  when  the  animal  falls  to  the 
ground  or  when  he  strikes  his  head  against  a  wall  during  an  attack 
of  vertigo.  Sometimes  they  are  complicated  by  fractures  of  the  orbital 
arches. 

Under  other  circumstances,  the  eyelids  become  the  seat  of  abra- 
sions, lacerations,  or  deformities  of  their  free  border, — e.g.,  ectropion  and 
entropion.  The  deformity  which  follows  periodic  fluxion  should  be 
taken  into  serious  consideration.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  supe- 
rior eyelid  of  the  eye,  after  several  attacks  of  this  disease,  becomes 
angular,  from  ocular  atrophy,  towards  the  nasal  angle,  which  gives  to 
the  palpebral  opening  a  triangular  form  instead  of  that  of  a  regular 
oval. 

Finally,  all  abnormal  colors  of  the  cornea  or  the  media  of  the  eye 
constitute  blemishes  to  which  we  must  give  the  most  serious  prognosis. 

1 1  have  often,  in  practice,  met  with  eyes  affected  with  strabismus,— external,  internal,  and 
oblique.  This  was  easily  remedied  by  the  simple  section  of  the  antagonistic  muscle.  (Harger.) 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  .         57 

Among  these  blemishes,  many  are  the  symptoms  of  grave  diseases 
of  the  ocular  structure. 

These  diseases  have  too  often  for  their  consequence  the  destruction 
of  one  or  even  of  both  eyes.  The  animal  is  then  suffering  from  par- 
tial or  total  blindness.  Generally  attempts  are  made  to  conceal  this 
infirmity,  and  sometimes  we  meet  with  horses  offered  for  sale,  provided 
with  an  artificial  eye  made  of  hard  rubber,  which  very  much  resembles 
that  which  nature  provides.  It  is  needless  to  say,  however,  that,  with 
a  proper  examination  of  the  eye,  as  before  explained,  this  fraud  will 
deceive  only  those  who  are  unobserving  or  inexperienced.  But  it  is 
not  the  same  with  those  which  are  blind  in  both  eyes  or  suffer  from 
amaurosis,  in  which  the  eye  presents  all  its  normal  characteristics. 
These  conditions  can  also  be  detected  by  a  scrupulous  inspection 
of  the  parts.  The  retina  not  being  sensitive,  the  iris  will  remain 
stationary  even  when  exposed  to  intense  light,  and  when  at  liberty  the 
animal  will  run  against  surrounding  objects.  Such  horses  are  uncertain 
on  their  feet  and  not  without  danger  as  saddle-horses.  Too  much  reli- 
ance cannot  be  placed  on  the  word  of  the  horse-dealer,  and  a  thorough 
veterinary  examination  becomes  a  necessity  to  assure  one's  self  of  the 
integrity  of  the  crystalline  lens  and  the  movements  of  the  iris. 

A  blind  horse  will  supply,  with  the  other  senses,  the  deficiency 
created  by  the  cessation  of  vision.  The  ears  are  extended  forward, 
and,  at  the  least  noise,  are  directed  forward  and  outward  to  perceive 
it.  During  progression,  the  elevation  of  the  members  is  exaggerated, 
but  their  step  is  uncertain  and  the  animal  is  predisposed  to  stumble. 
The  carriage  of 'the  head  is  elevated  to  prevent  falling,  and  the  nos- 
trils are  mobile,  as  if  to  examine  the  surroundings  by  the  odors  which 
they  exhale.  He  carefully  smells  and  feels  with  the  orbicular  tentacles 
all  objects  presented  to  him.  The  eyes  are  wide  open,  the  mouth  is 
sensitive  to  the  slightest  indication  of  the  reins,  and  the  ears  are 
quick  to  recognize  the  voices  of  those  who  lead  him  or  approach  him. 
As  Yallon l  has  written,  he  is  susceptible  of  rendering  good  service 
if  we  understand  how  to  use  him  and  have  the  proper  respect  for  him 
which  his  condition  deserves.  At  work,  as  in  the  stable,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  place  him  alongside  of  one  that  is  gentle  and  docile,  because  he 
cannot  defend  himself  against  the  attacks  of  his  neighbor.  Worked 
in  file,  he  should  not  be  placed  in  the  lead.  We  may  add  that  when 
he  is  worked  in  harness  he  should  always  have  the  same  driver,  or  the 
same  rider  when  used  under  the  saddle.  In  all  cases  his  master 

1  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  ix.,  p.  318. 


58          .  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

should  not  forget  that  he  must  at  the  same  time  see  for  the  horse  as- 
well  as  for  himself. 

E.— The  Cheek  (Fig.  19). 

Situation;  Limits;  Divisions;  Anatomical  Base. — The 
cheek  is  an  almost  plane  surface,  occupying  the  major  portion  of  the 
lateral  face  of  the  head.  It  is  limited  in  front  by  the  temple,  the  eye, 
and  the  face ;  behind  by  the  branches  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone ; 
below  by  the  commissures  of  the  lips ;  and,  finally,  altogether  above  by 
the  parotid  region. 

The  cheek  has  an  area  more  considerable  externally  than  internally  r 
where  it  forms  the  lateral  parietes  of  the  mouth.  The  latter  surface  i& 
generally,  though  incorrectly,  not  examined,  and  we  will  describe  it  in 
connection  with  the  mouth  in  general. 

Its  external  surface  is  divisible  into  two  regions:  the  one  superior,  the 
flat  of  the  cheek,  or  the  masseteric  region  ;  the  other  inferior,  or  the  buccal  region. 
Their  separation  is  indicated  by  a  vertical  gutter  in  front  of  the  masseter  muscle, 
in  which  are  situated  the  glosso-facial  artery  and  vein  and  the  duct  of  Stenon. 
In  its  lower  half  these  three  structures  lie  side  by  side,  the  artery  being  anterior 
and  the  duct  directly  against  the  border  of  the  muscle ;  at  its  middle  the  duct 
passes  obliquely  forward  over  the  side  of  the  cheek,  to  penetrate  it  opposite  to1 
the  anterior  border  of  the  third  superior  molar  tooth. 

Its  base  is  formed  by  the  masseter,  buccinator,  alveolo-labialis,  zygomatico- 
labialis,  and  maxillo-labialis  muscles,  separated  from  the  skin  by  the  cuticularis 
colli.  Their  surface  is  covered  by  the  sub-zygomatic  plexus  of  nerves;  the 
superior  and  inferior  molar  glands  lie  opposite  to  the  corresponding  teeth. 

The  five  principal  blood-vessels  can  be  located  from  the  exterior :  the 
glosso-facial  artery  along  the  anterior  border  of  the  masseter  muscle ;  the  superior 
coronary  on  the  side  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone,  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
from  its  alveolar  ridge,  with  which  it  is  parallel ;  the  inferior  coronary  between 
the  branch  of  the  lower  jaw  and  the  maxillo-labialis  muscle ;  the  transverse 
artery  of  the  face  parallel  with  the  zygomatic  crest ;  and  the  external  branch  of 
the  maxillo-muscularis  parallel  with  the  curvature  of  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Beauty. — The  principal  beauty  to  be  sought  for  in  this  region 
consists  of  its  distinct  delineation,  characterized  by  the  fineness  of  the 
skin  and  the  hairs,  and  the  absence  of  connective  tissue  rendering  the 
blood-vessels,  the  nerves,  and  the  muscles  distinctly  visible  through 
their  thickness.  Such  we  find  it  in  horses  which  belong  to  the  finer 
races.  When  it  is  excessive,  it  renders  the  head  too  sharp.  In  common 
horses,  on  the  contrary,  the  cheek  is  round  in  the  flat  portion  and 
flabby  and  thick  in  the  buccal  portion. 

Defects. — The  most  frequent  defect  of  this  region  is  called  the 
granary,  and  is  due  to  irregularities  of  the  molar  teeth.  In  this 
condition  we  remark  on  the  exterior  an  elongated  tumor,  often  lobu- 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  59 

lated,  produced  by  the  bulging  of  the  cheek  in  consequence  of  the 
accumulation  of  aliment  between  the  latter  and  the  molar  arcades.  It 
is  observed  principally  in  old  horses.  Horse-merchants  always  take 
the  precaution  to  cleanse  the  mouth  of  such  horses  with  vinegar  and 
water  before  they  are  presented  for  sale,  in  order  to  mask  the  fetid 
odor  which  it  exhales.  The  employment  of  these  manoeuvres,  how- 
ever, is  insufficient  for  those  who  examine  carefully  the  condition  of 
the  teeth,  on  the  one  part,  and  pouch  in  the  cheek  on  the  external  sur- 
face, on  the  other.  The  latter,  on  account  of  its  continual  distention, 
is  not  closely  applied  upon  the  molars,  but  remains  flabby,  pendulous, 
and  presents  longitudinal  ridges.  We  can  understand  that  this  defect 
of  itself  does  not  depreciate  much  the  value  of  the  horse,  but  that  its 
gravity  depends  upon  the  cause  which  produces  it  and  the  means  which 
remedy  it. 

Blemishes. — The  blemishes  of  the  cheek  are  traces  of  setons,  indicating 
that  the  animal  has  been  treated  for  an  affection  of  the  eyes  or  of  the  nasal  cavi- 
ties. A  seton  improperly  applied  to  this  region  may  produce  paralysis  of  the  cor- 
responding lips  by  injuring  the  branches  of  the  sub-zygomatic  plexus  of  nerves ; 
the  former  is  then  drawn  to  the  side  opposite  to  that  of  the  paralysis. 

A  salivary  fistula,  following  an  accidental  opening  of  the  duct  of  Stenon,  may 
be  found  on  the  maxillary  fissure  or  the  side  of  the  face.  A  transparent,  limpid 
liquid  escapes  from  the  opening,  perhaps  in  jets,  when  the  food  is  masticated  on 
that  side.  It  is  a  serious  accident,  on  account  of  its  long  continuation,  the  ineffi- 
ciency of  its  treatment,  and  the  malnutrition  which  results  from  the  loss  of  the 
saliva. 

F.— The  Nostrils  (Fig.  19). 

Situation  ;  Limits ;  Form ;  Divisions. — The  nostrils  are 
the  external  orifices  of  the  nasal  fossa?,  and  the  only  passage  through 
which  the  air  can  enter  the  lungs  in  solipeds,  which  respire  only 
through  the  mouth  in  ordinary  conditions.  Designated  as  right  and 
left,  and  situated  at  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  head  on  each  side  of 
the  median  line,  they  are  limited,  internally,  by  the  "  tip"  of  the  nose  ; 
below,  by  the  superior  lip  ;  and,  externally,  by  the  cheek  and  the  face. 
The  form  of  the  orifice  is  auricular  or  crescent-shaped,  extending 
from  above  to  below,  and  slightly  from  without  to  within.  They 
present  two  lips,  wings,  or  alee,  and  two  commissures. 

Anatomical  Base. — a.  The  internal  ala  or  lip,  flattened  and  thin  at  its 
free  border,  which  is  convex,  is  turned  downward  and  outward,  and  is  constituted 
centrally  by  the  nasal  cartilage,  whose  flat  portion,  with  the  one  on  the  opposite 
side,  forms  the  cartilaginous  plate  of  the  extremity  of  the  nose.  The  latter,  covered 
externally  by  the  transversalis  nasi  muscle  and  the  skin,  and  internally  by  soft 
skin  and  mucous  membrane,  is  prolonged  downward  and  outward  through  the 
inferior  commissure,  to  terminate  in  the  external  ala. 


60  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

b.  The  external  wing  or  ala  of  the  nostril  is  concave.     Its  inferior  ex- 
tremity contains  a  hard  and  resisting  body,  which  is  the  termination  of  the  curved 
portion  of  the  preceding  cartilage.     In  the  remainder  of  its  extent  it  is  soft  and 
flexible,  formed  only  by  skin  and  muscles. 

The  muscles  are  all  dilators.  In  some  mammiferous  aquatic  animals,  as 
the  hippopotamus  and  the  seal,  there  are  constrictors  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
water  into  the  respiratory  apparatus.  In  terrestrial  animals,  on  the  contrary,  the 
closure  is  prevented  by  the  rigidity  of  their  fibro-cartilage. 

c.  The  commissures  are  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  ala3.     The  inferior 
is  round,  concave,  and  continuous  posteriorly  with  the  floor  of  the  nasal  fossa ; 
the  superior  is  smaller,  acute,  and  is  continuous,  with  a  dependency  of  the  skin 
called  the  false  nostril.    The  latter  is  a  cul-de-sac  formed  by  a  reflection  of  skin 
on  the  inside  of  the  nostril,  whose  bottom  lies  at  the  angle  of  the  incisive  and 
nasal  bones.     It  exists  only  in  the  domesticated  animals,  as  the  horse,  ass,  and 
mule,  and  admits  of  the  introduction  of  the  finger.1 

Around  the  margins,  as  are  all  the  natural  openings,  it  is  covered 
by  soft,  thin,  and  adherent  skin,  continuous  with  the  nasal  mucous 
membrane.  It  is  covered  by  two  kinds  of  hairs  :  the  one  short,  fine, 
and  numerous ;  the  other  coarse,  long,  and  scanty.  The  latter,  very 
deeply  implanted  and  provided  at  their  bulb  with  a  nerve-filament, 
are  organs  of  tactile  sensation  to  the  animal  analogous  to  the  moustaches 
of  carnivora.  They  are  more  or  less  abundant,  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  race.  The  habit  of  cutting  them  with  the  scissors,  singeing,  or 
extracting  them  entirely,  with  the  view  of  giving  lightness  to  the  head, 
is  to  be  reprimanded. 

Beauty. — The  absolute  beauty  of  the  nostril  resides  in  its 
width  and  in  its  separation  from  the  lips,  because  it  is  proportional  to 
the  capacity  of  the  respiratory  apparatus.  In  solipeds,  buccal  respira- 
tion is  prevented  by  the  development  of  the  soft  palate.  All  the  air 
which  enters  the  lungs  must  pass  through  the  nostrils,  whose  amplitude 
should  therefore  be  in  relation  with  the  former.  It  follows,  then, 
a  priori,  that  the  greater  these  orifices  are  the  greater  will  be  the  vol- 
ume of  air  which  enters  the  lungs  during  inspiration ;  that  conse- 
quently the  development  of  the  lungs  will  always  be  correlative  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  nostrils,  and  vice  versa.  There  is  no  exception  to 
this  rule,  and  the  reverse  has  never  been  observed  in  nature.  Small 
nostrils  are  an  absolute  defect,  and  associate  themselves  with  a  chest 
that  is  narrow  and  but  little  spacious. 

Movements. — The  movements  of  the  nostrils  are  almost  imper- 


1  On  the  floor  of  the  nostril,  anterior  to  the  mucous  membrane,  is  the  orifice  of  the  lachrymal 
canal.  It  is  round,  excavated,  punched-out,  and  resembles  a  glanderous  chancre,  for  which  it 
must  not  be  mistaken.  In  the  mxile  and  in  the  ass  it  is  situated  on  the  superior  commissure.  It 
is  usually  single,  but  may  be  double  or  even  triple. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  61 

ceptible  in  normal  conditions  and  at  rest.  They  dilate  slightly  during 
inspiration  and  become  relaxed  again  during  expiration.  It  is  not 
thus  during  exercise ;  their  movements  are  accelerated  in  proportion  to 
the  efforts  executed.  Other  circumstances,  as  the  age,  the  temperature, 
and  the  seasons  of  the  year,  modify  their  frequency  and  often  their 
rhythm.  The  causes  of  irregular  dilatations  of  the  nostrils  or  of  ex- 
cessive rapidity  of  their  movements  should  be  carefully  determined. 
These  are  always  symptomatic  of  pulmonary  emphysema  or  of  some 
other  grave  affection  of  the  respiratory  organs.  The  examination  in 
this  case  will,  therefore,  include  that  of  the  lungs,  the  trachea,  the 
larynx,  and,  if  need  be,  that  of  the  other  organic  apparatus,  if  the  accel- 
eration be  due  to  their  diseased  condition. 

Examination  of  the  Interior  of  the  Nostrils. — The  exam- 
ination of  the  interior  of  the  nostrils  is  made  as  follows :  Let  us  sup- 
pose the  animal  to  be  held  by  the  bridle  or  simply  by  a  halter  whose 
strap  is  passed  through  the  mouth.  Taking,  for  example,  the  nostril 
on  the  right  side  (Fig.  24),  the  inferior  lip  is  seized  with  the  left  hand 
and  the  bulb  of  the  right  thumb  is  placed  under  the  internal  wing  in 
order  to  remove  it  from  the  external,  which  is  separated  by  means 
of  the  index  finger.  With  this  simple  manoeuvre  it  is  usually  suffi- 
cient to  inspect  the  state  of  the  mucous  membrane  over  a  large  part 
of  its  area.  If  it  do  not  suffice,  an  assistant  will  hold  the  head,  and 
both  hands  are  used  ;  the  internal  ala  is  seized  by  the  right  hand  and  the 
external  by  the  left  hand,  the  head  being  so  held  towards  the  light  as 
to  expose  the  largest  surface  of  the  nasal  fossa.  In  some  cases  reflected 
light  from  a  mirror  may  be  utilized. 

It  is  necessary  to  recall  certain  normal  anatomical  dispositions : 

The  skin  which  covers  the  alse  of  the  nose,  preserving  its  characteristics,  is 
reflected  into  the  nostrils  to  form  a  cul-de-sac  known  under  the  name  of  the 
false  nostril,  and  becomes  continuous  with  the  pituitary  mucous  membrane.  The 
hairs  with  which  its  free  surface  is  provided  are  destined  to  arrest  particles  of 
dust  held  in  suspension  in  the  air,  which  are  obnoxious  to  the  respiratory  organs, 
and  which,  when  inhaled  into  the  more  sensitive  portions  of  the  apparatus, 
cause  irritation. 

At  the  inferior  part  of  the*  nostril',  on  the  floor  and  a  little  anterior  to  the 
point  of  continuity  of  the  skin  and  the  mucous  membrane,  is  found  the  external 
orifice  of  the  lachrymal  duct,  giving  exit  to  the  tears  in  their  passage  through 
excretory  apparatus  and  offering  such  characteristics  that  it  cannot  be  mistaken 
for  a  pathological  alteration.  It  is  ordinarily  single,  but  may  be  double  and 
even  triple.  Its  form  is  round,  its  edges  perpendicular,  commonly  called  punched- 
out,  and  the  liquid  which  exudes  is  limpid  and  transparent. 

A  cartilaginous  septum,  the  septum  nasi,  separates  the  nasal  fossae  into  right 
and  left.  It  is  covered  by  the  mucous  membrane  and  is  related  to  a  lamina 


62 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


of  nbro-cartilage  covered  by  mucous  membrane,  and  extending  from  the  superior 
turbinated  bone  to  the  deep  face  of  the  internal  ala.  In  a  physical  examination 
this  lamina  must  be  unrolled,  for  it  is  often  the  seat  of  pathological  alterations. 


FIG.  24.— Examination  of  the  nostril. 

State  of  the  Mucous  Membrane. — The  nasal  mucous  mem- 
brane, in  a  state  of  health  and  of  rest,  is  of  a  rosy  color.  After  a 
certain  amount  of  exercise,  it  becomes  bright  red,  more  or  less  intense, 
according  to  the  plethora  of  the  subject.  It  is  paler  and  more  follic- 
ular  upon  the  branch  of  the  aforesaid  lamina  of  cartilage.  Let  us  only 
indicate  here  that  in  a  pathological  state  it  may  be  pale  yellow,  leaden 
as  in  glanders,  infiltrated,  and  may  present  on  its  surface  liberations, 
pustules,  small  red  spots,  petechia,  chancres,  decortications,  cicatrices, 
tumors,  etc.  All  these  symptoms  pertain  to  diverse  diseases  concern- 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    HEAD.  63 

ing  which  we  cannot  occupy  ourselves  in  this  book.  Let  us  limit  our- 
selves to  saying  that  the  most  serious  of  all  is  farcy-glanders,  which 
should  be  particularly  observed,  and  in  the  diagnosis  of  which  the 
minute  examination  of  the  maxillary  lymphatic  glands  must  not  be 
neglected. 

It  is  not  rare  to  meet  wounds  in  the  region  of  the  nostrils,  which 
are  found  mostly  in  stallions,  and  involve  the  mucous  membrane  and 
the  cartilage. 

At  other  times  we  find  finger-nail  marks  which  have  been  made 
on  the  pituitary  membrane  during  the  examination  by  inexperienced 
persons  or  those  unable  to  control  the  animal. 

Normal  Liquid  of  the  Nostril. — We  have  seen  above  that 
the  normal  liquid  of  the  nasal  fossae  is  clear  and  transparent,  from 
the  fact  that  it  results  from  the  continual  discharge  of  the  tears.  In 
certain  horses,  when  the  atmosphere  is  cold,  and  much  more  in  those 
whose  lungs  are  emphysematous,  we  find  the  presence  of  a  flaky  dis- 
charge which  adheres  to  the  hairs  of  the  nostrils,  and  designates  the 
latter,  according  to  horsemen,  as  being  frosted. 

In  pathological  phenomena  the  liquid  receives  the  name  of  dis- 
charge, and  assumes  certain  characters  which  depend  upon  particular 
diseases.  It  may  be  : 

1st.  Adherent  or  not  to  the  alse  of  the  nose. 

2d.  Thick,  tenacious,  or  clotted. 

3d.  White,  reddish,  yellowish-green,  sometimes  streaked  with  blood. 

4th.  Inodorous,  fetid,  gangrenous,  or  from  caries. 

5th.  Unilateral  or  bilateral. 

In  all  cases  the  examination  of  the  nostrils  should  be  completed  by 
that  of  the  lymphatic  ganglia. 

Entrance  and  Exit  of  the  Air. — The  expired  air  merits  also 
to  be  taken  into  consideration.  It  is  of  little  utility  to  appreciate  its 
quantity,  either  by  placing  the  hand  in  front  of  the  nostril,  or,  when 
the  atmosphere  is  cold,  by  considering  the  two  cones  of  vapor  which 
escape.  It  is  more  interesting  to  assure  ourselves  of  the  regularity 
and  equality  of  the  column  of  air  at  its  exit  from  the  orifices,  for  it 
may  meet  obstructions  of  a  diverse  nature  in  its  passage,  as  polyps, 
tumors,  deviations  of  the  nasal  septum,  etc.  Some  authors  report  that 
certain  tradesmen,  to  mask  the  discharge,  have  placed  a  sponge  into 
the  diseased  cavity.  This  fraud  is  very  easily  discovered,  and  requires 
no  further  explanation.  In  a  state  of  good  health  the  expired  air  is 
inodorous ;  the  bad  odor  with  which  it  is  contaminated  proves  a  dis- 
ease of  the  lungs,  caries  of  the  superior  molars,  and,  finally,  prolonged 


64  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

stasis  of  pus  in  the  guttural  pouches  or  in  the  frontal  and  maxillary 
sinuses.  If  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  veritable  cause  of  this  odor,  the 
animal  is  made  to  cough  by  compressing  the  larynx  with  the  hand,  and 
standing  to  one  side  of  the  animal  to  avoid  being  contaminated  by  the 
expectorated  matter.  He  is  also  made  to  snort  by  touching  the  sides 
of  the  median  septum  of  the  nasal  fossae,  which  will  immediately 
provoke  such  an  effort  and  render  the  discharge  visible  if  there 
be  any. 

It  is  important  to  add  that  the  air  should  pass  in  and  out  without 
making  any  sound;  if  a  sound  is  perceived,  the  animal  is  affected  with 
roaring. 

Roaring  is  acute  and  chronic.  The  former  is  temporary,  the  second 
permanent.  It  is  a  defect  which  nullifies  the  contract  of  his  sale  in 
some  Continental  countries.  (Law  of  August  2,  Article  2,  1884.) 

Cysts  of  the  false  nostril,  between  the  layers  of  the  integument 
which  are  placed  in  apposition  to  form  it,  are  observed  in  some  horses. 
We  have  seen  several  examples,  and  never  have  we  remarked  the  least 
interference  with  respiration. 

We  have  proof  of  paralysis  of  one  or  of  both  nostrils.  In  the 
latter  case  the  animal  will  find  it  an  impossibility  to  trot,  from  the 
fact  that  the  parietes  of  these  openings  are  collapsed  upon  themselves 
and  offer  an  obstacle  to  the  introduction  of  the  air.1 

Expression  of  the  Nostril. — Let  us  remark  that  the  nostril 
is  one  of  the  principal  organs  of  expression  of  the  physiognomy. 
According  to  its  state  of  contraction,  dilatation,  flaccidity,  or  crispness, 
it  manifests  in  a  thousand  ways  the  sensations  which  the  animal  expe- 
riences. ,  Now  it  is  surprise,  fear,  anger ;  now  joy,  pleasure,  anxiety, 
and  suffering.  Persons  who  are  experienced  with  horses  will  soon 
become  familiar  with  the  expression  of  the  organs,  which  defies  all  de- 
scription from  the  multiple  shades  in  which  it  is  manifested.  We 
will  return  to  this  again,  a  propos  of  the  head  in  general. 

Blemishes. — The  blemishes  of  this  region  are  situated  upon 
the  alse  of  the  nostrils,  the  nasal  fossae,  the  appendices  of  the  turbinated 
bones,  and  result  from  bites  or  lacerations.  These  may  be  produced 
accidentally  in  draught-horses  by  the  hook  which  is  often  placed  at 
the  extremity  of  the  shaft,  when  the  animal  is  tied  to  a  ring  surmounted 
by  a  hook,  or  when,  in  turning  the  head,  the  nostrils  strike  against  any 
sharp  object. 


1  A.  Goubaux,  M6moire  sur  les  paralysies  locales  (Recueil  de  medecine  v£t£rinaire,  ann6e 
1848,  p.  229). 


POSTERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    HEAD.  65 

Formerly  the  nostrils  were  slit  to  diminish  the  sound  of  neighing. 
The  practice  is  still  exercised  upon  the  ass  in  the  Orient.1  We  have 
several  times  repeated  this  operation  upon  the  horse  without  producing 
any  modification  of  the  sound.  The  procedure  is  therefore  inadequate. 

To  recapitulate : 

1.  The  nostril  should  be  large  and  clear. 

2.  The  mucous  membrane,  rosy  at  rest,  more  or  less  red  after 
exercise. 

3.  The  liquid  which  it  discharges,  clear  and  transparent. 

4.  The  air  which  is  exhaled,  inodorous. 

5.  Inspiration  and  expiration  should  be  noiseless. 


CHAPTER    III. 

POSTERIOR   FACE   OF   THE   HEAD. 


A. — The  Intermaxillary  Space. 

Situation ;  Limits ,'  Anatomical  Base. — The  intermaxillary 
space  is  a  symmetrical  and  triangular-shaped  cavity,  situated  at  the 
posterior  face  of  the  head,  comprised  between  the  two  branches  of  the 
inferior  maxilla.  It  is  limited  above  by  the  throat,  below  by  the  chin, 
and  on  each  side  by  the  borders  of  the  maxillary  bone. 

Its  anatomical  base  is  the  body  of  the  hyoid  bone  and  the 
muscles  which  attach  to  it,  the  inferior  face  of  the  tongue,  and  the 
intermaxillary  lymphatic  glands  ;  on  each  side,  about  an  inch  from  the 
internal  alveolar  ridge,  and  underneath  the  glands,  is  the  sublingual 
artery.  The  skin  is  fine,  covered  with  hairs  ordinarily  longer  than 
those  in  other  parts  of  the  body ;  the  connective  tissue  is  abundant. 

Beauties  and  Defects. — The  principal  structures  which  offer 
themselves  for  consideration  in  this  region  are  the  lymphatic  glands. 
These  should  be  small  and  movable  without  adhering  to  the  surround- 
ing tissue.  It  is  observed  that  in  all  diseases  of  the  nasal  sinuses,  the 
nasal  fossae,  and  the  mouth,  these  ganglia  become  voluminous,  painful, 
more  or  less  adherent,  and  approach  the  corresponding  branch  of  the 
inferior  maxillary  bone.  In  glanders  they  are  decidedly  adherent  to 
the  latter  and  to  the  base  of  the  tongue. 

It  is  not  only  the  inspection  of  these  organs  which  requires  our 

1  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  232. 


66  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

consideration,  but  we  shall  also  examine  the  plainness,  the  width,  and 
the  depth  of  this  region. 

It  is  plain  or  clean  when  all  the  structures  which  enter  into  its 
composition  are  distinct  and  can  be  outlined  with  the  fingers.  When 
the  connective  tissue  is  abundant  the  contour  of  the  parts  is  not  dis- 
cernible and  the  whole  region  is  full  or  thick.  Such  is  its  structure  in 
lymphatic  horses  raised  in  low  and  moist  districts. 

The  depth  is  related  to  the  cleanness  and  the  absence  of  connective 
tissue. 

The  width  of  the  intermaxillary  space  denotes  a  corresponding 
separation  of  the  branches  of  the  maxilla  and  a  large  development  of 
the  respiratory  apparatus,  since  the  larynx  is  partly  lodged  in  that 
space,  and  thus  protected  from  the  movements  of  flexion  of  the  head 
upon  the  neck.  It  is  erroneous  to  believe  that  in  horses  in  which  the 
head  is  arched,  this  region  is  narrow,  and  that  these  are  therefore  much 
more  predisposed  to  roaring.  Exclusive  of  the  general  form  of  the 
head,  it  is  true  that  there  are  certain  subjects  in  which  the  inter- 
maxillary space  is  wider  than  in  others.  Professor  Dupuy,1  in  1829, 
has  taken  measurements  of  sixteen  horses  of  different  types,  and 
proved  a  maximum  width  of  0.119  m.,  and  a  minimum  of  0.087  m. 
In  two  horses  which  were  roarers,  the  measurements  were  0.079  m. 
and  0.063  m. ;  hence  it  was  believed  as  conclusive  that  the  narrow- 
ness in  the  latter  was  due  to  a  defective  development  of  the  maxilla 
and  an  insufficient  separation  of  its  branches,  causing  compression  of 
the  larynx.  We  cannot  dispute  the  figures  of  Dupuy,  but  they  are 
very  exceptional. 

The  skin  of  the  intermaxillary  space  in  common  races  is  furnished 
with  long,  stiff,  coarse,  and  abundant  hairs,  which  make  the  head 
appear  heavy  and  voluminous.  Some  are  in  the  habit  of  singeing  or 
extracting  them,  so  as  to  render  the  head  smaller,  to  disguise  the  race. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  general  disease  known  under 
the  name  of  strangles  is  often  followed  by  considerable  inflammatory 
swelling  of  this  region  and  the  formation  of  enormous  abscesses  of  the 
lymphatic  ganglia,  of  which  we  have  spoken  above.  When  the  latter 
do  not  have  their  normal  characteristics,  it  is  said  that  there  is  a  gland 
in  the  region,  or  that  the  animal  is  glanded.  Great  importance  must 
be  attached  to  this  tumor,  for  it  may  be  a  symptom  of  a  more  serious 
disease,  glanders. 

1  Dupuy,  De  la  fluxion  vulgairement  appe!6e  period ique  on  Recherches  historiques,  physio- 
logiques  et  th£rapeutiques  sur  cette  maladie,  auxquelles  on  a  ajout£  des  considerations  sur  le 
cornage,  la  pousse  et  la  section  des  nerfs  pneumo-gastriques,  8vo,  Paris,  1829,  p.  114. 


POSTERIOR    FACE    OF    THT&MEAD.       ^  67 


As  consequences  of  these  alterations,  we  may  find  denudations, 
excoriations,  and  cicatrices  resulting  from  the  application  of  medicines 
or  from  operations,  as  incising  an  abscess  with  a  view  of  causing  the 
disappearance,  of  the  swelling.  Formerly  excision  of  the  gland  was 
practised  in  horses  over  five  years  of  age,  in  which  the  gland  was 
enlarged.  Vegece  had  already  considered  this  operation  useless,  the 
gland  being  only  a  symptom  and  not  the  disease  itself.  Strange  to 
say,  it  has  again  been  revived  in  some  modern  publications. 

B.— The  Inferior  Maxillary  Region  (Fig.  19). 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  inferior  max- 
illary region  is  a  double  area,  having  for  its  base  the  rectilinear 
branches  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone.  It  is  limited  internally  by 
the  intermaxillary  space,  externally  by  the  cheek,  anteriorly  by  the 
chin,  and  posteriorly,  more  or  less  distinctly,  by  the  parotid  region. 
Its  internal  face  presents  the  course  of  the  glosso-facial  artery  and  vein 
and  the  excretory  duct  of  the  parotid  gland, — Stenon's  duct.  These 
three  structures  pass  around  the  maxillary  fissure,  where  they  can  be 
easily  distinguished  through  the  skin  and  where  the  pulse  is  counted. 
On  the  inner  side  the  duct  is  superficial  and  the  artery  deep. 

The  two  rami  of  this  bone  circumscribe  a  V-shaped  space  with  the 
apex  forward,  which  corresponds  to  the  intermaxillary  space,  and  whose 
width,  as  stated  above,  constitutes  an  absolute  beauty.  They  are  not 
of  the  same  thickness  at  all  periods  of  life,  and  some  persons  attach 
enough  importance  to  this  to  judge  of  the  age  of  the  animal  by  their 
examination  alone.  In  young  animals  the  molar  teeth  are  deeply 
implanted  into  their  alveoli,  and  the  maxillary  bone,  for  this  reason, 
is  of  much  greater  thickness.  Conversely,  as  the  teeth  are  pushed 
from  their  alveoli,  whose  sides  will  then  approach  each  other,  there  is 
an  absorption  of  bone,  the  maxilla  becomes  thinner  and  the  posterior 
border  acute.  This  phenomenon  can  be  utilized  in  determining  the 
age,  the  border  becoming  sharp  when  the  animal  is  about  thirteen 
years  old.  This,  however,  is  not  absolute,  and  too  much  importance 
should  not  be  attached  to  it.  Descriptive  anatomy  has  shown  numer- 
ous individual  differences. 

Animals  of  a  lymphatic  temperament  and  with  large  skeletons  have 
thick  maxillary  bones.  This  is  very  marked  in  Shetland  ponies.  In 
horses  of  a  nervous  or  a  nervo-sanguinary  temperament  they  are  thin 
and  fine.  It  indicates  nothing  but  a  race  characteristic,  and  does  not 
influence  the  qualities  of  the  animal. 

In  animals  belonging  to  the  common  races  this  region,  like  the 


68  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

intermaxillary  space,  is  covered  with  long  and  abundant  hairs,  which 
it  is  the  custom  to  singe,  cut,  or  extrac.t.  This  practice  is  called  to 
make  the  jaw  or  the  hairs  of  the  jaws. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — These  are  osseous  tumors,  the  result  of  blows 
which  the  animal  has  received  or  of  injuries  which  are  inflicted  by  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  shafts.  Again,  we  may  find  enlargements  of  the  bone  sometimes 
accompanied  by  necrosis  and  fistulae  emitting  an  extremely  disagreeable  odor. 
The  latter  lesions  are  caused  by  diseases  of  the  inferior  molar  teeth.  Finally, 
this  region  may  be  the  seat  of  salivary  fistulae  upon  the  course  of  the  excretory 
canal  of  the  parotid  gland,  most  frequently  on  a  level  with  the  point  where  the 
duct  is  inflected  around  the  maxillary  fissure. 

These  diverse  alterations  have  a  great  tendency  to  assume  a  chronic 
form,  and  are  always  followed  by  deformities  quite  persistent,  which 
blemish  the  animals  for  a  more  or  less  long  period. 

C.— The  Chin  (Fig.  19). 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — Symmetrical  and 
situated  in  front  of  the  intermaxillary  space  and  the  branches  of  the 
lower  jaw,  and  behind  the  tuft  of  the  chin,  the  chin,  upon  which  rests 
the  curb  of  the  bit,  corresponds  almost  to  the  point  of  union  of  the 
two  branches  of  the  maxillary  bone.  The  symphysis  is  manifested 
externally  by  a  slight  crest,  a  gutter,  or  a  simple  convex  surface. 

These  diverse  conditions,  with  difficulty  appreciated  from  the  exte- 
rior, have  caused  this  region  to  be  named  round  or  sharp,  two  confor- 
mations upon  which  buyers  also  attach  too  much  importance.  The 
impression  of  a  portion  of  the  harness  or  of  the  curb  upon  the  skin 
depends  much  less  upon  the  anatomical  disposition  of  the  parts  than 
the  degree  of  natural  sensibility  of  the  subject.  It  is  easy  to  moderate 
the  action  of  the  curb  by  protecting  the  latter  with  a  leather  cushion 
and  by  regulating  the  quantity  of  traction  exercised  on  the  reins  ac- 
cording to  the  sensibility  of  the  animal. 

Denudations  and  wounds  are  the  ordinary  consequences  of  immod- 
erate pressure  sustained  by  the  chin  of  very  irritable  horses,  as  from 
the  curb,  or  other  traumatisms.  There  are  also  blemishes  of  the 
chin,  which  are  not  without  interest  in  that  which  concerns  special 
utilizations  of  the  animal. 


INFERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD.  69 

CHAPTER    IV. 

INFERIOR   EXTREMITY   OF   THE    HEAD. 


A.— The  Mouth  (Fig.  25). 

Situation ;  Divisions. — The  mouth  is  a  complex  region  which 
occupies  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  head  and  represents  the  entrance 
into  the  digestive  apparatus.  It  is  elongated  from  before  to  behind, 
and  comprised  between  the  two  jaws.  We  recognize  in  it  the  following 
parts,  which  we  will  first  study  :  1,  the  lips;  2,  the  teeth  and  the  gums ; 
3,  the  bars;  4,  the  lingual  canal;  5,  the  tongue;  6,  the  palate.  We  will 
afterwards  pass  to  the  examination  of  the  mouth  in  general. 

i.  The  Lips  (Figs.  19,  25,  and  26). 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  lips  are  two 
movable  musculo-cutaneous  curtains,  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the 
mouth,  whose  opening  they  limit. 

They  are  distinguished  as  superior  or  anterior  and  inferior,  or  pos- 
terior. 

Physiologically,  they  are  organs  necessary  to  the  prehension  of 
food,  and  they  serve  as  auxiliaries  in  mastication.  The  inferior  lip, 
in  relation  to  the  exterior,  to  a  small  degree  supports  the  bit,  whose 
impulses  are,  in  a  certain  measure,  first  received  by  it. 

The  superior  lip,  the  more  mobile,  is  limited  above  by  the 
extremity  of  the  nose  ;  on  the  sides  by  the  cheek  and  the  nostrils  ;  by  its 
free  border,  finally,  it  is  in  contact  with  its  congener.  The  inferior 
lip  is  limited  behind  by  the  chin  and  laterally  by  the  cheeks. 

The  lips  present  for  study  two  faces,  external  and  internal ;  two  commissures, 
right  and  left ;  and  two  borders,  free  and  adherent.  Each  is  composed  of  three 
layers, — an  external  or  cutaneous,  an  internal  or  mucous,  and  a  middle  or  muscu- 
lar,— besides  blood-vessels  and  nerves.  The  muscular  layer  is  constituted  by  the 
orbicularis  oris  muscle  and  the  muscles  of  the  face  which  attach  to  it.  The  arte- 
ries are  the  superior  and  inferior  coronary,  passing  through  the  centre  of  their 
substance. 

The  external  face  of  each  lip  is  covered  by  fine  and  very  adherent  skin, 
provided  with  two  kinds  of  hairs :  the  one  consisting  of  long,  stiff,  and  scattered 
hairs,  called  tentacles,  and  deeply  embedded  in  the  subcutaneous  tissue  and  even 
in  the  muscles ;  the  other,  very  fine,  short,  and  numerous,  belonging  to  the  ordinary 
hairs  of  the  coat.  The  former  are  provided  with  a  nerve  terminal  at  the  base  of 
their  papilla,  which  makes  them  delicate  organs  of  tactile  sensation  for  the 
animal.  To  a  large  degree  these  supersede  the  function  of  the  hand  in  quadru- 


70 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


mana.  The  external  face  offers  on  the  median  line  of  the  superior  lip  a  small 
gutter  more  or  less  distinct,  and  on  each  side  an  elevation  more  or  less  prominent. 
This  gutter  is  the  representative  of  the  nasal  gutter,  very  pronounced  in  man  and 
some  other  animals.  This  lip  is,  besides,  longer,  larger,  more  movable,  and  more 
constricted  at  its  base  than  the  inferior.  In  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  the 
median  gutter  is  absent,  to  be  replaced  by  some  semicircular  folds  on  a  hemispheri- 


FIG.  25.— Interior  of  the  mouth  (after  Bruneau). 


cal  eminence,  more  or  less  developed,  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of  tuft 
of  the  chin,  and  whose  base  is  the  mento-labialis  muscle. 

The  internal  face  of  each  lip,  concave  in  every  sense,  is  covered  by  the 
buccal  mucous  membrane,  smooth,  shining,  of  a  rosy  color  in  good  health,  and 
sometimes  marbled,  due  to  a  deposit  of  black  pigment.  This  layer  becomes 
reflected  on  the  incisive  and  inferior  maxillary  bones,  to  become  continuous  with 
the  gums,  and  lies  in  contact  with  the  anterior  face  of  the  incisor  teeth.  It 


INFERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD.  71 

contains  large  numbers  of  salivary  glands  in  the  thickness  of  the  submucous 
tissue.  The  connective  tissue  which  unites  it  to  the  adjacent  parts  is  sufficiently 
loose  to  allow  of  an  abundant  serous  effusion. 

The  free  border  of  each  lip  is  thin  and  bevelled,  lies  in  contact  with  its 
congener,  and  is  the  point  of  continuity  between  the  skin  and  the  mucous  mem- 
brane. 

The  adherent  border  is  marked  in  the  interior  of  the  mouth  by  a  gutter 
at  the  point  of  continuity  of  the  mucous  membrane  with  the  gums.  Externally, 
it  is  not  delimitated  from  the  adjacent  parts,  with  which  it  becomes  continuous. 

The  commissures  are  the  points  where  the  two  lips  become  continuous, 
slightly  round  and  quite  thick,  they  are  perfectly  closed  in  ordinary  conditions. 

Their  volume  appears  much  larger  in  young  than  in  old  animals, 
because  the  direction  of  the  incisor  teeth,  upon  which  their  internal 
face  rests,  becomes  more  and  more  horizontal  with  the  progress  of 
age.  Also,  the  head  in  old  horses  seems  to  be  tapering  at  its  inferior 
extremity. 

The  lip,  like  the  nostril,  the  eye,  and  the  ear,  is  a  most  remark- 
able organ  of  expression.  When  it  is  curled  up,  relaxed,  lowered, 
elevated,  or  inclined,  we  have  so  many  variations  which  affect  the 
whole  physiognomy.  When  we  study  the  expression  of  the  horse 
under  the  influence  of  pain,  fear,  pleasure,  or  distress ;  when  we  ob- 
serve his  attitude  as  he  attempts  to  snatch  or  bite  somebody  or  one  of 
his  companions ;  when  we  observe  the  lips  in  "certain  diseases ;  when 
we  translate  the  language  of  the  stallion  as  he  scents  the  mare,  or  the 
animal  as  he  passes  through  the  death-agonies,  then  can  we  see  how 
perfect  the  expression  is  and  how  it  varies  in  each  circumstance. 

It  is  well  known,  also,  that  the  physical  qualities  are  in  direct 
relation  with  the  faculty  of  expression  of  which  the  lip  is  capable.  The 
horse  which  is  of  a  sanguine  temperament,  with  a  nervous  system 
that  is  well  developed,  energetic,  and  easily  stimulated  by  external 
causes,  presents  a  high  development  of  this  region.  The  common 
horse,  on  the  contrary,  has  a  lip  which  is  thin,  soft,  flabby,  immobile, 
and  without  expression.  The  skin  which  covers  it  is  thick  and  the 
hairs  long,  coarse,  and  abundant. 

The  lips  should  approximate  themselves  easily  by  their  free  border 
to  keep  the  mouth  constantly  dosed,  in  order  to  avoid  a  continuous 
escape  of  saliva.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  always  thus,  from  the  fact 
that  the  animal  is  "  reined  up  too  high,"  or  that  one  of  the  lips  may 
be  paralyzed.  In  the  first  instance,  the  mouth  remains  open  from  the 
fatigue  of  the  muscles  induced  by  the  unnatural  position  of  the  head ; 
in  the  second,  there  is  great  difficulty  in  the  prehension  of  food,  the 
constant  loss  of  saliva  is  deleterious,  and  the  physiognomy  loses  all  its 


72  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

expression.  If  the  paralysis  be  unilateral,  one  of  the  lips  is  drawn  to 
one  side  by  the  muscles  which  still  preserve  their  nervous  influence. 
If  it  be  bilateral,  the  affected  lip  becomes  pendulous.  It  is  this  which 
we  sometimes  see  in  the  inferior  lip  of  old  horses  and  much  more  rarely 
in  the  young.  This  state  is  more  often  associated  with  a  profound 
debility  of  the  organism  and  an  atony  of  the  muscular  system  in  gen- 
eral, than  as  a  veritable  paralysis,  or  at  least  as  a  complete  inertia  of 
the  organ. 

Nevertheless,  the  defect  in  question  may  be  congenital.  Del- 
phine,  an  old  brood-mare  in  the  stud  of  Pin,  suffered  from  paralysis 
of  the  inferior  lip,  and  all  her  progeny  inherited  the  same  infirmity ; 
yet  she  was  possessed  of  great  energy  and  good  breeding,  and  was  not 
inconvenienced  in  the  least  (Richard).1 

.  Certain  horses,  whether  in  harness  or  under  the  saddle,  at  rest  or 
during  exercise,  have  a  continual  and  convulsive  movement  of  the 
inferior  lip  which  is  very  ungraceful  to  the  eye.  In  the  language  of 
horsemen,  it  is  said  that  they  beat  the  lip. 

Again,  some  horses  continually  attempt  to  seize  the  branches  of  the 
bit  with  the  lower  lip,  a  vicious  habit  capable  of  changing  its  good 
direction.  It  is  remedied  in  several  ways,  either  by  the  application 
of  a  leather  lip-strap  to  the  bridle,  by  bending  the  branches  of  the  bit 
backward,  or,  finally,  by  shaking  the  reins  lightly  at  each  new  attempt 
of  the  animal,  to  compel  him  to  let  go. 

The  commissures  of  the  lips,  according  as  they  are  situated  more  or 
less  high,  designate  the  mouth  as  being  well,  too  much,  or  not  enough 
cleft.  This  does  not  constitute  a  serious  defect,  because  the  bridle  can 
always  be  so  adjusted  as  to  prevent  the  bit  from  exerting  excessive 
pressure  against  the  first  molar  tooth  or  the  angles  of  the  mouth. 

Most  authors  since  Bourgelat  have  contended  that  the  inferior  lip 
can  prevent  the  pressure  of  the  bit  upon  the  bars  by  opposing  too 
great  a  resistance  or  interposing  itself  between  the  two.  The  former 
then  offers  considerable  resistance  to  the  bit,  and  the  animal  becomes 
hard-mouthed.  M..  Richard2  has  amply  refuted  this  assertion  in 
pointing  out  the  feeble  resistance  which  the  orbicularis  muscle  is  able 
to  offer  against  the  bit,  and  in  demonstrating  that  hard  mouths  result 
ordinarily  from  the  inexperience  of  the  rider  in  using  the  reins  or  the 
inaptitude  of  the  horse  to  execute  certain  movements. 

On  the  inferior  lip  there  exists  sometimes,  on  each  side  of  the 
median  line,  a  tuft  of  long  curly  hairs,  which  are  called,  from  the 

1  Richard  (du  Cantal),  £tude  du  c.heval,  p.  81,  6e  £d.  2  Ibid. 


INFERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD.  73 

analogy  of  their  form  and  position,  moustaches.     This  peculiarity  is 
also  more  rarely  observed  on  the  superior  lip. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — Diverse  diseases,  which  may  ordinarily  pre- 
vent the  sale  of  the  animal,  are  observed  in  the  region  of  the  lips.  Besides 
paralysis,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  farcy  ulcers  are  sometimes  observed  here 
over  the  course  of  the  lymphatics.  Ulcers  of  variola  also  affect  this  region,  attack- 
ing young  animals  principally.  These  latter  ulcers  may  be  situated  upon  .the  ex- 
ternal surface  of  the  lips,  along  their  free  border,  as  well  as  in  the  interior  of  the 
buccal  cavity,  and  around  the  alae  of  the  nostrils.  Their  gravity  is  of  little  con- 
sequence, and  with  care  and  practice  we  are  enabled  to  distinguish  them  easily 
from  the  preceding,  which  are  characteristic  and  serious  in  the  extreme.  Besides 
these  alterations,  the  lips  are  the  seat  of  swellings  which  disfigure  the  parts  be- 
cause they  extend  into  the  surrounding  tissues.  Such  are  O3dematous  effusion 
due  to  anasarca,  the  prolonged  ingestion  of  certain  plants,  as  buckwheat,  for 
example,  or  the  accidental  application  of  vesicants,  as  when  the  animal  rubs 
a  surface  which  has  been  blistered  for  a  therapeutic  purpose. 

The  most  common  blemishes  of  the  lips  are  excoriations  and  cicatrices, 
resulting  from  the  application  of  the  twitch.  These  are  always  an  indication  of 
a  vicious  habit  of  the  animal,  difficulty  in  shoeing,  or  of  his  having  been  subjected 
to  a  surgical  operation  requiring  frequent  dressings.  It  is  not  rare  to  meet  with 
cuts  or  lacerations  along  their  free  border.  These  wounds  suggest  falls,  and  it  is 
important  to  examine  with  care  the  condition  of  the  extremity  of  the  nose,  the 
incisor  teeth,  the  gums,  and  the  limbs,  to  inform  ourselves  as  to  the  cause  which 
has  produced  them. 

In  old  horses  it  is  quite  common  to  see  thickenings  or  lacerations  of  the  one 
or  the  other  commissure,  occasioned  by  repeated  and  violent  traction  on  the  bit  or 
by  a  bit  which  is  too  narrow  and  improperly  adjusted.  These  render  the  com- 
plete closure  of  the  mouth  impossible,  and  may  prove  to  become  obstacles  to  the 
prehension  of  liquids.  The  pain  which  they  cause  may,  for  a  certain  time,  inca- 
pacitate the  animal  for  service. 

Let  us  say,  in  conclusion,  that  we  often  see  in  horses  affected  with  immo- 
bility particles  of  hay  or  straw  adhering  to  the  commissures  of  the  lips  and 
remaining  there  without  provoking  the  least  movement  of  the  jaws.  It  is  then 
said  that  he  smokes  his  pipe. 

2.  The  Teeth  and  the  Gums. 

The  teeth  are  organs  of  osseous  appearance,  implanted  in  the 
alveoli  of  the  maxillary  and  incisive  bones.  They  assist  in  the  pre- 
hension and  mastication  of  the  aliment,  and  are  distinguished  from 
their  use  as  incisors,  canines,  and  molars. 

The  relation  of  the  teeth  to  the  determination  of  age  is  so  important 
to  recognize  that  we  will  devote  to  it  a  special  chapter.  (See  Age.) 
We  will  content  ourselves  for  the  present  by  saying  that  their  minute 
examination  should  be  made  at  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  mouth, 
and  include  their  integrity,  soundness,  length,  direction,  and  the  regu- 
larity of  their  surface. 

The  mucous  membrane  which  surrounds  the  teeth  and  aids  to  fix 


74  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

them  into  their  alveoli  is  called  the  gums'.  These  offer  little  of  interest. 
In  young  horses  they  are  rosy,  thick,  and  adherent,  but  as  the  animal 
grows  older  they  become  pale  and  retracted  from  the  teeth.  Alimen- 
tary matters  may  penetrate  between  their  dental  surface  and  the  teeth, 
excite  inflammation,  and  become  the  origin  of  periostitis  or  of  caries 
of  the  bone. 

3.  The  Bars  (Figs.  25  and  26). 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base.— The  bars,  occupying 
the  inferior  interdental  space  on  each  side,  include  that  portion  of  the 
inferior  maxilla  between  the  canine  and  first  molar  teeth,  and  are 
covered  simply  by  the  mucous  membrane.  In  the  mare,  in  which 
the  tushes  are  undeveloped,  the  bars  are  longer,  and  extend  from 
the  corner  incisor  tooth  to  the  first  molar.  They  support  the  canon  of 
the  bit, 

Most  authors  have  pretended  that  the  conformation  of  the  bars  is  of 
great  importance  relative  to  the  pain  which  the  horse  feels  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  pressure  of  the  bit ;  that  if  they  be  elevated  or  sharp,  the 
pain  is  intense,  and,  on  the  contrary,  feeble  when  they  are  round  ;  finally, 
that  the  form  of  the  bit  should  be  adapted  to  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
dispositions.  We  repeat  here  what  we  have  already  said  above  as  to 
the  bars :  with  equal  sensibility  it  is  certain  that  on  the  sharp  bars  the 
pressure  will  be  more  intense,  but  the  difference  which  we  observe  in 
the  sensibility  to  the  action  of  the  bit  resides  not  so  much  in  the  con- 
formation of  the  parts  as  in  the  natural  sensibility  and  irritability 
themselves, — all  peculiarities  of  this  region.  As  M.  Sanson  *  has  justly 
said  :  when  sharp  bars  accompany  a  nervous  and  irritable  temperament, 
it  is  to  this  alone  that  &  false  or  spoiled  mouth,  as  well  as  the  faults  of 
rearing  or  running  away,  must  be  attributed.  Most  horses  whose 
mouths  have  been  abused  with  the  bit  by  inexperienced  riders  or 
drivers  present  round  and  depressed  bars.  When  the  mucous  mem- 
brane is  thickened  and  the  sensibility  is  blunted,  they  are  called  calluses. 

The  bars  may  be  the  seat  of  wounds  sufficiently  grave  to  prevent 
the  use  of  the  animal  for  a  variable  period  of  time.  Due  to  forcible 
traction  on  the  bridle,  these  may  terminate  in  caries,  fistula,  and  exfoli- 
ation of  a  part  of  the  bone  which  forms  their  base,  and  leave  a  perma- 
nent deformity. 

To  recapitulate,  the  fineness  of  the  bars  constitutes  the  principal 
beauty  to  be  sought  for  in  their  examination. 

1  A.  Sanson,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  pratique  de  m£decine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v£t<*ri- 
naires,  t.  ii.  art.  "  Bouche." 


INFERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD.  75 

4.  The  Lingual  Canal  (Figs.  25  and  26). 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  lingual  canal 
is  generally  described  as  the  space  comprised  between  the  branches  of 
the  inferior  maxilla,  in  which  the  tongue  is  situated.  It  is  a  kind  of 
gutter  the  sides  of  which  are  covered  by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth.  Anteriorly,  where  its  inferior  wall  is  formed  by  the  body  of 
the  aforesaid  bone,  it  is  single  ;  posteriorly,  it  divides  into  two  branches 
comprised  between  the  sides  of  the  rami  of  the  same  bone  and  side  of 
the  fixed  portion  of  the  tongue. 

At  the  anterior  extremity  of  these  lateral  divisions  is  the  lingual  crest  formed 
by  the  superior  border  of  the  sublingual  gland,  covered  by  mucous  membrane, 
and  presenting  a  series  of  orifices  of  the  excretory  ducts, — ducti  Riviniani. 

Underneath  the  mucous  membrane  covering  the  lateral  faces  of  the  tongue 
is  the  duct  of  Wharton,  the  excretory  canal  of  the  maxillary  salivary  gland.  It 
opens  upon  the  superior  face  of  the  body  of  the  maxilla  on  each  side  of  the 
frasnum  of  the  tongue  by  means  of  an  enlargement  called  the  barb  or  barbillon, 
whose  function  is  the  protection  of  the  canal  against  the  entrance  of  alimentary 
matters. 

Depth. — The  lingual  canal,  which  we  must  examine  in  regard  to 
its  depth,  should  be  proportional  to  the  volume  of  the  tongue.  If 
the  latter  be  not  in  relation  with  the  capacity  of  the  gutter  which  con- 
tains it,  the  result  will  be  a  vicious  position  of  the  bit ;  in  the  one 
case  the  tongue  will  entirely  support  the  action  of  the  bit,  whilst  in  the 
other  the  latter  will  rest  exclusively  upon  the  bars.  We  must  say,  to 
speak  the  truth,  that  nothing  has  been  demonstrated  to  establish  this 
opinion.  The  width  of  the  canal  is  always  in  relation  with  the  volume 
of  the  tongue,  and,  should  it  be  otherwise,  the  bit  will  experience 
neither  more  nor  less  difficulty,  as  we  shall  show  further  on. 

We  think,  also,  that  there  is  neither  beauty  nor  defect  to  be  appre- 
ciated in  this  region.  We  may,  however,  observe  an  inflammation  of 
the  canal  of  Wharton  from  the  introduction,  through  the  barbs,  of 
particles  of  forage  proving  very  often  to  be  pieces  of  brome-grass. 
This  affection  is  noticed  most  frequently  in  old  horses  with  irregular 
teeth,  and  nourished  on  old  Burgundian  hay,  in  which  this  grass 
is  abundant.  It  is  accompanied  by  intense  congestion  of  the  barb, 
and  perhaps  a  discharge  of  pus  from  its  orifice. 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  the  barbs  could  prevent  the  animal  from  drink- 
ing. It  is  surprising  that  this  opinion  was  even  shared  by  Bourgelat,  who  con- 
sidered these  organs  simply  as  excrescences  of  the  mucous  membrane.  At 
present,  many  persons  in  the  rural  districts  are  imbued  with  this  prejudice,  and 
employ  horsemen  and  empirics  who  practice  its  ablation.  It  is  easily  understood 


I 

76  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

that  this  barbarous  operation  facilitates  the  penetration  of  foreign  bodies  into  the 
salivary  canal,  the  entrance  to  which  is  thus  no  longer  protected. 

5.  The  Tongue  (Figs.  25  and  26). 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  tongue  is  an 
organ  of  prehension  and  mastication  of  the  aliment,  of  gustation  and 
deglutition,  placed  in  the  lingual  canal,  and  which  completely  fills  the 
mouth  when  the  jaws  are  in  apposition.  It  is  related  above  to  the 
hard  palate ;  in  front,  to  the  incisor  teeth  and  the  lips  ;  on  each  side,  to 
the  bars,  the  molar  teeth,  and  the  cheeks  ;  and  behind,  to  the  soft  palate. 

The  principal  structures  entering  into  its  organization  are  five 
pairs  of  muscles. 

Anatomically,  it  is  divided  into  two  portions  :  anterior,  or  free,  and 
posterior,  or  fixed.  The  free  portion  is  spatula-shaped  and  flattened 
from  above  to  below.  A  fold  of  mucous  membrane  of  a  triangular 
form  is  detached  from  the  middle  of  its  inferior  face  and  attached  to 
the  body  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone.  This  is  the  frcenum,  or  ante- 
rior pillar  of  the  tongue.  It  limits  to  a  certain  degree  the  movements 
of  this  organ. 

Its  examination,  which  should  be  made  at  the  same  time  as 
that  of  the  teeth,  is  conducted  as  follows,  supposing  the  operator  to 
stand  on  the  left  side  (Fig.  26) :  The  left  hand  seizes  the  inferior  lip 
or  is  placed  upon  the  anterior  face  of  the  nose  to  steady  the  head.  The 
right  hand  seizes  the  tongue ;  the  middle  and  index  fingers  are  intro- 
duced between  the  lips  into  the  mouth  on  a  level  with  the  bars,  and  the 
organ  is  grasped.  Being  thus  held  between  these  two  fingers  above 
and  the  thumb  and  anntilaris  below,  it  is  withdrawn  from  the  mouth 
and,  with  its  adjacent  parts,  carefully  inspected.  To  examine  the  base 
of  the  tongue,  it  is  necessary  to  stand  in  front  of  the  head  and  allow 
the  light  to  shine  into  the  buccal  cavity. 

These  manoeuvres  must  be  practised  with  the  greatest  gentle- 
ness. Excessive  traction  will  be  painful  to  the  animal  and  make 
him  insubordinate ;  it  may  also  cause  a  rupture  of  the  stylo-glossus 
muscle,  which  we  have  several  times  proved  by  dissection,1  as  well  as 
the  genio-glossus  and  the  frsenum.  On  account  of  the  pain  which  is 
produced,  certain  dealers,  without  doubt,  do  not  hesitate  to  practise 
this  barbarous  act  on  horses  suffering  from  immobility,  to  make  them 
timid  and  cause  them  to  "  back." 


1  A.  Goubaux,  De  quelques  pratiques  barbares  auxquelles  on  a  recours  pour  examiner  la 
bouche  du  cheval,  pour  determiner  son  age,  pour  le  faire  reculer,  etc.  (Journal  de  l'e"cole  de 
Lyon,  1866,  p.  335.) 


INFERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD 


77 


The  movements  are  elevation,  depression,  extension,  retraction,  and 
lateral  inclination.  Each  changes  the  form  and  volume  of  the  organ  ; 
it  becomes  wider,  thicker,  concave  or  convex,  etc. 


FIG.  26.— Examination  of  the  mouth. 


The  volume,  in  general,  is  proportional  to  the  capacity  of  the  buccal 
cavity.  We  have  never  observed,  except  in  very  old  horses,  that  the 
thickness  of  this  organ  caused  it  to  project  beyond  the  bars,  become 
the  sole  support  of  the  shank  of  the  bit,  and  lessen,  for  this  reason, 


78  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  sensitiveness  of  the  mouth.  The  differences  of  sensibility,  which 
are  quite  common,  proceed  from  another  cause.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  this  a  propos  of  the  bars  and  the  chin. 

In  a  normal  state,  the  tongue  should  always  be  kept  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  buccal  cavity.  It  helps  to  support  the  bit  and,  in  con- 
cert with  the  lips,  it  receives  its  first  impression.  Some  horses  have 
the  bad  habit  of  doubling  the  tongue  within  the  mouth  by  recurving 
its  free  extremity  above  or  underneath  the  bit.  This  can  be  readily 
detected  by  separating  the  lips  from  each  other,  and  is  remedied  by 
tightening  the  curb-chain. 

The  integrity  and  entireness  of  the  tongue  should  never  escape 
the  attention  of  the  veterinarian.  When  a  horse,  tied  with  the  reins 
of  the  bridle,  or  with  a  strap  passed  through  the  mouth,  becomes 
frightened,  he  will  throw  himself  violently  backward  and  support 
the  weight  of  the  body  entirely  by  the  mouth,  the  point  of  attach- 
ment. Then,  if  the  means  of  attachment  does  not  break,  the  tongue 
may  be  sufficiently  compressed  by  the  bit  or  the  strap  to  be  cut  trans- 
versely. We  know  of  an  instance  of  this  kind  in  which  the  free  por- 
tion was  completely  separated  and  fell  to  the  ground.  This  is  always 
a  grave  accident.  If  the  section  be  incomplete,  mastication  is  slow  and 
imperfect ;  if  it  be  complete,  death  may  be  the  consequence,  as  it  was  in 
the  instance  mentioned  above.  A  horse  should,  therefore,  never  be  at- 
tached to  the  reins  of  the  bridle  or  to  a  strap  passed  through  the  mouth. 

The  tongue  may  become  lacerated  or  cut?  more  or  less  deeply,  on 
its  lateral  borders  from  irregularities  of  the  molar  arcades,  which 
are  denticulated  in  old  horses.  These  wounds  are  very  painful  and 
prevent  the  animal  from  masticating  his  food.  The  remedy  is  the 
dressing  of  the  teeth. 

There  are  some  horses  whose  tongue,  during  work  or  at  rest,  pro- 
trudes from  the  mouth  and  becomes  pendulous;  this  is  called  lolling 
the  tongue.1 

In  other  cases  it  is  alternately  protruded  and  retracted  in  a  manner 
which  simulates  the  movements  of  a  serpent's  tongue ;  hence  the 
appropriate  designation,  serpentine. 

Both  of  these  conditions  are  ungraceful,  deleterious  from  the  con- 
stant loss  of  saliva  which  could  be  utilized  in  digestion,  and  finally  the 
organ  ceases  to  give  the  same  point  of  support  to  the  bit  which  it 
furnishes  in  ordinary  circumstances. 

1 1  have  seen  an  instance  in  which  this  was  temporarily  prevented  by  the  application  of  a 
rubber  band  to  its  free  portion,  the  effect  of  which,  however,  was  an  almost  complete  section 
of  the  organ.  (Harger.) 


INFERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD.  79 

6.  The  Palate  (Fig.  25). 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  palate,  which 
forms  the  anterior  or  superior  wall  of  the  buccal  cavity,  has  for  its 
osseous  base  the  superior  maxillary,  incisive,  and  palatine  bones. 
These  are  separated  from  its  mucous  membrane  by  a  thick  layer  of 
erectile  tissue,  most  abundant  anteriorly.  It  is  limited  in  front  by  the 
superior  incisors;  laterally,  by  the  superior  molars  and  the  superior 
interdental  spaces  ;  behind,  by  the  attachment  of  the  soft  palate.  Only 
a  portion  of  it  is  visible  in  the  examination  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth. 
Its  surface  is  of  a- rose  color,  sometimes  pigmented  in  different  portions 
of  its  area.  It  presents  transverse  arches,  with  the  concavity  behind 
disposed  symmetrically  on  each  side  of  the  median  line,  and  separated 
from  one  another  by  transverse  furrows. 

With  the  exception  of  the  width,  which  is  most  marked  in  the 
finer  races,  the  palate  has  no  appreciable  beauty  or  defect. 

The  thickness  varies  according  to  the  age  and  the  physiological 
conditions.  The  palate  may  become  congested  and  inflamed,  projecting 
beyond  the  table  of  the  incisor  teeth  and  thus  preventing  mastication. 
This  state  is  vulgarly  termed  lampas.  It,  however,  is  not  pathological, 
but  physiological,  due  to  the  irritation  of  dentition. 

Huzard1  the  elder  has  long  ago  shown  the  uselessness  and  cruelty 
of  the  practice  of  removing  the  swelling  of  this  region  by  excision 
with  the  knife  or  by  cauterization  with  the  actual  cautery.  These  bar- 
barous procedures  impede  mastication  and  tend  more  to  diminish  than 
to  increase  the  appetite,  as  is  shown  by  the  animal's  willing  but  inef- 
fectual attempts.  They  are  still  performed  at  the  present  time  by  far- 
riers and  empirics,  who  call  it  burning  the  lampas.  Scarifications 
practised  for  the  same  reason  are  not  without  accidents.  They  are 
made  posterior  to  the  third  bar  of  the  palate  and  not  less  than  an  inch 
from  the  edge  of  the  gums  of  the  molar  teeth,  so  as  not  to  puncture 
the  palatine  artery. 

B.— The  Mouth  in  General. 

All  the  secondary  regions  which  we  have  studied  in  the  preceding 
chapter  should  be  in  harmony  with,  one  another,  so  that,  as  a  whole, 
they  may  fulfil  their  functions.  The  mouth,  indeed,  requires  examina- 
tion not  only  from  a  physiological  point  of  view,  but  from  that  of  the 
exterior  also,  in  that  it  is  the  organ  in  which  is  lodged  the  instrument 
to  guide  the  animal,  called  the  bit. 

1  Bourgelat,  Trait6  de  la  conformation  exterieure  du  cheval,  5e  ed.,  p.^81.  (Note  de  Huzard 
pere.) 


80  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HOUSE. 

The  Bit. — This  instrument  (Fig.  27)  is  composed  of  a  cylindrical 
piece  of  metal,  wood,  or  rubber,  straight,  curved,  or  broken,  and  two 
branches,  to  which  the  reins,  bridle,  and  curb-chain  are  attached.  The 
former,  called  the  canon  or  bar  of  the  bit,  or  the  bitting,  rests  upon 


FIG.  27.— Bit  of  bridle. 


the  tongue  and  the  bars ;  the  latter  prevents  deviation  and  increases 
the  power. 

The  bit  plays  the  part  of  a  lever  of  the  second  class,  in  which  the 
curb  A  is  the  fulcrum  or  point  of  attachment,  P  the  point  of  applica- 
tion of  the  power,  and  R  the  place  where  the  resistance  is  overcome  by 
pressure  upon  the  bars.  PA  representing  the  power-arm  of  the  lever, 
it  will  be  at  once  perceived  that  the  longer  the  branches  of  the  bit  the 
more  powerful  and  energetic  is  its  action.  The  latter  augments,  with 
the  diminution  of  the  arm  of  resistance,  the  distance  from  the  canon 
to  the  attachment  of  the  curb,  AR  ;  also,  if  the  bit  be  grooved  instead 
of  round,  or  if  the  free  portion  of  the  tongue  be  large  and  the  pressure 
on  the  chin  of  increasing  force,  its  effect  will  be  more  intense. 


INFERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD.  81 

Functionally,  the  bit  is,  therefore,  an  apparatus  of  restraint  which, 
by  its  pressure,  more  or  less  severe,  on  the  bars  and  the  chin,  causes 
pain  of  variable  intensity. 

Temperament  of  the  Mouth. — The  animal  will  react  in  con- 
sequence of  this  pain,  and  Bourgelat  designated  the  temperament  of 
the  mouth  as  the  particular  mode  or  intensity  of  this  reaction ;  in 
other  words,  as  the  special  effect  of  the  different  sensations  transmitted 
by  the  bit  to  the  mouth. 

Thus,  the  mouth  is  qualified  as  being  steady,  true,  or  normal  when  it 
supports  the  bit  with  freedom,  without  uneasiness,  pain,  or  fear ;  when 
it  neither  struggles  nor  yields  too  easily  to  the  action  of  the  hand. 

The  mouth  is  sensitive,  tender,  delicate,  or  easy  when  it  perceives 
the  most  delicate  impressions  of  the  hand  and  responds  to  them  with 
promptness. 

It  is  strong,  hard,  and  thick  when  it  yields  only  to  energetic  traction 
on  the  reins. 

A  spoiled  mouth  is  one  which  reacts  falsely  towards  the  indications 
of  the  bit,  whatever  may  be  its  sensibility  otherwise. 

Finally,  the  fresh  mouth  or  the  active  mouth  is  that  which  relishes 
the  bit,  chews  it  without  cessation,  and  appears  slightly  frothy  from  the 
continual  agitation  which  the  movements  communicate  to  the  saliva. 

These  different  qualities  of  the  mouth  can  only  be  judged  by  the 
utilization  of  the  animal,  but  they  should  not  be  neglected  on  that 
account.  In  a  general  way  it  is  always  necessary,  in  the  selection  of 
a  horse,  to  seek  the  most  complete  information  possible  and  not  omit 
any  tests,  if  such  be  necessary.  Overweening  vanity  is  too  often 
the  cause  of  the  most  singular  mistakes.  We  cannot  insist  too  much 
upon  the  importance  of  examining  all  parts  of  the  mouth,  and  of  cen- 
suring those  individuals  who  confine  themselves  to  an  inspection  of  the 
teeth  with  a  view  to  a  knowledge  of  the  age  alone. 

Internal  Pace  of  the  Cheeks. — We  will  now  refer  to  the 
internal  face  of  the  cheeks,  whose  external  conformation  we  have 
already  studied.  It  does  not  constitute  a  particular  region  by  itself, 
but  it  limits  laterally  the  mouth  external  to  the  molar  teeth,  as  the 
lips  do  in  front  of  the  incisor  teeth.  It  merits,  nevertheless,  some 
consideration,  because  it  presents  the  round  tubercle  at  the  termination 
of  Stenon's  duct,  opposite  to  the  anterior  border  of  the  third  molar 
tooth. 

Wounds  or  lacerations  of  the  mucous  membrane,  the  result 
of  dental  spiculse  from  irregularities  of  the  molars,  often  exist  here, 
particularly  in  old  horses.  They  may  produce  inability  to  masticate, 

6 


82  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  remedy  for  which  is  apparent.  The  subjects  presenting  these 
lesions  are  poorly  nourished,  their  mastication  is  incomplete,  and  fre- 
quently food  accumulates  between  the.  molar  arcades  and  the  internal 
face  of  the  cheeks,  producing  a  peculiar  distention  (granary)  on  the 
exterior,  which  we  have  previously  described. 

Method  of  Action  of  the  Bit. — The  bit  should  be  considered 
as  a  check  which  arrests,  as  a  power  which  masters,  and,  above  all,  as 
a  means  of  communication  between  the  horse  and  he  who  directs 
him.  The  physical  impression  which  it  causes  varies  from  the  slightest 
sensation  to  the  most  intense  pain. 

If  the  intensity  of  its  effect  is  not  properly  measured  with  the 
degree  of  sensibility  and  the  intelligence  of  the  subject,  it  produces 
effects  opposite  to  those  which  are  desired ;  it  provokes  an  energetic 
and  often  stubborn  defence,  in  which  the  man  is  not  always  victorious, 
and  which  may  not  be  without  danger  to  his  person.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  the  mechanical  effect  of  the  bit  be  in  proportion  to  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  mouth,  so  as  to  be  a  simple  indication  for  the  horse  to 
surmise  what  is  required  of  him,  and,  if  necessary,  to  teach  him  by  the 
pain  that  he  must  obey  a  will  superior  to  his  own,  then  it  becomes  a 
means  of  education  entirely  rational  and  utilized  in  his  dressing  for 
various  purposes.  It  becomes  an  intermediary  agent  between  two  in- 
telligences whose  communication  is  thus  possible.  It  translates  ideas 
and  information  from  the  language  of  the  master  into  that  of  his  ser- 
vant ;  and,  little  by  little,  the  latter  will  comprehend  this  language, 
although  it  varies  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  animal  is 
employed,  as  the  saddle,  light  carriage,  or  heavy  traction.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  dressing  should  begin  early  and  under  a  patient, 
firm,  able,  and  experienced  master. 

The  bitting  is  the  name  given  to  the  method  by  which  the  bit  is 
most  conveniently  adjusted  to  the  mouth  of  the  horse. 


CHAPTER    V. 

POSTERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF   THE    HEAD. 

THE  posterior  extremity  of  the  head  comprises  three  regions, 
of  which  one,  serving  to  unite  the  head  with  the  neck,  is  double.  They 
are  :  the  poll  or  nape,  the  parotid  region,  and  the  throat. 


POSTERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    HEAD.  83 

A.— The  Poll  or  Nape  (Fig.  19). 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  poll  or  nape 
occupies  the  summit  of  the  head.  It  is  limited  laterally  by  the  ear 
and  the  parotid  region,  anteriorly  by  the  forehead,  posteriorly  by  the 
crest  of  the  neck  and  the  mane. 

This  region,  which  corresponds  anatomically  to  the  occipito-atloid 
articulation,  has  for  its  base,  on  the  median  line,  the  funicular  por- 
tion of  the  nuchal  ligament,  separated  from  the  surface  of  the  atlas  by  a 
synovial  bursa ;  on  each  side  are  eight  pairs  of  muscles  disposed  in  several 
layers.  Over  the  side  of  the  atlas,  corresponding  to  the  two  foramina, 
at  the  base  of  its  transverse  process,  are  the  two  principal  blood-vessels, 
the  retrograde  and  occipi to-muscular  arteries,  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  space  of  about  two  inches.  The  skin  which  covers  it  is  ordinarily 
protected  by  the  mane,  which  is  usually  cut  to  lodge  the  head-piece 
of  the  halter  or  bridle. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  veterinarian  must  thoroughly 
assure  himself  of  the  fineness  and  freedom  from  disease  of  this  region ; 
for,  on  account  of  the  movements  and  the  disposition  of  the  muscles 
into  layers,  filtration  is  favored,  and  all  diseases  in  this  location  assume 
an  unfavorable  aspect.1  Wounds  of  the  poll  result  sometimes  from 
a  misfitting  bridle  or  halter  and  from  contusions,  consequent  on  the 
animal's  rearing  and  striking  the  poll  against  resisting  bodies.  The 
most  common  result  of  these  is  fistula  with  necrosis  of  the  tendons, 
nuchal  ligament,  and  even  the  bones.  This  is  extremely  serious  and 
often  fatal ;  sometimes  a  cicatrix  alone  betrays  the  disease.  A  less 
serious  disease  is  a  synovitis  and  dilatation  of  the  above-mentioned 
bursa.  The  swelling  is  usually  bilateral. 

No  one  but  the  most  ignorant  would  buy  horses  with  such  blem- 
ishes without  observing  them.  We  know  of  instances  in  which  the 
hood  was  employed  to  cover  the  parts.  An  abnormal  sensibility 
of  the  poll  is  always  indicative  of  a  previous  or  now-existing  disease, 
which  can  be  demonstrated  by  passing  the  hand  over  this  region. 

B.— The  Parotid  Region  (Fig.  19). 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  parotid  re- 
gion, like  the  gland  which  forms  its  base,  derives  its  name  from  its 
proximity  to  the  ear.  It  is  limited  above  by  the  ear,  below  by  the 

1  A.  Goubaux,  Note  sur  quelques  lesions  de  la  region  de  la  nuque,  chez  le  cheval  (Arch, 
veter.,  1877,  p.  137). 


84  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

throat,  behind  by  the  neck,  and  in  front  by  the  temple  and  the  cheek. 
The  external  face  of  the  parotid  gland  is  separated  from  the  skin  by 
the  parotido-auricularis  and  cuticularis  colli  muscles;  underneath,  it 
lies  against  the  pharynx,  larynx,  guttural  pouches,  blood-vessels,  and 
nerves,  and  is  traversed  obliquely  from  below  upward,  and  from  with- 
out to  within,  by  the  jugular  vein ;  the  superior  extremity  embraces 
the  base  of  the  ear,  and  the  inferior  is  lodged  in  the  angle  of  union 
of  the  jugular  and  glosso-facial  veins. 

Beauties  and  Defects. — These  are  purely  conventional  and  vary 
according  to  taste.  The  region,  to  be  beautiful,  it  is  said,  should  be 
light  and  depressed  in  order  that  the  movements  of  the  head  may  be 
free  and  extensive ;  if  too  much  excavated  relative  to  the  surrounding 
parts,  the  movements  will  be  too  easy,  the  saddle-horse  will  be  able  to 
defend  himself  against  his  rider,  and  the  head  is  mal-attached ;  if  too 
salient  over  the  regions  which  confine  it,  the  horse  becomes  difficult  to 
guide  and  direct,  the  movements  are  neither  free  nor  extended,  and  the 
head  is  again  mal-attached. 

These  arguments  do  not  rest  on  any  given  physiological  rationale. 
It  suffices  to  recall  the  anatomical  disposition  of  the  articulations  and 
the  muscles  to  understand  that  these  conformations  are  arbitrary  and 
render  the  contradictory  theories  valueless.  A  moderate  depres- 
sion of  the  parotid  surface  is  simply  agreeable  to  the  eye  in  that  it 
makes  the  head  appear  to  be  better  attached,  and,  for  this  reason, 
deserves  the  preference  accorded  to  it. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — It  is  of  more  utility  than  the  preceding  to 
determine  the  presence  or  absence  of  diseases  and  blemishes.  We  observe 
here  tumefactions  due  to  melanotic  tumors,  to  alterations  in  the  gland  itself,  as 
parotiditis,  to  diseases  of  the  structures  which  surround  it,  as  the  guttural  pouches, 
or  to  lesions  of  the  surrounding  veins.  Parotid  abscesses  are  often  compli- 
cated with  salivary  fistulse,  which  allow  the  escape  of  saliva  and  produce  mal- 
nutrition. The  hood  is  again  called  upon  by  unscrupulous  dealers  to  hide  these 
conditions. 

Let  us  also  mention  denudations,  cicatrices,  and  traces  of  the  cautery,  as  well 
as  other  blemishes  which  result  from  the  employment  of  a  means  of  treatment 
of  diseases  of  the  larynx,  the  gland,  or  the  facial  vein.  In  such  cases  it  is  neces- 
sary to  determine  whether  or  not  the  animal  is  a  roarer  or  suffers  from  an  oblit- 
eration of  the  jugular  vein.  (See  Neck.} 

In  conclusion,  let  us  mention  the  barbarous  usage  which  consisted  in  com- 
pression of  the  parotid  region  with  a  farrier's  pincers  in  horses  suffering  from 
violent  attacks  of  colic,  the  cause  of  which  was  attributed  to  pain  and  engorge- 
ment of  the  parotid  glands.  In  similar  circumstances  it  was  also  the  custom  to 
beat  and  open  the  glands  to  quiet  the  animal.  This  operation,  dangerous  as 
well  as  absurd,  often  terminated  in  gangrene  and  its  inevitable  consequence,  the 
death  of  the  patient.  We  have  proof  of  such  an  example. 


HEAD    IN    GENERAL.  85 

C.— The  Throat  (Fig.  19). 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  throat  occu- 
pies the  bottom  of  the  curvature  of  the  head  upon  the  neck,  or  the  sine 
of  the  cervico-cephalic  angle.  It  is  limited  behind  by  the  inferior 
border  of  the  neck,  in  front  by  the  submaxillary  space,  and  laterally 
by  the  parotid  region.  It  is  a  single  region,  which  corresponds  to  the 
inferior  face  of  the  larynx  and  the  origin  of  the  trachea,  which  are 
separated  from  the  internal  face  of  the  skin  by  the  muscles.  It  is 
bordered  inferiorly  and  on  each  side  by  the  two  glosso-facial  veins. 

Its  absolute  beauty  consists  in  its  large  transverse  diameter, 
because  the  larynx,  whose  diameter  is  related  to  that  of  the  throat, 
belongs  to  the  respiratory  apparatus,  the  capacity  of  which  should 
always  be  extensive.  Its  narrowness  is,  therefore,  an  absolute 
defect,  because  it  signifies  lungs  of  small  capacity. 

In  examining  a  horse,  the  larynx  is  generally  compressed  with  the 
hand  to  determine  the  cough,  the  character  of  which  has  an  important 
clinical  aspect.  All  horses,  however,  are  not  equally  sensitive  to  this 
manipulation.  In  certain  animals  it  is  necessary  to  employ  both  hands 
to  obtain  this  result,  and  in  others  it  is  entirely  impossible  to  excite 
a  cough. 

The  character  of  the  cough  indicates  the  condition  of  the  respiratory  organs. 
Provoking  a  cough  sometimes  causes  the  ejection  of  a  discharge  which  has  been 
fraudulently  concealed.  As  soon  as  such  is  visible  it  is  judicious  to  examine  the 
nostrils  and  at  the  same  time  observe  any  movements  of  deglutition.  In  some 
rare  cases  of  glanderous  ulceration  of  the  larynx  and  trachea,  the  expectorated 
matters  are  thrown  into  the  mouth  and  immediately  swallowed.  Abadie,  of 
Nantes,  who  has  first  called  attention  to  this  fact,  advises  in  these  cases  the 
opening  of  the  mouth  of  the  animal  and  allowing  the  secretion  to  run  out. 

The  blemishes  of  the  throat  are  depilations,  excoriations,  and  cicatrices, 
indicating  the  use  of  revulsives  employed  in  diseases  of  the  larynx  and  pharynx. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

HEAD   IN   GENERAL. 


WE  have  studied  in  the  preceding  chapters  the  different  regions 
of  the  head,  as  to  their  situation,  form,  beauty,  defects,  diseases,  and 
blemishes.  In  other  words,  we  have  employed  a  system  of  analysis  in 
endeavoring  to  point  out  the  physical  and  anatomical  characters,  the 
integrity,  imperfections,  and  good  qualities  of  each  region  in  particular. 


86  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

This  study  will  not  be  complete  without  a  glance  at  the  different 
parts  as  a  whole,  purposely  reserved  for  a  special  chapter.  This  syn- 
thetical study  will  enable  us  to  perceive  much  more  easily  the  harmo- 
nious relations  which  should  exist  among  them ;  it  will  furnish  us 
also  with  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  head,  as  to  its  length,  volume, 
direction,  general  form,  attachments  to  the  neck,  movements,  and  their 
influence  upon  the  displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  and,  finally,  the 
expression. 

A.— Harmonious  Relations  of  the  Head. 

M.  Richard  *  was  the  first  to  insist,  with  detail,  upon  the  fact  that 
the  relation  of  construction  of  the  different  regions  seems  to  be- 
much  more  intimate  in  the  head  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the 
body.  It  is,  he  says,  not  rare  to  see,  for  example,  a  very  beautiful 
hock  associated  with  a  defective  haunch,  a  good  shoulder  with  a 
defective  croup,  withers  well  made  with  loins  concave  and  badly 
attached,  a  narrow  chest  with  limbs  strong  and  well  formed,  etc. 

Inharmonious  proportions  are  infinitely  less  common  in  the  head. 
Thus,  large  nostrils,  well-situated  eyes,  ears  widely  separated,  and  a 
large  intermaxillary  space  coexist  nearly  always  with  a  wide  forehead  ; 
whilst  a  narrow  forehead  implies,  in  most  horses,  large  ears,  placed 
high  and  approaching  each  other,  eyes  but  partly  open,  small  nostrils, 
and  a  narrow  intermaxillary  space.  The  fineness  and  mobility  of  the 
ears  and  of  the  eyelids,  the  amplitude  of  the  nostrils,  the  thinness  of 
the  lips,  the  vivacity  of  the  eyes,  and  the  intelligent  expression  of  the 
physiognomy,  are  beauties  which  ordinarily  coexist. 

It  follows,  then,  that  a  good  or  a  bad  conformation  of  one  part 
naturally  permits  a  good  or  a  bad  disposition  of  another.  Beauty  of 
the  forehead  is  not  associated  with  narrowness  of  the  nose ;  that  of  the 
nostrils  with  narrowness  of  the  intermaxillary  space ;  the  intelligent  ex- 
pression of  a  beautiful  eye  with  stupidity  of  the  remainder  of  the  face. 

In  a  general  way,  it  is  correct  to  say  that  the  beauties  and  de- 
fects of  the  head  correlate  themselves  in  a  manner  almost  absolute ; 
but  we  must  remember  that  there  are  some  subjects  in  which  these 
relations  are  defective.  Therefore,  in  selecting  a  horse,  such  a  desir- 
able quality  as  a  wide  forehead  should  not  of  itself  be  regarded  as 
conclusive  of  general  excellence.  If  the  harmony  be  in  nature,  it  is 
often  destroyed  by  man,  who  modifies  the  natural  conditions  of  existence 
of  the  domestic  animals. 

i  A.  Richard,  Etude  du  cheval,  5e  6d.,  1874,  p.  127. 


HEAD    IN    GENERAL.  87 

X  propos  of  the  proportions,  we  will  again  revert  to  this  subject. 
For  the  present  we  will  only  indicate  the  harmonious  relations  of  the 
head  without  ignoring  the  possible  digressions  or  exceptions  to  this 
principle,  which  is  really  less  absolute  than  M.  Richard  has  been 
willing  to  admit. 

B. — Length  of  the  Head. 

Since  the  time  of  Bourgelat,  all  have  been  generally  in  accord  as  to 
the  classic  length  of  the  head  :  that  the  height  of  the  body  measured 
from  the  withers  to  the  ground,  or  the  distance  between  the  angle  of 
the  shoulder  and  the  hip-joint,  should  be  two  and  one-hal/  times  the 
length  of  the  head.  If  these  distances  were  more  than  two  and  one- 
half  times  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  head,  it  was  too  short;  if  the 
reverse  was  true,  it  was  considered  too  long. 

When  it  has  an  appropriate  length,  it  is  carried  with  grace,  responds 
easily  to  the  action  of  the  bit,  and  does  not  overburden  the  anterior 
members.  A  head  too  long  is  too  heavy,  displaces  the  centre  of 
gravity  forward,  restrains  the  movements  of  the  anterior  extremities, 
bears  heavily  on  the  reins,  and  diminishes  to  such  an  extent  the  speed 
and  usefulness  of  the  animal.  If  too  short,  it  becomes  lighter,  more 
movable,  and  favors  rapidity  of  movement  by  the  removal  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  from  the  anterior  limbs. 

These  are  reasons  of  so  little  value  that  an  excess  or  a  deficiency 
in  length  can  be  compensated  by  a  short  or  a  long  neck.  In  the 
saddle-horse,  the  head  should  be  short ;  if  too  long,  it  displaces  the 
centre  of  gravity  forward,  and  throws  too  much  weight  on  the  fore 
limbs.  In  the  draught-horse,  however,  this  objection  disappears  and 
is  rather  favorable  to  traction.  We  have  seen  many  excellent  horses 
which,  according  to  the  measurements  indicated  by  Bourgelat,  had  this 
region  very  long  or  very  short.  In  such  instances,  the  length  of  the 
head  is  to  be  considered  as  to  its  harmonious  development  with  the 
other  portions  of  the  body,  which  vary  with  size  and  race,  rather  than 
by  its  influence  upon  the  real  qualities  of  the  animal. 

C.— Volume  of  the  Head. 

The  volume  of  the  head  is  represented  by  different  names,  which 
also  express  its  coexisting  peculiarity  of  construction.  It  is  called  fine 
when  the  osseous  processes,  the  muscles,  and  subcutaneous  blood-vessels 
and  nerves  are  well  outlined.  This  is  an  index  of  a  good  constitution, 
and  is  a  reliable  sign  of  good  breeding ;  whereas,  indistinctness  of  these 


88  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

component  parts  and  an  abundance  of  connective  tissue  always  denote 
a  soft,  lymphatic  temperament  and  a  common  ancestry. 

The  head  is  termed  gross  or  coarse  when  it  is  defective  from  an 
excess  of  all  its  dimensions,  owing  its  volume  more  particularly  to  the 
great  development  of  its  bony  framework.  The  objections  to  this  con- 
formation are  the  same  as  to  that  of  the  long  head.  It  is  admissible, 
however,  with  the  same  restrictions  that  we  made  when  speaking  of  the 
length  of  the  head.  In  the  draught-horse  it  is  not  a  defect,  because  his 
power  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  his  weight,  and  not  so  much 
upon  the  rapidity  and  extent  of  his  movements ;  also  because  it  tends 
to  fix  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  when  the  muscles  contract. 

The  head  is  designated  fleshy  or  plain  when,  in  addition  to  grossness, 
there  is  an  almost  complete  effacement  of  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and 
osseous  and  muscular  protuberances  in  consequence  of  the  thickness  of 
the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissue,  as  well  as  of  the  diminution  of  the 
bony  processes  themselves.  It  reveals  a  weak  constitution,  a  lymphatic 
temperament,  and  all  the  predispositions  to  which  the  latter  is  heir. 

It  is  called  senile  or  sharp  when  it  appears  emaciated  from  atrophy 
and  absorption  of  the  adipose  tissue  and  of  the  muscles.  The  emi- 
nences of  the  bones,  such  as  the  maxillary  spine,  become  quite  con- 
spicuous, the  supra-orbit  is  hollow,  the  eye  is  deeply  embedded  in  its 
orbit,  the  cheek  flat,  the  face  depressed  over  the  maxillary  sinuses,  and 
the  skin  seems  attached  to  the  bones.  In  a  word,  it  presents  all  the 
characteristics  of  advanced  age  and  exhaustion  from  extreme  usage. 

It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  senile  head  proper,  of  which 
we  will  speak  further  on. 


D. — Direction  of  the  Head. 

The  long  axis  of  the  head  may  assume  three  principal  positions 
relative  to  the  vertical  line  :  the  oblique,  the  horizontal  and  the  vertical. 
The  last  two  qualifications  are  not  to  be  taken  literally,  but  as  express- 
ing an  approximation  to  the  vertical  and  horizontal  positions. 

The  head  has  a  good  as  well  as  a  natural  direction  when  it  ex- 
tends obliquely  from  above  to  below,  from  before  to  behind,  and  forms, 
with  the  ground  surface,  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  The  horse  is 
thereby  enabled  to  distinguish  perfectly  objects  placed  before  him ;  he 
is  enabled  to  avoid  them,  and  is  less  likely  to  stumble  and  fall.  It 
is  also  necessary  to  add  that  the  bit  has  a  suitable  point  of  support  upon 
the  bars,  since  the  insertion  of  the  reins  or  the  lines  is  more  perpen- 
dicular to  *the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  represent  the  arm  of  a 


HEAD    IN    GENERAL. 


89 


lever.     But  then  there  are  other  reasons  of  a  purely  mechanical  nature 
(Fig.  28). 

We  represent  by  the  lines  AB  and  AC  respectively  the  directions 
of  the  head  and  the  neck.  The  former  being  very  movable,  admit- 
ting of  extension  and  flexion,  we 
represent  the  direction  of  the  exten- 
sors and  flexors  by  th'e  dotted  lines 
Ce  and  Cd,  in  order  to  show  at 
what  angles  they  are  inserted  upon 
their  lever-arm,  the  head.  It  is  to 
be  remarked  that  when  the  obliquity 
of  the  head  is  carried  to  an  angle 
of  45  degrees,  the  extensors  and  the 
flexors  have  an  incidence  approach- 
ing a  perpendicular  direction,  which 
they  will  not  have  when  the  head 
has  any  other  inclination. 

The  animal  respires  more  easily 
(the  larynx  being  neither  in  a  state 
of  compression  nor  exaggerated  ex- 
tension), responds  more  promptly  to 

the  bit,  is  more  readily  controlled,  and  executes  with  greater  facility 
any  movements  of  the  head  which  may  be  demanded. 

When  the  head  is  carried  horizontally,  the  centre  of  gravity  is. 
elevated  and  displaced  forward  and  the  stability  of  the  equilibrium  is 
lessened.  The  larynx  and  trachea  are  placed  in  a  straight  line,  fa^il- 
itating  the  entrance  and  exit  of  air.  The  body  being  then  in  a  state 
of  unstable  equilibrium,  the  hind  limbs,  which  are  principally  concerned 
in  locomotion,  can  more  easily  displace  the  centre  of  gravity,  the  ftre 
limbs,  in  order  to  avoid  falling  forward,  move  more  rapidly,  and  loco- 
motion is  thereby  increased.1 

This  position  is  not  maintained  at  rest,  but  only  during  exercise, 
and  more  especially  in  horses  which  are  ewe-necked  and  in  young 
saddle-horses  at  the  beginning  of  their  dressing,  when  they  are  not  yet 
habituated  to  the  action  of  the  bit.  This  attitude  is  expressed  by  say- 
ing that  the  animal  carries  his  head  towards  the  scent. 

If  there  are  some  advantages  in  horses  carrying  their  heads  in  this 


FIG.  28. 


1  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  our  fastest  trotting-horses  the  height  of  the  posterior 
extremities  exceeds  that  of  the  withers.  This  excess  is  an  additional  aid  to  the  displacement 
of  the  centre  of  gravity  by  the  hind  limbs,  according  to  the  principle  enunciated,  and  hence 
favors-an  increase  of  speed.  An  opposite  conformation  will  diminish  speed.  (Harger.) 


90 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


position  relative  to  the  increase  of  speed,  of  which  we  will  speak 
later,  there  are  at  the  same  time  some  disadvantages.  The  horse  can- 
not so  easily  recognize  objects  immediately  about  him ;  he  cannot 
appreciate  as  well  the  nature  of  the  surface  over  which  he  travels, 
and  is  more  likely  to  stumble  and  fall.  The  most  serious  defect  which 
this  direction  entails  is  that  the  bit  cannot  act  perpendicularly  to  the 
bars.  All  the  traction  exercised  on  the  bit  tends  to  retract  the  com- 
missures of  the  lips  and  carry  it  against  the  first  molars.  The  teeth 
may  now  grasp  the  bit,  the  animal  may  become  uncontrollable,  and  is 
then  said  to  have  taken  the  bit. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  from  another  point  of  view,  that  in  the  hori- 
zontal position  of  the  head  the  extensors  attach  at  an  obtuse  angle,  an 
incidence  unfavorable  to  contraction ;  the  attachment  of  the  flexors,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  at  an  acute  angle,  also  a  less  favorable  incidence 
(Fig.  29,  A). 


FIG.  29. 


This  carriage  of  the  head,  when  habitual,  is  nearly  always  accom- 
panied by  a  concavity  or  reversing  of  the  neck.  In  such  cases,  as 
Professor  Lesbre1  thinks,  the  articular  relations  between  the  atlas 
and  the  axis  will  assume  the  normal  condition  most  appropriate 
for  the  execution  of  all  the  movements.  These  would  be  extremely 
limited  in  extension  if  the  cervical  axis  did  not  curve  itself.  Anat- 
omy also  explains  that  lateral  inclination  of  the  head  in  such  an 
elevated  attitude  becomes  almost  impossible,  because  its  production 

1  Lesbre,  Communication  orale. 


HEAD    IN    GENERAL.  91 

requires  a  mean  position  of  contact  of  the  articular  surfaces.  Finally, 
the  reversing  of  the  neck,  which  is  the  consequence,  renders  the  inser- 
tion of  the  muscles,  now  approaching  the  perpendicular  direction,  less 
defective,  and  at  the  same  time  increases  the  power  of  the  mechanical 
action  of  the  nuchal  ligament  (Fig.  29,  B). 

It  is  sometimes  impossible  to  prevent  the  animal  from  holding  the 
head  in  this  position.  The  remedy  consists  in  the  use  of  ihe_martin- 
gale,  a  strap  of  leather  of  suitable  length  extending  from  the  bit  to- 
the  girth  of  the  saddle.  This  apparatus  is  frequently  added  to  the 
harness  simply  as  an  ornament.  In  sadclle-horses  this  faulty  direction 
can  also  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  a  martingale  with  rings  at  its 
extremity,  through  which  the  reins  pass,  and  which  act  as  a  pulley  to 
keep  the  latter  in  their  proper  position,  and  thus  prevent  the  elevation 
of  the  head. 

When  the  head  is  held  in  the  vertical  position  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  carried  backward  and  downward.  The  line  of  gravitation 
approaches  the  centre  of  the  base  of  support,  whence  ensues  a  state  of 
stable  equilibrium,  more  difficulty  in  displacing  the  centre  of  gravity, 
and  less  quickness  of  movement.  This  position  of  the  head  is  objec- 
tionable in  driving-horses  and  in  running-horses,  whilst  in  draught- 
horses  it  is  not. 

A  vertical  head  is  always  accompanied  by  an  arched  or  swan  neek> 
the  appearance  of  which  is  agreeable  to  the  eye.  Besides  having  the 
defect  which  we  have  indicated,  the  head  is  not  in  a  good  position  for 
seeing  distinctly  objects  beyond  a  certain  distance.  The  field  of  vision 
does  not  extend  far  enough  ahead  to  enable  the  animal  to  avoid  obsta- 
cles which  may  be  in  his  path.  Also,  like  those  which  carry  the  head 
in  extension,  he  is  apt  to  stumble  and  fall,  but  for  opposite  reasons. 

In  this  direction  of  the  head  the  incidence  of  the  extensors  is 
acute  and  that  of  the  flexors  obtuse  (Fig.  30,  A).  Here  again  the 
neck  is  incurvated  or  arched  to  preserve  the  normal  relation  of  the 
articular  surfaces  of  the  occipito-atloid  articulation  and  render  at  the 
same  time  the  insertion  of  the  muscles  more  perpendicular  to  the  arm 
of  their  lever  (Fig.  30,  B).  This  vertical  direction  is  less  objectionable 
in  the  saddle-horse  than  in  any  other.  In  horses  which  present  it  the 
steps  are  short  and  the  flexion  of  the  knees  (knee-action)  is  more 
marked.  They  are  more  sensitive  to  the  bit,  and  quite  manageable 
if  the  conformation  be  not  exaggerated. 

When  excessive,  however,  it  constitutes  a  serious  defect,  as  when 
the  head  is  oblique  from  above  to  below  and  from  before  to  behind,  and  its 
inferior  extremity  approaches  the  sternum.  The  effect  of  the  backward 


92  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity  has  here  reached  its  highest 


FIG.  30. 

limit ;  according  to  the  usual  expression,  the  horse  arches  his  neck  to 

his  breastj  cannot  see 
the  surrounding  obsta- 
cles, and  removes  his 
head  entirely  from  the 
control  of  the  hand. 

In  certain  subjects 
the  branches  of  the  bit 
are  said  to  touch  the 
pectoral  region.  This 
has  not  yet  been 
proved  by  our  obser- 
vation. If  it  be  true 
it  can  be  remedied  by 
limiting  the  excessive 
flexion  of  the  head 
FIG.  si.  upon  the  neck  by 

means  of  an  over- 
check, — a  system  of  straps  extending  from  the  saddle  to  each  side  of  the 
bit  and  inflected  over  the  poll  (Fig.  31). 

E.— Forms  of  the  Head. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  chapter  we  compared  the  general  form  of 
the  head  to  that  of  a  quadrangular  pyramid,  in  order  to  establish  the 


HEAD    IN    GENERAL.  93 

different  subdivisions  and  facilitate  their  description.  This  compari- 
son is  not  sufficient  to  specify  clearly  certain  conformations  which  must 
be  described,  and  to  which  have  been  given  particular  names. 

1 .  The  head  is  called  straight  when  its  anterior  face  is  rectilinear  in 
every  sense.     It  is  accompanied  ordinarily  by  a  wide  forehead  and  nose, 
large  nostrils,  wide  separation  of  the  ears,  the  eyes,  and  of  the  branches 
of  the  lower  jaw,  exceeding  fineness  of  the  skin,  of  the  eyelids,  and  of 
the  lips,  and  a  high  faculty  of  expression.     It  is  the  type  of  absolute 
beauty ;  it  indicates  the  nobleness  of  the  animal,  his  purity  of  blood, 
his  energy,  and  his  kindness  of  temperament.     It  is  found  in  Aryan 
and  thoroughbred  horses  and  their  descendants  of  mixed  breed.     It  is 
the  one  most  highly  appreciated. 

2.  The  conical  head  is   that  which  is   much  contracted  at  its 
inferior  extremity.      It  is  regarded  as  a  defect,  because  it  presents, 
it  is  said,  all  the  characters  opposed  to  those  of  the  preceding  form. 
This  is  true  in  many  cases,  and  some  who  designate  the  beauty  of  the 
head  by  saying  that  the  horse  should  be  able  to  drink  from  a  glass, 
little  suspect  that  they  indicate  precisely  the  defective  point ;  the  animal 
is  nearly  always  incapable  of  performing  work  requiring  force  and 
energy.     Yet  we  have  known,  for  several  years,  excellent  horses  which 
had  the  conical  head.     Old  subjects,  from  senile  atrophy  of  the  max- 
illary bones  and  the  change  in  the  direction  of  the  incisor  teeth,  some- 
times acquire  this  form  of  head. 

In  a  general  examination  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  assure  our- 
selves that  the  forehead  and  nose  are  wide,  the  jaws  well  separated ;  in 
a  word,  that  the  head  does  not  present  one  of  the  more  exceptional 
forms  of  which  we  will  speak  immediately.  In  the  latter  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  head  is  characterized  by  a  curvature  more  or  less  marked, 
which  may  be  concave  or  convex.  These  have  received  special  names. 

3.  The  head  is  arched  when  the  profile  of  its  anterior  face  is 
convex. 

4.  It  is  called  hare-faced  when  the  convexity  is  limited  to  the 
region  of  the  forehead. 

5.  It  is  designated  ram's  head  when  the  convexity  is  limited  to 
the  nose. 

I)e  Curnieu  also  described  the  hurdy-gurdy  head,  so  named  on 
account  of  its  resemblance  to  the  profile  of  that  instrument.  It  pre- 
sents "  a  curve,  more  or  less  pronounced,  extending  without  interruption 
from  the  poll  to  the  lips ;  it  ordinarily  has  considerable  expression  and 
indicates  a  pure  line  of  descent."  It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  this 
variety,  as  all  its  characteristics  correspond  to  those  of  the  arched  form. 


94  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  convexity  of  the  head,  whatever  may  be  its  extent  and  degree, 
is  not  very  desirable,  on  account  of  its  inelegance  and  the  habitual  nar- 
rowness which  accompanies  it. 

For  a  long  time,  more  especially  during  the  last  century,  the  con- 
vex head  was  very  much  in  demand.  But  it  was  believed  that  horses 
which  presented  it  had  narrow  nasal  cavities  and  intermaxillary  spaces  ; 
that  they  were  particularly  predisposed  to  become  roarers.  By  judi- 
cious crossing,  attempts  were  made  to  cause  its  disappearance  from  the 
races  in  which  it  was  most  common, — those  of  the  north  of  Europe, 
Normandy,  Limousin,  Spain,  Algeria,  etc.  To-day  it  is  quite  rare 
and  is  ceasing  to  be  a  distinct  race  peculiarity.  Most  authors  have 
considered  it  as  characteristic  of  a  deficient  development  of  the  cranial 
cavity  and  the  respiratory  apparatus,  and  as  indicating  a  predisposition 
to  grave  diseases.  M.  de  Curnieu  remarks  that  "  it  represents  the  ex- 
treme of  degeneration ;  the  horse  possessing  such  a  shaped  head  is  the 
idiot  of  the  species,  and  is  found  in  the  poorest  parts  of  England, 
Germany,  and  Normandy." 

6.  The  head  is  snub-nosed  when  its  anterior  face  is  concave,  or 
when  the  concavity  is  limited  to  the  inferior  part  of  the  forehead.     It 
is  common  among  the  Irish  race,  as  the  Irish  cob  and  the  Shetland 
pony,  and  in  the  Corsican  and  Sardinian  ponies.     Ordinarily  short, 
wide,  and  in  relation  with  the  development  of  the  respiratory  apparatus, 
it   is   incorrect   to   believe   that   it  is  an   objectionable  characteristic. 
Nothing  justifies  this  belief.     It  gives  the  animal  a  certain  air  of 
aggressiveness   and    independence ;    it   is    often    allied   with    marked 
robustness,  great  energy,  and  a  series  of  other  good  qualities  of  the 
race  in  which  it  is  observed. 

7.  The  head  is  compared  to  that  of  the  rhinoceros  when  the 
concavity  exists  only  at  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  nasal  bones.     It 
was  formerly  observed  in  the  Ardennaise  horse  and  is  a  good  conforma- 
tion, although  perhaps  disagreeable  to  the  eye.     It  may  be  congenital 
or  acquired :  congenital,  when  it  is  present  at  birth ;  acquired,  when 
it  is  the  result  of  pressure  or  of  fracture  of  the  nasal  bones,  as  we  have 
remarked  in  the  chapter  on  the  nose.     It  only  becomes  a  defect  in  the 
latter  case  when,  from  displacement  or  the  formation  of  a  callus  in  the 
nasal  fossae,  it  becomes  an  obstruction  to  respiration. 

The  relative  value  of  these  diiferent  forms  is  by  no  means 
absolute,  and  each  one  has  numerous  exceptions.  We  have  known 
h  arses  with  arched  heads,  which,  during  several  years,  performed 
extremely  laborious  services.  In  others,  the  width  of  the  maxillary 
space  by  our  measurements  was  as  great  as  that  in  subjects  with 


HEAD    IN    GENERAL.  95 

straight  heads.  It  appears  to  us  very  hazardous  to  believe  that  this 
conformation  predisposes  to  roaring,  and  the  facts  which  we  will  relate 
seem  to  prove  that  the  observations  made  during  the  last  century  have 
been  mal-interpreted.  The  lesions  of  chronic  roaring  do  not  reside  in 
the  nasal  cavities.  Among  horses  with  straight  heads  roaring  seems  to 
be  as  common  as  among  those  in  which  they  are  convex  ;  finally,  it 
should  not  occasion  surprise  to  find  roaring  more  common  in  some  races 
than  in  others,  this  resulting  not  so  much  from  an  anatomical  deTect  as 
from  a  physiological  weakness  transmitted  by  heredity.  This  confor- 
mation is  really  only  defective  when  accompanied  by  a  veritable  nar- 
rowness of  the  cranial  cavity,  the  forehead,  nose,  nostrils,  or  maxillary 
space.  In  other  cases  it  is  perfectly  reconcilable  with  services  which 
exact  force  and  vitality.  The  same  argument  is  true  as  to  glanders,  to 
which  horses  with  arched  heads  were,  incorrectly,  said  to  be  more 
predisposed  than  others. 

F. — Attachments  of  the  Head. 

Attachments  of  the  head  is  the  name  given  to  the  mode  of  union 
between  that  part  of  the  body  and  the  neck.  The  head  is  said  to  be 
well  attached  when  there  exists  a  slight  depression  in  front  of  the  trans- 
verse apophysis  of  the  atlas,  extending  from  the  poll  to  the  throat. 
When  its  union  with  the  neck  forms  a  graceful  curve,  the  movements 
are  easy  and  extended.  This  is  preferable  in  the  saddle-horse  and 
those  used  for  light  purposes.  It  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  finer  races  as 
well  as  in  mixed  breeds,  in  the  English  horse,  the  true  Arabian,  the 
Anglo-Norman,  the  Tarban  horse,  etc. 

The  head  is  poorly  attached,  or  unfastened,  when  the  parotid  grooves 
are  too  much  accentuated.  Often,  with  this  arrangement,  the  neck  is 
long  and  slender,  the  muscles  of  the  members  slightly  developed,  the 
loins  depressed,  the  chest  narrow,  and  the  animal  lacks  strength  and 
endurance.  The  head'  is  plastered  on  when  the  parotid  groove  is 
effaced.  The  subject  is  then  heavy  on  the  bit  and  appears  unsightly. 
This  condition  is  most  objectionable  in  the  saddle-horse. 

G.— Movements  of  the  Head. 

The  movements  of  the  head  play  an  important  part  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  different  functions  which  it  fulfils.  It  contains,  first,  the 
organs  of  smell,  sight,  hearing,  and  taste.  We  can  add  to  these  the  sense 
of  touch,  although  the  latter  belongs  also  to  other  regions.  Whence  it 
follows  that  the  head  is  obliged  to  assume  different  attitudes  in  order 


96  THE    EXTERIOR  +OF    THE    HORSE. 

to  place  the  organs  of  which  it  is  the  seat  in  the  best  conditions  to 
establish  their  proper  relation  with  the  external  world.  The  most 
interesting  movements  for  us  to  study,  however,  are  those  whose  object 
is  to  modify  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  while  standing  or 
walking.  The  head  occupies,  in  fact,  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  trunk, 
a  position  which  also  allows  it  to  oscillate  like  a  veritable  pendulum  at 
the  extremity  of  the  cervical  stalk.  It  may  be  raised  or  lowered, 
remain  in  the  axis  of  the  body,  or  be  displaced  laterally,  backward,  or 
forward;  in  a  word,  the  centre  of  gravity  can  be  moved  upward, 
downward,  forward,  backward,  sideways,  raised  from  the  base  of  sup- 
port or  drawn  to  it,  removed  from  the  centre  of  this  base,  forced  out 
of  it,  or  again  drawn  back.  These  multiple  actions  are  produced  still 
more  freely  by  the  head  when  it  is  attached  to  a  long  neck,  in  which 
case  its  movements  are  easier  and  more  extended.  Therefore,  all  the 
influence  which  it  exercises  upon  locomotion  can  be  understood,  since,  it 
can,  according  to  the  will  of  the  animal,  change  rapidly  the  condi- 
tions of  stability  or  instability  of  the  equilibrium  ;  in  a  word,  modify 
the  speed. 

•Not  only  do  we  speak  of  its  extensive  displacements,  the  effect  of 
which  is  understood  at  first  sight,  but  we  also  make  allusion  to  its 
partial  movements  upon  the  neck. 

According  to  our  researches,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  head  is 
situated  on  the  median  line,  at  the  intersection  of  a  transversal  plane,' 
which  passes  posterior  to  the  last  superior  molar  tooth,  and  of  a  hori- 
zontal plane  tangent  to  the  palatine  arch.  Should  the  head  be  extended, 
it  becomes  a  mass  of  about  fifteen  to  sixteen  kilogrammes,  which  will 
carry  it,  from  this  fact  alone,  in  advance  of  the  cervical  lever,  and 
which  will  tend  to  deviate  the  line  of  gravitation  in  front  of  the  base 
of  support.  This  is  the  attitude  which  it  assumes  in  the  race-horse 
when  he  is  running  at  full  speed.  When  it  becomes  flexed,  reverse 
effects  are  produced  ;  when  it  is  directed  to  the  side,  the  corresponding 
anterior  member  will  at  once  be  overburdened,  and  the  other  as  much 
disburdened.  This  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  importance  of  these  total 
and  partial  displacements.  We  will,  besides,  have  occasion  to  return 
to  the  subject  when  describing,  in  their  proper  place,  the  gaits,  the 
attitudes,  and  the  movements  which  the  animal  performs. 

H. — Expression  of  the  Head. 

The  face  of  the  horse  is  certainly  the  part  of  the  body  upon  which 
the  sensations  and  the  passions  which  he  experiences  show  themselves 


HEAD    IN    GENERAL.  97 

most  clearly.  When  this  faculty  of  expression  is  carried  to  a  high 
degree,  he  is  said  to  have  figure  and  expression. 

The  parts  which  are  most  particularly  charged  with  the  manifesta- 
tions of  the  different  internal  states  of  the  animal  are  :  the  eyes  and  the 
eyelids,  the  ears,  the  nostrils,  the  lips,  and  the  mouth.  These  organs, 
through  the  different  attitudes  which  they  take,  depict,  by  turns,  gentle- 
ness, vivacity,  anger,  sadness,  depression,  joy,  pain,  fear,  frankness, 
courage,  ferocity,  aggression,  savageness,  indifference,  stupidity,  ennui, 
etc.  Ordinarily,  the  faculty  of  expression  of  the  head  is  in  direct 
relation  with  the  purity  of  the  race,  the  quality  of  the  animals,  their 
energy,  and  their  intelligence.  But  it  is  a  gross  error  to  believe  that  it 
is  possible  to  appreciate  the  qualities  of  a  horse  from  an  examination 
of  his  physiognomy  alone.  The  latter,  like  that  of  man,  can  deceive, 
perhaps  still  more,  for  it  has  not  the  same  mobility  and  shades ;  its 
language  is  less  familiar  to  us ;  its  most  powerful  auxiliary  (gesture)  and 
its  best  interpreter  (speech)  is  wanting.  Besides,  if  the  features  of  the 
face  are  quite  well  understood,  through  education  and  habitual  inter- 
course, as  regards  horses  of  the  same  species,  they  become  much  less 
comprehensible  when  it  is  a  question  of  different  species  having  between 
them  only  limited  relations. 

Man  reads  upon  the  face  of  his  fellow-man  sentiments  which  he 
feels ;  long  observation  and  habit  are  indispensable  to  him,  on  the  con- 
trary, in  order  to  understand  the  expressive  manifestations  of  the  horse. 

Besides,  we  should  not  be  deceived  about  their  value ;  for  in  some 
select  subjects  in  which  the  head  clearly  reveals  the  greater  part  of 
the  internal  passions,  the  mass  of  the  body  will  often  deprive  it  of 
expression. 

The  ability  of  the  buyer  will  consist,  then,  in  the  prudence  with 
which  he  guards  himself  against  the  premature  inferences  that  can  be 
drawn  from  their  absence. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  who  exhibits  the  animal  for  sale 
is  greatly  interested  in  showing  qualities  which  the  horse'  has  not,  or  has 
only  in  a  feeble  degree,  and  can  by  a  kind  of  special  preparation — the 
fear  of  blows,  the  blows  received,  the  introduction  of  a  piece  of  ginger 
into  the  anus,  etc. — give  him  an  appearance  of  vivacity  or  energy 
which,  unfortunately,  will  be  only  temporary. 


98  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


PART   II. 

THE  BODY. 
CHAPTER   I. 

SUPERIOR  FACE  OF  THE  BODY. 


A.— The  Neck. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  neck  is  a  sin- 
gle region,  flattened  from  side  to  side,  situated  at  the  anterior  extrem- 
ity of  the  trunk  and  supporting  the  head.  Free  on  its  lateral  faces, 
it  is  limited  in  front  and  above  by  the  pott,  the  parotid  region,  and 
the  throat;  behind  and  below  by  the  withers,  the  shoulders,  and  the 
breast. 

It  has  for  its  osseous  base  a  bony  axis  formed  by  the  cervical  ver- 
tebrae, sustained  superiorly  by  the  two  portions  of  the  nuchal  ligament 
and  enveloped  completely  by  numerous  and  voluminous  muscles.  The 
trachea,  the  oesophagus,  the  arteries,  the  veins,  the  lymphatics,  and, 
finally,  the  nerves  leading  to  the  head,  occupy  its  inferior  border.  The 
mane  adorns  its  superior  border. 

This  region  is  an  important  one  to  study,  because  it  constitutes  at  the 
anterior  part  of  the  trunk  the  arm  of  a  lever  more  or  less  long,  whose 
extremity  gives  attachment  to  the  head,  which  is  a  kind  of  resistance 
that  follows  all  its  displacements  and  concurs  with  it  to  modify  the  sit- 
uation of  the  centre  of  gravity  during  progressive  movements. 

Divisions. — Whatever  may  be  the  particular  form  of  the  region 
of  the  neck,  it  may  be  represented  as  a  pyramid  flattened  from  side  to 
side,  the  base  of  which  corresponds  to  its  posterior  and  the  summit  to 
its  anterior  extremity.  Its  periphery  presents,  besides,  two  faces,  a 
right  and  a  left,  and  a  superior  and  inferior  border. 

1.  Lateral  Faces. — Each  of  the  lateral  faces  is  traversed  over  its 
entire  length  by  a  round  thickening  corresponding  to  the  cervical  ver- 
tebrae covered  by  the  muscles,  the  most  superficial  of  which  is  the  mas- 
toido-humeralis.  Above  this  enlargement  is  an  irregularly-triangular 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  99 

surface,  on  which  are  seen,  in  fine  and  well-bred  horses,  the  digitations 
and  directions  of  the  muscles  underneath  the  skin.  Below,  it  presents 
a  longitudinal  depression  along  the  side  of  the  trachea,  known  under 
the  name  of  jugular  gutter.  The  width  of  the  latter  diminishes  from 
before  to  behind ;  its  depth  varies  with  the  subject  according  to  the 
form  of  the  neck,  the  muscular  development,  etc.  In  those  animals  in 
which  the  neck  is  stag-like,  or  reversed,  this  gutter  is  more  superficial. 
Whatever  may  be  its  disposition,  it  lodges  under  the  skin  a  large  super- 
ficial vein,  the  jugular,  which  becomes  immediately  very  apparent 
when  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  interfered  with  by  any  obstacle,  as 
the  pressure  of  too  small  a  collar,  for  example. 

2.  Borders. — The  inferior  border  is  thick  and  rounded,  because 
it  has  for  its  base  the  trachea.  Its  width  from  side  to  side  is  in  rela- 
tion with  the  calibre  of  this  conduit  and  the  amplitude  of  the  lungs.  It 
constitutes,  therefore,  a  mark  of  absolute  beauty. 

The  superior  border,  thinner  than  the  preceding,  supports  the 
mane.  Its  thinness  is  a  matter  of  beauty  and  is  to  be  sought  for ;  but, 
in  some  old  horses,  especially  stallions,  it  becomes  invaded  with  adi- 
pose tissue,  which  renders  it  so  heavy  that  it  cannot  sustain  itself  and 
falls  to  one  side.  Such  a  condition  is  called  lop-neck,  or  fallen-neck, 
an  ungraceful  disfigurement  which  makes  the  application  of  the  collar 
difficult,  and  is  accompanied  by  deep  transverse  folds,  which  are  always 
hard  to  cleanse,  and  in  which  colonies  of  acari  often  take  refuge.  We 
have  seen  some  animals  in  which  these  furrows  were  sufficiently  deep 
to  bury  the  hand  when  the  head  was  extended. 

The  region  of  the  neck  should  be  examined  as  to  its  form,  direction, 
or  carriage,  volume,  length,  mode  of  attachment  to  the  head,  and  its 
movements. 

Form. — The  neck  is  called  straight,  or  pyramidal,  when  its  borders 
are  rectilinear  and  its  lateral  faces  nearly  plane  or  but  slightly  rounded, 
according  to  the  age,  the  sex,  the  volume  of  the  muscles,  etc.,  of  the  ani- 
mal. The  head  is  then  well  supported  and  well  directed.  It  is  arched 
when  its  superior  border  describes  a  convexity  more  or  less  pronounced 
throughout  its  entire  length.  In  this  case  the  head  is  ordinarily  carried 
in  a  vertical  position  and  presents  the  defectiveness  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken.  If  the  convexity  be  limited  to  the  anterior  part  it  is 
designated  swan-neck,  by  reason  of  analogy  to  the  neck  of  that  bird, 
whose  graceful  curvature  it  imitates.  This  form  modifies,  like  the  pre- 
ceding, the  carriage  of  the  head,  but  the  vertical  direction  which  the  latter 
shows  is  less  pronounced.  Finally,  the  neck  is  reversed,  or  ewe-necked, 
when  its  superior  border  is  concave,  which  implies  a  proportional  con- 


100  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

vexity  of  the  inferior  border.  Many  horses  showing  this  conformation 
have,  in  front  of  the  withers,  a  distinct  depression.  Most  of  them 
also  hold  the  head  in  a  horizontal  direction,  as  we  have  indicated. 

In  a  general  way,  all  these  forms  are  so  much  more  compatible 
with  the  velocity  of  the  gait  the  more  the  head  is  carried  in  advance 
of  the  base  of  support  and,  consequently,  as  the  cervical  trunk  is  less 
convex  along  its  superior  border.  The  pyramidal  and  reversed  forms 
remove  the  head  farthest  from  the  body  and  denote  the  greatest  speed. 
On  the  contrary,  the  arched  and  the  swan-neck,  by  their  tendency 
to  curve  the  vertebrae  in  the  shape  of  an  S,  diminish  the  length  of 
the  neck,  move  the  centre  of  gravity  backward,  and  are  more  favor- 
able to  its  elevation  and  depression  as  well  as  to  the  lateral  displace- 
ment of  the  trunk.  They  also  offer  advantages  in  the  saddle-horse, 
in  which  grace,  brilliancy,  rapidity,  and  extent  of  movement  are  pre- 
ferred. 

These  conformations  can  be  acquired  by  means  of  mechanical  con- 
trivances and  appropriate  dressing.  All  horsemen  are  in  the  habit  of 
making  the  necks  of  their  horses  supple  by  obliging  them  to  execute 
progressively  the  movements  of  extension,  flexion,  and  lateral  inclina- 
tion. The  utility  of  such  suppleness  is  easily  understood,  since  this 
kind  of  functional  gymnastics  has  no  other  purpose  than  to  habituate 
the  animal  to  use  this  balance — so  powerful  and  so  useful — with  dex- 
terity and  rapidity,  and  thus  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  head.  We 
shall,  farther  on,  see  that  these  cervical  gymnastics,  carried  to  an  ex- 
treme, will  prove  prejudicial  in  certain  cases,  while,  when  well  employed, 
their  efficacy  becomes  incontestable  in  certain  others. 

Direction  or  Carriage. — Independently  of  the  particular  forms 
which  it  assumes,  the  neck  also  carries  itself  in  several  directions 
relative  to  the  vertical  line.  We  shall  consider  three  varieties  : 

1st.  The  vertical,  or,  more  properly,  an  approximation  to  the 
vertical.  In  this  attitude,  which  constitutes  a  point  of  beauty  and 
indicates  energy,  the  head  is  easily  sustained,  the  animal  is  easy  on  the 
reins  and  the  bit,  and  the  movements  of  the  shoulders  are  free  and 
extensive  (Fig.  32). 

Let  mn  and  OJ5,  for  illustration,  represent  the  directions  of  the 
shoulder  and  the  neck  respectively.  The  extensor  muscles  and  the 
mastoido-humeralis  will  be  schematically  represented  by  the  lines  Bm 
and  Bn.  The  latter,  it  will  be  plainly  seen,  has  a  more  considerable 
length,  and  therefore  a  greater  amplitude  of  contraction  to  elevate  the 
scapulo-humeral  angle  and  increase  the  arc  described  by  the  forefoot. 
We  see,  moreover,  that  the  weight  of  the  head,  represented  by  the  line 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY. 


101 


BR,  indicating  the  direction  of  the  force  of  gravity,  is  exerted  at  the 
end  of  the  cervical  lever  at  a  very  acute  angle,  an  incidence  which 
diminishes  the  intensity  of  the  force  of  gravity.  This  explains  why 
horses  carrying  the  neck  in  this  position  are  not  hard-mouthed;  the 


FIG.  32. 


head  seems  to  weigh  less  at  the  end  of  the  cervical  stalk,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  slightly-perpendicular  incidence  of  the  line  of  gravita- 
tion. 

Finally,  we  call  attention  to  the  favorable  insertion  of  the  extensor 
muscles,  Bm,  which  are  in  excellent  condition  to  resist  the  weight  of 
the  head  and  to  carry  it  backward  in  order  to  give  freedom  to  the 
action  of  the  anterior  limbs.  Horses  with  necks  thus  formed  are  well 
qualified  for  all  the  brilliant  movements  of  tossing  and  balancing  the 
head  in  the  riding-school  and  in  the  parade. 

2d.  The  Horizontal. — We  observe  this  direction  in  animals  that 
are  deficient  in  energy,  in  the  common  races,  and  in  those  which  are 


102  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

fatigued.  "  If  the  last,"  says  H.  Bouley,1  "  are  prevented,  by  the 
resistance  of  the  reins,  from  inclining  the  head  towards  the  ground, 
they  continually  toss  it  up  and  down,  and  by  this  oscillating  move- 
ment ease  the  muscles  and  relieve  themselves  of  the  fatigue  which  this 
position  occasions."  We  also  see  horses  that  are  attached  to  heavy 
loads  assume  this  attitude  occasionally,  for  reasons  which  we  have  seen 
when  speaking  of  the  direction  of  the  head. 

Whatever  may  be  the  circumstances  under  which  we  observe  it,  the 
animal  always  has  a  hard  mouth,  and  his  gait  is  shortened.  We  must 
except,  here,  the  race-horse,  whose  neck  is  held  horizontally  when  he  is 
urged  to  his  utmost  speed,  but  assumes  another  position  under  ordinary 
circumstances.  All  these  facts  are  explained  by  the  mechanical  consid- 
erations employed  above. 

Let,  for  example,  mn  and  OC  be  the  relative  direction  of  the 
shoulder  and  the  neck  (Fig.  32).  It  is  plain  that  the  mastoido-hume- 
ralis  is  shortened,  and  therefore  has  a  limited  degree  of  contraction. 
Nevertheless,  its  insertion  in  the  shoulder  is  much  more  perpendicular 
than  in  the  preceding  direction,  whence  it  results  that  the  muscle  will 
be  more  powerful  as  regards  the  intensity  of  its  action.  We  understand 
from  this  fact  how  it  is  that  horses  which  become  exhausted  during 
a  long  journey  carry  the  neck  in  this  direction.  Moreover,  the  line 
of  gravitation,  CR,  of  the  head  tends  to  become  more  and  more  per- 
pendicular with  the  cervical  axis,  which  gives  to  the  head  a  greater 
power  of  resistance  and  explains  why  these  animals  are  always  hard- 
mouthed. 

The  head  thus  held  displaces,  besides,  the  centre  of  gravity  forward, 
relieves  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body  from  a  portion  of  the  weight 
sustained  by  it,  and  exacts  a  smaller  expenditure  of  force  in  the  propul- 
sive efforts  of  the  hind  limbs. 

3d.  Finally,  the  neck  may  assume  an  intermediate  direction, — that  is 
to  say,  an  obliquity  of  about  45  degrees.  We  see  again,  by  inspecting 
Fig.  32,  that  in  this  instance  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
two  preceding  directions  are  about  equally  distributed.  The  muscles 
have  a  mean  length,  and  their  incidence  with  the  shoulder  is  favorable, 
the  step  is  sufficiently  extended,  and  the  head  is  neither  too  light  nor 
too  heavy  on  the  rein.  In  a  word,  for  good  service,  this  is  the  usual 
position  assumed  by  most  horses,  the  golden  mean  to  which  it  should 
be  reduced. 

Volume. — The  volume   of  the  neck  should  not  be  too  large. 

1  H.  Bouley,  Dictionnaire  pratique  de  m£decine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  veterinaires,  t. 
vi.  art.  "  Encolure." 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  103 

It  is  important  that  the  latter  should  be  harmoniously  proportioned  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  only  by  practice  are  we  enabled  to  judge 
of  the  characters  which  denote  this  harmony.  Thus,  it  may  be  slender 
or  thick,  two  conformations  intimately  associated  with  an  excess  or  a  de- 
ficiency of  its  length.  However,  in  stallions  the  neck  acquires  a  develop- 
ment which  must  not  be  considered  as  a  defect.  The  effect  of  castra- 
tion is  a  diminution  of  the  thickness  of  this  region  to  a  notable^ extent. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  neck,  which  is  measured  from  the 
middle  of  the  anterior  border  of  the  shoulder  to  the  anterior  extremity 
of  the  transverse  process  of  the  atlas,  is  correlative  to  its  volume,  which 
should  be  neither  excessive  nor  deficient,  under  penalty  of  destroying 
the  usefulness  of  the  animal. 

Let  us  see  what  happens  when  the  cervical  lever  is  lengthened  or 
shortened  on  this  or  on  that  side  of  its  normal  dimensions.  Let  (Fig. 
33)  mn  and  OC  be  the  relative  directions  of  the  shoulder  and  the  neck  ; 


FIG.  33. 

let,  on  the  other  hand,  OC,  OA,  and  OB  represent  the  lengths  of  the 
neck  gradually  decreasing. 

1st.  When  the  length  is  proportional,  OA,  it  allows  a  sufficient 
extension  in  the  movements  of  the  shoulder  and  in  the  displacement 
of  the  centre  of  gravity ;  the  head  is  not  too  heavy  on  the  bit,  and  the 
cervical  trunk  possesses  suppleness  and  a  mean  power  of  mobility. 
If  to  this  quality  be  added  a  good  direction  and  a  high  carriage,  we 
will  find  the  conditions  most  favorable  for  all  general  services. 


104  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  proper  length  of  the  neck  cannot  invariably  be  determined 
mathematically,  as  Bourgelat  has  pretended  when  he  assigned  to  it  the 
same  length  as  that  of  the  head.  Although  this  relation  may  be  con- 
stant, we  find  some  compensations  correcting  the  errors  in  the  one 
sense  or  the  other,  and  altering  the  external  beauty  no  more  than  they 
influence  the  good  qualities  of  the  animal.  We  will  return  to  this  in 
discussing  the  proportions. 

2d.  When  the  neck  is  too  long,  0(7,  its  greatest  disadvantage 
lies  in  overburdening  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body  and  in  bringing 
the  centre  of  gravity  too  far  forward.  It  frequently  becomes  defective, 
besides,  by  reason  of  its  slender  and  emaciated  appearance.  Finally, 
it  renders  the  head  heavy  because  it  increases  the  length  of  the  lever 
of  this  resistance,  CR. 

Nevertheless,  nature  often  brings  compensations  which  remedy  the 
undue  length  of  the  neck  and  give  to  it  the  characteristics  of  a  veritable 
beauty.  This  consists,  first,  in  its  elevated  attitude,  which  does  not 
permit  of  excessive  weight  on  the  anterior  quarters,  by  displacing,  to 
a  proper  degree,  the  centre  of  gravity  backward.  There  is,  in  conse- 
quence, a  firm,  energetic,  and  powerful  muscularity,  which  gives  suffi- 
cient volume  and  counteracts  the  slender  appearance.  The  smallness 
and  lightness  of  the  head  diminishes  the  force  of  the  resistance,  jR, 
in  its  relation  with  the  abnormal  length  of  the  cervical  lever.  This 
compensation,  joined  to  a  direction  approaching  the  vertical,  contributes 
to  render  the  head  lighter  on  the  reins,  because  the  line  of  gravitation 
in  this  case  is  applied  at  the  extremity  of  the  neck  with  an  incidence 
more  or  less  acute. 

It  is  useful  to  remark,  also,  that  the  length  of  the  neck  denotes 
a  correlative  development  of  the  muscles,  On,  elevators  of  the  scapulo- 
humeral  angle,  and  therefore  a  large  extent  of  contraction  and  a  long 
swing  to  the  forefoot.  The  insertion  of  the  muscles  on  the  shoulder 
being  more  perpendicular,  their  action  will  be  for  this  reason  more 
energetic.  In  addition,  the  neck,  by  lengthening  itself,  becomes  more 
movable  and  acquires  a  greater  influence  upon  the  displacement  of  the 
centre  of  gravity.  These  are  its  real  advantages  in  the  race-horse, 
whose  neck  is  not  really  beautiful  unless  it  is  long,  very  muscular, 
carried  high,  and  provided  with  a  light  head. 

3d.  Finally,  the  neck  may  be  too  short,  OB.  In  this  case  it 
presents  advantages  as  well  as  disadvantages,  according  to  the  purposes 
for  which  the  animal  is  intended.  In  driving-  and  saddle-horses, 
especially  the  latter,  it  lacks  suppleness  and  mobility,  is  generally 
thick  and  massive,  and  renders  the  animal  less  subject  to  control. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  105 

It  is  essentially  defective  in  the  race-horse,  because  its  movements 
are  slow  and  have  but  a  limited  action  on  the  displacements  of  the 
centre  of  gravity.  Let  us  add  that  the  pace  lacks  amplitude  by  reason 
of  the  defect  in  the  length  of  the  elevator  muscles  of  the  shoulder. 
Horses  having  short  necks  owe  their  speed  less  to  the  extent  of  the 
movements  of  the  limbs  than  to  their  frequent  repetition  in  a  given 
time. 

It  is  not  the  same  in  the  draught-horse,  in  which  the  work  is 
effected  altogether  by  his  weight  and  the  energy  of  his  efforts.  A 
short  neck  can  be  redeemed  by  a  firm  and  powerful  muscularity,  which 
will  furnish  a  large  surface  for  the  support  of  the  collar  and  will,  at 
the  same  time,  indicate  great  power.  The  brevity  of  the  •  cervical 
lever  will  be  compensated  again  by  its  horizontal  tendency,  because  the 
elevator  muscles  of  the  scapular  angle  profit  by  a  more  perpendicular 
insertion,  without  which  the  anterior  displacement  of  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  head  would  overburden  too  much  the  anterior  members. 
In  a  word,  the  gait  will  be  slow,  whilst  the  energy  of  the  effort  will  be 
carried  to  its  maximum  if,  as  we  have  said,  the  region  has  very  vigor- 
ous muscles. 

From  the  preceding  considerations,  we  must  conclude  that  each 
kind  of  service  demands  a  determined  length  of  the  neck  :  that  for  ex- 
treme speed  we  must  have  a  neck  of  long  dimensions,  well  carried,  and 
supporting  a  light  head ;  that  for  great  and  powerful  efforts  we  need 
weight  and  muscle, — that  is  to  say,  a  large  quantity  of  contractile  ele- 
ments and  these  in  a  voluminous  mass ;  finally,  for  ordinary  speed  and 
energy,  the  neck  should  have  intermediate  proportions. 

In  all  cases  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  between  the  medium  and 
the  extremes  there  is  a  whole  scale  of  intermediate  forms  which  are 
neither  excessive  nor  deficient,  and  that  when  the  neck  attains  either 
extreme  there  are  still  certain  compensations  for  it  perfectly  compatible, 
if  not  with  absolute  beauty,  at  least  with  energy  and  vigor. 

Attachments. — Those  lines  which  mark  the  limits  of  the  supe- 
rior and  the  inferior  borders  of  the  neck  constitute  what  are  called  its 
attachments. 

A  propos  of  the  head,  we  have  already  spoken  explicitly  of  the 
superior  attachment.  We  know  that  there  is  a  slight  furrow  on  the 
external  face  of  the  parotid  gland ;  that  the  larynx  and  pharynx  are 
easily  lodged  in  the  space  between  the  rami  of  the  inferior  maxilla ; 
that  the  nape  of  the  neck,  the  parotid  gland,  and  the  throat,  as  a 
whole,  appear  to  present  between  the  head  and  the  neck  a  slight  con- 
striction, whose  rounded  and  graceful  profile  enables  us  to  surmise_the 


106  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

perfect  freedom  of  their  reciprocal  movements.  When  these  condi- 
tions are  not  fulfilled,  the  head  is  said  to  be  plastered  on,  or  mal- 
attached ;  its  movements  are  not  so  easy,  as  we  observe  it,  more  espe- 
cially in  short  and  thick  necks. 

"  The  inferior  attachments  of  the  neck/7  says  H.  Bouley  (loc.  cit.), 
"  should  be  marked  on  each  side  by  the  slight  relief  which  constitutes 
the  anterior  border  of  the  shoulders;  on  each  side  of  the  trachea! 
border  by  the  angle  of  union  of  the  jugular  gutters  converging 
towards  each  other  above  the  point  of  the  sternum ;  finally,  towards 
the  withers  by  a  depression  in  front  of  the  summit  of  this  region, 
generally  not  well  marked.  In  these  conditions  the  neck  has  a  good 
origin ;  it  is  well  (attached.  In  other  words,  it  harmonizes  with  the 
anterior  parts  of  the  trunk,  of  which  it  is  a  continuation.  The  facts 
are  not  the  same  when  the  neck  is  meagre  and  thin,  and  its  inferior 
border  forms  with  the  chest  a  very  pronounced  angle ;  when  the 
demarcation  between  it  and  the  shoulders  is  established  in  an  abrupt 
and  salient  manner ;  when,  finally,  the  depression  in  front  of  the 
withers  is  deeply  marked.  In  such  cases  we  say  that  the  neck  is  mal- 
attached,  or,  better,  that  it  is  stuck  into  the  thorax,  a  very  striking 
expression,  which  conveys  an  exact  idea  of  this  defective  confor- 
mation.77 

Since  we  are  speaking  of  the  inferior  attachments  of  the  neck,  we 
will  describe  a  peculiarity  which  is  sometimes  met  with,  and  to  which, 
for  a  long  time,  the  name  of  cut  of  the  spear  has  been  given.  "  The 
cut  of  the  spear,"  says  Garsault,1  "  is  a  hollowness  quite  deep,  which 
is  seen  in  Turkish  and  Spanish  horses  at  the  junction  of  the  neck  and 
the  shoulder,  sometimes  higher  and  sometimes  lower.  This  is  consid- 
ered as  a  very  good  mark,  the  cause  of  which  is  told  in  a  fable,  which 
says  that  an  excellent  Turkish  stallion  received  a  stab  from  a  spear  in 
that  part,  and  that  all  his  descendants — he  having  been  placed  in  the 
stud — inherited  this  mark  of  honor." 

Lafosse,  in  his  "  Dictionnaire  d'hippiatrique,"  observes  with  truth 
that  this  peculiarity  is  present  as  often  on  the  left  as  on  the  right  side, 
and  that  it  is  not  hereditary.  Special  researches  have  demonstrated 
that  it  consists  simply  in  a  congenital  atrophy  of  one  of  the  dictations 
of  the  arigularis  muscle  of  the  scapula.  The  atrophied  branch  leaves  a 
depression  which  extends  to  the  level  of  its  insertion  on  the  corre- 
sponding transverse  process  of  the  cervical  vertebra. 

Movements. — Considered  in    its   relation  with    the   locomotory 

1  Garsault,  Le  nouveau  parfait  marshal,  1770. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  107 

functions,  the  neck  represents  a  balance  which  supports  the  head  at  its 
anterior  extremity,  and  whose  displacements  carry  it  upward,  down- 
ward, backward  or  forward,  and  to  one  side,  at  the  will  of  the  animal. 
Remarkably  mobile,  from  the  fact  of  the  numerous  pieces  which  form 
its  osseous  base  and  the  powerful  muscles  which  move  them,  this 
balance  plays  the  greatest  role  in  most  of  the  attitudes  taken  by  the 
animal  machine  in  movement. 

We  have  already  seen  its  influence  upon  the  stability  of  the  situa- 
tion of  the  centre  of  gravity.  (See  Experiments  of  Morris  and  Baucher, 
page  6.)  This  influence  is  still  more  apparent  when  the  animal 
rises,  lies  down,  kicks,  prances,  walks,  trots,  gallops,  leaps  over  obsta- 
cles, etc.  Under  all  these  circumstances  the  neck  is  carried  first  to  the 
side  opposite  to  that  part  of  the  body  which  is  to  move  first ;  then  it 
liberates  successively  all  those  parts  which  will  continue  this  move- 
ment or  terminate  it.  Its  displacements  are  always  proportional  to 
those  of  the  entire  body ;  very  quickly  depressed  in  kicking,  elevated 
in  prancing,  moving  from  side  to  side  in  walking,  and  forward  and 
backward  in  the  gallop.  When  the  movement  has  a  certain  degree 
of  uniformity,  and  is  accompanied  with  great  speed  in  a  straight  line, 
the  neck  acquires  then  a  relative  fixity  after  being  extended  forward 
enough  to  induce  the  members  to  move  with  a  celerity  in  accordance 
with  the  rapidity  of  the  gait.  We  see  this,  for  example,  in  the  fast 
trot  or  the  gallop. 

Some  important  practical  deductions  can  be  drawn  from  these  facts, 
which  may  be  employed  in  directing  horses,  as  well  as  in  equestrianism. 

If  the  rider  desires  the  horse  to  move  the  left  anterior  foot  when 
it  is  in  repose,  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  traction  and  urge  him 
forward  in  such  a  manner  as  to  increase  the  weight  on  the  right  fore 
member.  If  it  be  desirable  to  make  him  change  the  feet  while  he  is  gal- 
loping, it  is  only  necessary  to  disburden  this  or  that  member  by  drawing 
the  neck  to  the  opposite  side.  If  the  animal  be  required  to  leap  over 
an  obstacle,  the  neck  is  raised  to  facilitate  the  half-prance  which  pre- 
cedes the  leap.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  object  be  to  prevent  him  from 
falling  on  his  knees,  the  head  is  forcibly  raised  in  order  to  prevent  the 
centre  of  gravity  from  being  displaced  outside  of  the  base  of  support. 

It  will  be  sufficient  for  us  to  point  out  a  few  instances,  in  order  to 
demonstrate  the  importance  of  the  cervical  region  in  the  various 
movements,  so  that  we  may  be  able  to  apply  them  intelligently  in 
practice. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  blemishes  of  the  neck  are  cicatrices,  which 
have,  according  to  their  situation,  different  significations.  We  observe  them 


108  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

ordinarily  on  the  lateral  faces,  along  the  course  of  the  jugular  gutter,  and  on  the 
borders. 

On  the  lateral  faces  there  are  sometimes  traces  of  setons,  which  occupy  the 
superior  third  of  its  length.  These  are  very  significant,  because  they  indicate 
that  the  animal  has  been  treated  for  disease  of  the  eyes,  the  nasal  sinuses,  or  the 
encephalon,  as  vertigo. 

Along  the  course  of  the  jugular  vein  there  are  traces  of  firing  and  linear  cic- 
atrices, which  suggest  that  the  horse  has  been  affected  with  inflammation  of  the 
jugular  vein,  or  that  he  has  undergone  a  serious  operation  in  this  region.  It  is 
important,  then,  to  determine  if  one  of  these  veins  is  not  obliterated.  To  ascer- 
tain this  it  is  sufficient  to  make  pressure  with  the  thumb  over  its  course  at  the 
inferior  part  of  the  neck,  in  order  to  prevent  the  blood  from  descending  towards 
the  heart.  The  slight  shake  of  the  hand  will  reflect  the  waves  of  the  column  of 
blood  to  the  upper  extremity  of  the  gutter  when  the  vein  is  intact.  The  contrary 
effect  will  show  that  the  vessel  is  obliterated  and  the  circulation  is  re-established 
by  collateral  vessels.  If  the  obliteration  exists  only  in  one  of  the  jugulars,  the 
inconvenience  is  not  so  great,  because  the  circulation  is  still  sufficiently  active 
through  the  one  of  the  opposite  side.  When,  however,  the  obstruction  exists  on 
both  sides,  the  animal  is  unfit  to  perform  rapid  service,  because  the  collateral  veins 
are  insufficient  for  the  afferent  circulation,  and  congestion  of  the  component  parts 
of  the  head  is  the  consequence.  Moreover,  the  jugular  vein  being  the  vessel 
selected  for  phlebotomy,  we  are  not  able,  under  this  circumstance,  to  have 
recourse  to  it  in  cases  of  emergency. 

Very  frequently  the  bleedings,  of  which  one  of  the  veins  has  been  the  seat, 
leave  their  trace  on  the  skin.  A  very  small  longitudinal  cicatrix  indicates  the 
spot  where  the  tissues  have  been  involved  by  the  fleam  of  the  operator.  At 
other  times  these  traces  are  more  apparent,  manifesting  themselves  by  varicose 
dilations,  simple  or  multiple,  along  the  course  of  the  vein,  at  the  level  of  the 
places  where  it  had  been  punctured.  This  condition  is  called  varicose. 

Along  the  inferior  border  we  recognize  cicatrices  resulting  from  trache- 
otomy,— that  is  to  say,  the  artificial  opening  of  the  trachea  for  the  prevention  of 
asphyxia  when  the  natural  air-passages  are  occluded  or  have  an  inadequate  calibre. 
It  is  necessary,  in  a  case  like  this,  to  exercise  the  animal  in  every  possible  way  to 
determine  whether  he  is  or  is  not  a  roarer.  A  horse  that  carries  a  tracheal  tube 
permanently  will  almost  completely  lose  his  value,,  and  should  not  be  purchased. 

We  observe,  also,  along  the  inferior  border  of  the  neck,  surfaces  flattened 
from  before  to  behind,  arising  from  fractures  of  the  cartilaginous  rings  of  the 
trachea,  or  from  a  congenital  deformity  of  the  conduit,  which  infringe  on  its 
sides,  and  always  diminish,  in  the  same  proportion,  its  internal  calibre.  Occa- 
sionally, difficulty  of  respiration  arises  in  consequence  of  this  affection,  and  we 
should  fully  satisfy  ourselves  as  to  the  manner  in  which  respiration  is  effected  in 
horses  with  such  a  deformity. 

Finally,  the  superior  border  of  the  neck  may  present  cicatrices  following 
deep  abscesses  with  necrosis  of  the  nuchal  ligament,  a  disease  which  requires  a 
long  time  to  recover  from,  and  which  should  never  be  passed  unobserved.  These 
blemishes  are  ordinarily  occasioned  by  the  use  of  a  collar  too  small  or  improperly 
fitted. 

From  the  same  causes  appear  calluses  and  corns  along  the  anterior  border 
of  the  shoulder,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  superior  border  of  the  neck. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  109 

The  diseases  of  the  neck  are  affections  of  the  skin,  as  surfeit  and  mange 
along  its  superior  border ;  inflammation  of  the  jugular  veins,  thrombi  and  phle- 
bitis ;  lesions  of  the  cesophagus  and  trachea ;  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic 
vessels,  lymphangitis,  followed  by  knotted  indurations  along  the  course  of  the 
vessels ;  and,  finally,  lesions  of  the  cervical  ligament. 

We  cannot  enter  into  long  details  in  this  connection  without  going  beyond 
our  province.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  most  of  these  diseases  continue  a  long  time, 
and  are  difficult  to  eradicate,  on  account  of  the  situation,  the  structure,  and  the 
movements  of  the  region  in  which  they  are  found. 

The  Mane  and  the  Forelock. 

Situation ;  Limits. — The  mane  and  the  forelock  are  formed  by 
the  horse-hairs  which  occupy  the  superior  border  of  the  neck  and 
extend  forward  to  the  superior  extremity  of  the  head  between  the 
ears,  and  backward  to  the  withers. 

a.  The  mane  is  to  the  neck  of  the  horse,  says  H.  Bouley  (loc.  dt.\ 
what  the  capital  is  to  the  column  which  it  surmounts ;  it  beautifies  the 
neck  by  concealing,  under  its  undulating  tufts,  the  angularity  of  the 
superior  border,  and  thus  gives  to  the  latter  a  more  graceful  aspect. 

Its  abundance  varies  according  to  the  race,  the  sex,  the  age,  the 
state  of  the  genital  organs,  and  the  animal  himself.  In  well-bred 
horses  and  in  foals  it  is  fine,  silky,  and  not  abundant,  while  it  is 
coarse,  long,  and  stiif  in  common  horses  and  most  plentiful  in  adults. 
Thus,  it  appears  more  bushy  in  the  stallion  than  in  the  gelding  or 
in  the  mare.  This  state  of  the  mane  and  its  color  denote  nothing 
absolute  and  have  very  little  signification  In  this  respect  the  indi- 
vidual differences  are  so  numerous  that  all  inferences  as  to  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  animal's  character  thus  deduced  are  uncertain  as  well 
as  delusive. 

We  habitually  separate,  with  the  scissors,  the  mane  from  the  fore- 
lock at  the  level  of  the  nape  of  the  neck,  where  the  head-stall  of  the 
bridle  rests. 

The  mane  is  said  to  be  single  when  all  the  hairs  which  compose  it 
fall  on  one  side  of  the  neck,  regardless  of  their  length.  In  saddle- 
horses  it  is  turned  towards  the  left  side  so  that  the  rider  may  seize  it 
in  mounting  the  horse.  In  the  case  of  draught-horses,  which  invari- 
ably occupy  the  same  position  relative  to  the  pole,  the  one  attached  on 
the  left  side  (near  horse)  has  the  mane  on  that  side ;  the  one  on  the 
right  side  (off  horse)  carries  it  on  the  right  side.  This  detail,  how- 
ever, is  often  neglected. 

The  mane  is  double  when  naturally  parted  in  the  middle,  one-half 
falling  to  the  right  and  the  other  half  to  the  left  side.  Thus,  being 


110  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

exposed  in  the  centre,  it  is  soiled  by  particles  of  fodder  and  dust.  It 
is  difficult  to  preserve  cleanliness,  and  the  parts  become  the  seat  of  such 
affections  as  herpes  and  psoriasis,  which  persist  with  so  much  tenacity 
that  it  is  sometimes  impossible  to  eradicate  them  completely. 

In  their  natural  condition,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  the  hairs 
"fall  from  their  own  weight.  They  are  in  certain  cases  cut  so  as  to 
assume  an  erect  direction  and  form  a  sort  of  crest  on  the  median  line, 
outlining  the  convexity  of  the  neck  more  distinctly  and  making  the 
latter  appear  heavier.  Such  is  the  custom  with  ponies  and  small 
horses,  and  particularly  those  in  which  the  neck  is  reversed,  with  the 
view  of  .rendering  its  appearance  more  agreeable  to  the  eye.  To-day 
this  is  the  fashion  even  in  the  teams  of  the  wealthy. 

Among  the  ancients  it  appears  to  have  been  the  custom  to  cut  the 
mane  as  a  sign  of  mourning.  To  render  it  thicker  and  longer,  the 
Arabs  of  Algeria,  according  to  Vallon,1  also  employed  this  method 
for  from  one  to  four  years,  and  sometimes  even  throughout  the  life  of 
the  animal. 

The  hairs  of  the  mane,  like  those  of  the  tail,  are  ordinarily 
straight.  One  of  our  associates,  Mercier,  has  communicated  a  remark 
on  this  subject,  which  was  also  believed  by  the  Arabians :  that  it  is  in 
the  white  or  gray  horses  with  frizzled  or  curly  hairs  in  which  melanotic 
tumors  are  always  found  in  the  interior  of  the  body,  although  none  may 
have  any  apparent  trace  on  the  exterior,  particularly  under  the  tail 
and  around  the  anus.  This  remark,  the  correctness  of  which  we 
have  verified  a  number  of  times,  both  on  the  living  subject  and  in  the 
cadaver,  is  very  important  because  of  the  dangers  to  which  animals 
affected  with  melanosis  are  predisposed. 

There  are  neither  diseases  nor  blemishes  of  the  mane.  It  is  there- 
fore erroneous  to  attribute  to  this  appendage  what  properly  belongs  to 
the  superior  border  of  the  neck. 

b.  The  forelock  is  nothing  more,  properly  speaking,  than  the 
superior  extremity  of  the  mane.  It  consists  of  a  tuft  of  hairs  varying 
in  length  with  the  animal  and  the  race,  which  escapes  between  the 
ears  in  floating  meshes,  overshadowing  the  forehead  and  the  eyes. 
Ordinarily,  in  the  English  thoroughbred  horse  it  is  light,  fine,  and 
silky.  In  the  Arabian  horse  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  long  and  heavy. 
In  common  horses  it  is  long  and  coarse.  Like  the  mane,  it  may  be 
single  or  double.  All  proportions  being  preserved,  it  is  most  developed 
in  Oriental  horses.  At  the  same  time  that  it  is  an  ornament  to  the 

1  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  tome  i.  p.  330. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  Ill 

head,  it  protects  the  eyes  from  insects  and  excess  of  light.  It  acts, 
perhaps,  also  as  a  protection  to  the  organs  contained  within  the  cranial 
cavity  against  the  solar  rays,  and  in  horses  much  exposed  to  the  sun  its 
removal  is  injudicious. 

The  mane  and  the  forelock  sometimes  attain  extraordinary  dimen- 
sions. We  have  seen  well-bred  and  common  horses  in  which  the  former 
descended  to  the  level  of  the  knees  and  the  latter  to  the  jnferior 
extremity  of  the  nose.  With  certain  exceptions,  these  appendages 
are  not  allowed  to  reach  so  great  a  length ;  they  are  dressed  by 
means  of  a  comb  or  a  brush.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  render  the 
mane,  which  was  primitively  double,  single.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  removing  a  portion  of  the  hairs  by  extracting  them  with  the  curry- 
comb and  continually  brushing  those  remaining  to  the  same  side,  the 
right  or  the  left,  as  may  be  desired,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
owner.  If,  instead  of  proceeding  as  we  have  just  indicated,  scissors 
were  employed  to  remove  the  superabundant  hairs,  these  would  again 
grow  and  remain  straight.  We  have  known  a  horse  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  want  of  skill  of  the  person  who  had  arranged  the  mane, 
had  the  latter  falling  to  the  right,  while  on  the  left  the  hairs  were  upright 
like  a  brush,  giving  them  a  very  ungraceful  appearance. 

B.— The  Withers. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  withers  com- 
prise a  single  region  situated  on  the  superior  face  of  the  trunk,  behind 
the  crest  of  the  neck,  in  front  of  the  back,  and  between  the  two  shoulders. 

This  region  has  for  its  anatomical  base  the  five  or  six  dorsal  vertebrae  which 
follow  the  first.  Their  summits,  enlarged  and  tuberous,  support  a  nucleus  of 
permanent  cartilage,  to  which  are  attached  the  corresponding  portions  of  the 
nuchal  and  dorso-lumbar  ligaments,  very  much  widened. 

On  each  side  are  the  cartilages  of  prolongation  of  the  scapula,  and  the 
muscles  to  which  it  gives  attachment.  The  spinous  processes  offer  a  large  surface 
laterally  for  the  attachment  of  the  trapezius,  the  rhomboideus,  the  splenius,  the 
great  and  small  complexi,  the  small  anterior  serrated,  the  ilio-spinalis,  and  the 
transverse  spinous  muscles,  arranged  in  so  many  superposed  layers. 

The  anatomical  complexity  and  elevated  situation  of  the  withers 
afford  an  explanation  of  the  gravity  of  wounds  and  diseases  of  this 
locality.  The  superposition  of  the  muscles  allows  of  easy  filtration 
of  pus  into  the  surrounding  parts. 

Beauties  and  Defects. — The  beauties  of  the  withers  reside  in 
the/orm,  elevation,  extent,  and  freedom  from  blemishes  thereof. 

1 .  Form. — This  qualification  indicates  that  they  should  be  well  out- 
lined, and  that  the  summit  should  be  formed  only  by  the  tissues  which 


112  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

constitute  their  essential  base.  As  H.  Bouley l  remarks,  the  superior 
border,  under  this  definition,  should  alone  present  the  inert  parts,  as 
the  bones  and  ligaments.  At  the  base,  on  the  contrary,  the  thickness 
denotes  a  large  development  of  the  muscles  which  separate  it  from  the 
internal  face  of  the  scapular  cartilages. 

The  abundance  of  the  subcutaneous  and  interstitial  connective 
tissue,  the  volume  and  non-compactness  of  the  muscles,  as  well  as  the 
development  of  the  muscular  system  in  general,  are  the  principal  factors 
in  the  production  of  the  lateral  diameter  of  the  region.  Let  us  add, 
also,  that  it  always  has  this  aspect  in  an  ordinary  degree  when  its 
prominence  over  the  surrounding  parts  (shoulder  and  back)  is  not  very 
marked.  Such  withers  are  called  coarse,  thick,  and  low.  They  are 
found  in  horses  with  great  assimilative  powers,  thick  skin,  stiff  and 
coarse  hairs,  abundant  connective  tissue,  voluminous  and  flabby  mus- 
cles, lymphatic  temperament,  and  strong  and  massive  forms. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  ordinary  stature,  a  slender,  fine,  and  distin- 
guished form,  prominence  of  all  the  external  anatomical  eminences,  a 
fine  skin,  an  energetic  nature,  and  dense  and  firm  muscles  always 
accompany  well-defined  withers.  This  form  is  the  most  desirable ;  it 
indicates  the  race,  the  temperament,  and,  in  a  word,  the  distinction 
of  origin,  and  all  the  qualities  of  the  animal  so  characterized. 

When  the  latter  peculiarity  is  extreme,  the  withers  are  called  sharp. 
This  conformation,  which  is  often  seen  as  a  consequence  of  emaciation 
from  old  age  or  excessive  labor,  is  an  attribute  of  those  animals  which 
become  very  lean  when  subjected  to  severe  work,  and  accompanies  a 
general  deficiency  of  muscular  development.  As  Vallon 2  has  remarked, 
it  is  particularly  defective  in  cavalry  horses,  for  it  exacts  the  use  of 
a  very  narrow  and  elevated  arcade  of  the  saddle  in  front,  differing 
much  from  the  ordinary  model,  and  which  is  not  always  at  our  dis- 
posal in  a  campaign.  Such  animals  are  difficult  and  expensive  to 
harness,  give  the  rider  an  uncomfortable  position,  and  are  exposed 
to  traumatisms  of  this  region  from  the  pressure  of  the  saddle  during  a 
long  march.  They  necessitate  the  continued  observation  of  the  veteri- 
narian and  those  who  mount  them. 

2.  Height  and  Extent. — The  examination  of  the  height  is 
not  less  interesting  from  the  double  relation  of  its  utilization  and  its 
direction.  Writers  are  not  in  accord  as  to  the  exact  sense  which  should 
be  attached  to  the  word  height  when  applied  to  the  withers.  In  the 

1  H.  Bouley.  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  pratique  de  medecine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  veteri- 
naires,  t.  viii.  p.  72. 

2  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  339. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  113 

first  edition  of  this  book  we  have  wrongfully  considered  that  the 
height  of  the  withers  should  be  viewed  from  their  elevation  in  relation 
to  the  croup  and  the  adjacent  parts. 

In  view  of  the  criticism  which  this  opinion  has  received,  we  recog- 
nize to-day  that  the  relative  height  of  the  croup  is  not  germane  to  the 
subject  which  we  now  have  under  consideration,  but  to  the  respective 
heights  of  the  anterior  and  the  posterior  extremities  of  the  body^ — -^We 
will  discuss  this  in  the  chapter  on  proportions,  as  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  body  as  a  whole  (see  Height  and  length  of  the  body  ;  Horses  high 
and  low  in  front). 

By  the  height  of  the  withers  should  be  meant,  therefore,  only  the 
height  of  the  eminence  formed  by  this  part  of  the  body  above  the 
adjoining  regions,  such  as  the  shoulders,  the  back,  and  the  superior 
border  of  the  neck.  By  extent  we  are  to  understand  the  total  dimen- 
sions of  the  withers  antero-posteriorly  ;  in  a  word,  the  degree  in  which 
it  is  prolonged  towards  the  region  of  the  back.  This  circumstance,  de- 
pendent in  a  large  measure  upon  the  length  and  inclination  of  the 
spinous  processes,  necessarily  enables  the  latter  to  play  the  part  of  the 
long  arms  of  the  levers  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  vertebral  col- 
umn, and  is  therefore  a  favorable  condition  for  the  development  of 
speed. 

The  height  or  elevation  of  the  withers  depends,  on  the  contrary, 
upon  several  diverse  causes,  which  we  must  determine.  Among  them 
we  mention  : 

a.  The  well-defined  form,  or  the  thickness,  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken,  which  concur  to  modify  the  obliquity  of  the  lateral  faces  in 
consequence  of  either  the  lowness  or  the  prominence  of  the  entire 
region,  as  the  case  may  be. 

b.  The  length  and  obliquity  of  the  shoulder,  which  tends  to  cover, 
to  an  extent  more  or  less  considerable,  the  sides  of  the  apophyses 
of  the  first  dorsal  vertebra. 

c.  The  absolute  length  and  vertical   direction   of   these   processes, 
which,  by  their  summits,  exceed  to  a  variable  extent  the  border  of  the 
scapular  cartilages. 

d.  Finally,  the  mode  of  suspension  of  the  thorax  between  the  anterior 
members,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  produce  a  more  or  less  marked  pro- 
jection of  the  summits  of  the  spinous  processes  above  the  superior 
border  of  the  shoulders. 

The  age,  the  sex,  and  the  state  of  the  genital  organs  have  equally 
their  influence.  Poorly  delineated  in  the  foal  and  the  young  animal, 
the  withers  become  more  prominent  towards  the  fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh 


114  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

year,  the  period  when  the  bones  have  attained  their  full  length  and  the 
body  its  complete  development.  In  the  mare  it  is  less  prominent  than 
in  the  gelding  or  the  stallion.  In  the  latter,  however,  in  which  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  body  is  more  extensively  developed,  it  appears 
usually  thick  9  muscular,  low,  and  effaced. 

The  relative  influence  of  all  these  causes  it  is  easy  to  comprehend. 
One  may  operate  alone  or  several  may  be  combined,  and  the  height  of 
this  region  should  not  be  attributed  exclusively  to  one  alone,  as  the  sole 
length  of  the  spinous  processes,  for  example,  which  hippotomists  until  the 
present  time  have  asserted  without  oifering  any  proof  to  substantiate  the 
claim.  Taking  cognizance  of  this  relation,  we  have  endeavored  to  prove, 
by  numerous  researches  upon  the  living  animal  and  the  cadaver,  that 
this  opinion  is  well  founded.  It  is  true  that  we  have  frequently  found 
an  excess  of  the  length  of  the  spinous  process  of  the  fifth  dorsal  ver- 
tebra (the  culminating  point  of  the  region)  in  horses  with  high  withers, 
but  we  have  also,  all  things  being  equal  otherwise,  none  the  less  often 
seen  this  process  only  equal  to  and  even  shorter  than  the  others. 
Moreover,  we  can  affirm  that  this  excess  of  length  is  not  uncommonly 
met  with  in  horses  in  which  the  region  appears  depressed. 

The  spinous  processes  are,  therefore,  subject  to  great  variations  in 
animals  not  dissimilar  in  appearance  'These  variations  may  attain  five 
centimetres  in  the  one  case  or  the  other. 

It  becomes  evident,  then,  that  other  influences,  must  assist  in  the 
determination  of  the  prominence  of  the  withers.  They  are  those 
which  we  have  enumerated  above.  Among  them  the  most  important, 
doubtless,  is  that  which  refers  to  the  mode  of  suspension  of  the  thorax 
between  the  anterior  members.  As  to  this  assertion,  our  researches 
leave  not  the  least  doubt.  We  daily  meet  horses  which  have  the 
same  length  of  the  ribs,  the  shoulder,  and  the  spinous  processes,  the 
same  inclination  of  these  processes  and  the  scapula,  and  the  same  state 
of  muscular  development,  in  which,  nevertheless,  the  summit  of  the 
withers  does  not,  to  the  same  degree,  project  beyond  the  top  of  the 
shoulder.  How  can  we  explain  this  fact,  unless  it  be  due  to  differ- 
ences in  the  degree  of  the  elevation  of  the  trunk  in  its  attachment 
to  the  anterior  extremities?  As  a  proof  of  this  enunciation  it  has 
been  ascertained,  in  similar  instances,  that  the  distance  from  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  thorax  to  the  ground  augments  in  direct  ratio 
with  the  projection  of  the  spinous  processes  above  the  scapular  carti- 
lages. 

Let  us  remark,  in  passing,  that  in  practice  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  establish  the  relative  role  which  is  exercised  by  the  one  or  the  other 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF'  THE    BODY.  115 

of  these  causes  to  which  the  height  of  the  withers  owes  its  variations ; 
whether  it  be  due  to  the  length  and  vertical  position  of  the  apophyses 
or  to  the  lowering  of  the  thorax.  But  what  is  well  demonstrated  by 
experience  is  that  the  best  type  of  withers  in  a  horse  is  that  which  is 
as  salient  and  as  much  prolonged  backward  as  possible ;  especially  if 
the  horse  be  expected  to  perform  service  at  a  rapid  pace/  and  also  for 
work  under  the  saddle. 

It  is  not  very  important  to  determine  the  real  cause  of  the  promi- 
nence of  the  withers*  What  is  essential  to  know  is  that  increased 
height  in  most  instances  means  a  lengthening  of  the  arm  of  the  lever 
of  the  spinal  and  cervical  muscles  and  an  increased  freedom  of  move- 
ment of  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  body,  two  conditions,  either  of 
which  favors  the  muscular  contraction  and  movements  of  the  anterior 
limbs,  the  rotation  of  the  scapula,  and,  consequently,  the  movements 
of  extension  and  flexion.  These  reasons  suffice  to  justify  the  prefer- 
ence which  is  accorded  to  this  conformation. 

It  is  well  known  that  horses  with  loiv  and  thick  withers  have  ordi- 
narily insufficient  action  and  too  much  clumsiness  of  the  movements  of 
the  fore  limbs.  The  shoulder  rotates  but  little,  the  animal  is  predis- 
posed to  forging  and  interfering,  and  is  unfit  for  service  at  a  rapid 
gait.  He  supports  the  head  insufficiently  and  is  heavy  on  the  bit. 

Apart  from  the  foregoing  objections,  there  is  still  another  factor 
which  aggravates  this  defect.  This  is  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  the 
saddle  in  place,  it  having  a  constant  tendency  to  slide  forward  and 
to  make  direct  pressure  on  and  bruise  the  tissues  underneath.  Hence 
result  wounds  and  inflammatory  affections,  the  effects  of  which  are  so 
often  incurable.  The  use  of  the  crupper  is  an  insufficient  preventive 
against  such  lesions,  and  may  itself  become  a  cause  of  pathological 
conditions,  from  its  continued  traction  at  the  base  of  the  tail. 

Let  us  close  by  saying  that  beauty  of  the  withers  not  only  involves 
the  mechanical  advantages  which  we  have  already  considered,  but  it  is 
also  a  sign  of  the  noble  qualities  and  the  distinction  of  its  possessor.  It 
endows  the  surrounding  regions  with  other  important  qualities,  such 
as  are  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  shoulder  and  the  height  of  the 
chest,  and  thus  presents  itself  as  one  of  the  essential  qualifications  of 
this  locality.  Whenever  the  chest  is  deep,  and  the  shoulders  long  and 
oblique,  it  is  clearly  recognized  that  the  withers  are  elevated,  well 
attached,  and  extended  well  backward,  the  general  harmony  presuming 
that,  in  most  instances,  the  development  of  one  of  the  elements  of  an 

1  This  is  not  invariable.  Among  our  speediest  trotters  we  find  some  in  which  the  withers 
are  high,  and  others  in  which  they  are  low.  (Harger.) 


116  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

anatomical  region  coexists  with  that  of  the  others,  whatever  may  be 
their  number.  "With  respect  to  the  horse,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
guard  ourselves  against  such  an  absolute  generalization ;  it  is  essential 
to  remember  that  the  shoulder  or  the  thorax  can  give  this  region  a 
prominence  in  which  the  withers  do  not  really  assume  that  importance 
which  might  be  supposed  from  a  point  of  view  of  the  exterior.  Such, 
at  least,  have  been  the  deductions  made  from  our  own  observations. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  withers,  in  consequence  of  their  promi- 
nence, situation,  and  anatomical  complexity,  are  exposed  to  numerous  lesions  of 
variable  gravity.  Blows,  chafing,  bruises,  and  bites  are  among  the  causes  which 
may  lead  to  swellings,  wounds,  or  abscesses  with  profound  complications  of 
necrosis  and  caries  of  the  bones,  the  muscles,  and  the  ligaments.  These  affec- 
tions, known  under  the  generic  name  of  evils  of  the  ivithers,  render  themselves 
apparent,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  by  an  extraordinary  exaggeration  of  the 
sensibility,  abnormal  enlargement  of  the  part,  cicatrices,  or  fistulous  tracts  dis- 
charging pus,  which  leave  their  evidence  by  soiling  and  decorticating  the  adja- 
cent skin. 

Horses  in  such  a  condition  are  not  rarely  offered  for  sale,  and  we  know  of 
two  instances  in  which  the  dealer  cleverly  concealed  the  tumefaction  and  the 
fistula,  of  which  it  was  the  seat,  with  a  blanket. 

It  is  more  common  to  meet  animals  which  offer  accidental  white  markings 
or  cicatrices  more  or  less  large,  where  the  skin  is  denuded,  thin,  and  more  easily 
excoriated  by  the  contact  of  the  harness.  The  presence  of  these  cicatrices 
furnishes,  besides,  the  evidence  of  a  pre-existing  disease  implicating  the  muscles 
or  the  bones  of  the  withers  and  the  shoulder,  which  may  result  in  some  irregu- 
larity of  the  gait.  They  have  an  important  bearing  in  an  examination  for 
soundness  in  the  purchase  of  horses. 

Other  blemishes  may  also  result  from  the  application  of  blisters  or  the  actual 
cautery.  They  have  their  principal  value,  however,  when  the  affection  for  the 
cure  of  which  they  have  been  applied  has  not  yet  disappeared.  Such  diseases  are 
liable  to  return  or  become  augmented  under  the  persistent  action  of  the  causes 
which  produced  them. 

3.  The  freedom  from  blemishes,  in  a  general  way,  as  related 
to  the  physiological  appearance,  is,  therefore,  as  indispensable  to  our 
study  as  the  form,  the  elevation,  or  the  extent. 

C.— The  Back. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — This  single  region, 
situated  on  the  superior  part  of  the  trunk,  is  limited  anteriorly  by  the 
withers,  posteriorly  by  the  loins,  and  laterally  by  the  ribs  (sides). 

It  has  for  its  osseous  base  the  eleven  or  twelve  posterior  dorsal  vertebrae  and* 
the  superior  extremity  of  the  corresponding  ribs.  These  bones  give  attachment 
to  the  different  muscles  which  fill  the  costo-vertebral  grooves, — the  great  dorsal, 
the  small  anterior  and  posterior  serrated,  the  ilio-spinalis,  the  transverse  spinous, 
and  the  intercostals. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  117 

Its  uses  are  of  primary  importance,  because  it  receives  the  saddle 
and  the  weight  of  the  rider.  It  transmits  to  the  anterior  part  of  the 
body  the  efforts  of  propulsion,  which  are  communicated  through  the 
loins  by  the  posterior  limbs.  The  back  therefore  fulfils,  by  its  con- 
formation, diverse  requirements  which  we  will  describe. 

Direction. — The  back  may  present  several  directions.  It  is 
straight  when  it  describes  almost  a  horizontal  line  from  before  to  behind. 
A  straight  back  is  a  sign  of  great  strength,  for  all  the  weight  which  the 
region  supports  is  borne  by  the  bones  and  tends  to  efface  the  rachidian 
arch.  The  saddle  will,  in  this  conformation,  rest  in  a  good  position. 

The  back  is  convex  (or  the  animal  is  roach-backed)  when  it  is  slightly 
arched,  prominent,  and  sharp  near  the  region  of  the  loins.  Such  a  con- 
formation increases  the  conditions  of  solidity  to  external  pressure,  in 
which  the  preceding  form  is  deficient,  on  account  of  this  arch  being 
exaggerated.  It  is  incorrect  to  associate  this  condition  with  flat  ribs 
and  a  narrow  chest.  Convexity  increases  the  reactions  of  the  back  and 
shortens  the  gaits  of  the  animal.  The  constituting  vertebrae  in  this 
disposition  are  related  in  such  a  manner  that  all  pressure  made  upon 
them  from  above  to  below  is  supported  more  by  the  bones  than  by  the 
ligaments  which  unite  them,  whence  less  elasticity  and  flexibility  in 
executing  its  various  functions.  The  convex  back,  besides,  is  generally 
shorter  than  the  other  forms,  and  does  not  permit  sufficient  freedom  to 
the  extension  and  flexion  of  the  posterior  members  in  taking  long  and 
rapid  steps.  It  is  therefore  a  centra-indication  of  rapid  locomotion. 
Horses  in  which  it  is  observed  are  predisposed  to  forging;  that  is  to  say, 
the  fore  and  hind  feet  touch  each  other  when  their  speed  is  increased. 

The  convex  back,  for  these  reasons,  is  a  defect  in  saddle-  and  driv- 
ing-horses ;  in  those  performing,  on  the  contrary,  slow  and  heavy 
work,  it  is  of  no  consequence. 

When  the  dorsal  region  is  concave  from  before  to  behind,  the 
animal  is  designated  as  sway-backed  or  hollow-backed.  This  conforma- 
tion, congenital  or  acquired,  is  more  faulty  than  the  preceding,  and  any 
load  borne  upon  it  tends  to  efface  the  arch  formed  by  the  vertebrae  of 
this  region.  Instead  of  the  latter  offering  a  resistance,  from  their 
mutual  contact,  to  the  weight  which  they  support,  such  weight  is  almost 
entirely  sustained  by  the  ligaments.  This  fact  makes  the  vertebral 
column  become  rectilinear  or,  when  exaggerated,  convex  along  its  in- 
ferior border.  The  ligaments  which  maintain  the  dorsal  arch  normally 
are  therefore  submitted  to  constant  traction  during  service,  particularly 
if  a  weight  be  superadded  to  that  of  the  viscera.  We  have  often 
observed  in  old  horses  more  or  less  voluminous  exostoses  disposed  in  a 


118  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

series  along  the  common  inferior  vertebral  ligament.  In  our  opinionr 
these  should  be  attributed  to  the  violent  and  continuous  pressure 
of  the  saddle  or  the  harness.  If  this  be  true,  it  is  easily  perceived 
that  these  excrescences  on  the  body  of  the  vertebrae  are  most  common 
in  animals  which,  instead  of  having  this  region  straight,  have  it 
strongly  concave. 

The  first  ill  effect  of  this  concavity  is  an  overtaxing  of  the  vertebral 
ligaments  due  to  the  displacement  of  the  bones, — a  condition  which  com- 
municates to  the  rachidian  column  a  greater  flexibility  than  is  physio- 
logical. The  result  is  that  the  transmission  of  the  impulsive  action  of 
the  hind  limbs  communicated  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  is  incom- 
plete. The  region  lacks  sufficient  rigidity,  and  a  certain  part  of  the 
force  is  wasted,  to  the  detriment  of  the  speed,  since  its  effect  is  to 
deviate  the  vertebrae  from  their  normal  rectitude. 

Sway-backed  horses  are  not  adapted  to  work  which  exacts  much 
force  and  resistance  of  the  back.  They  cannot  be  employed  as  hunt- 
ers, runners,  or  cavalry  horses,  but  should  be  reserved  to  draw  vehi- 
cles, one  with  four  wheels  being  preferred. 

With  M.  Bouley  l  we  believe,  nevertheless,  that  it  is  necessary  to 
discriminate  between  a  real  concavity  of  this  region  and  that  which 
is  only  apparent, — a  condition  sometimes  existing  in  horses  capable  of 
the  greatest  exertion.  The  latter  appears  to  be  due  to  a  concavity  of 
the  superficial  surface  of  the  back  alone,  to  a  peculiar  curvature  formed 
by  the  series  of  spinous  processes,  which  may  be  shorter  in  the  middle 
of  this  region  than  in  front  or  behind.  It  is  a  veritable  anatomical 
anomaly.  In  this  case  the  arch  of  the  vertebrae  themselves  is  in  a 
normal  condition  and  fulfils  all  its  functions.  This  remark  should 
consequently  be  taken  into  account,  and  a  positive  judgment  should 
not  be  expressed  unless  the  proof  is  apparent. 

It  has  also  been  said  of  horses  thus  formed  that  the  reaction  of 
the  back  is  less  hard  than  that  of  the  average  horse,— a  fact  which 
has  recommended  them  to  favor  as  saddle-horses.  Some  authors,  a& 
Curnieu,  Eugene  Gayot,  and  Vallon,  assert  that  this  last  fact  is  due 
to  a  different  order  of  phenomena,  which  lead  to  a  suppleness  and 
ease  of  the  movements.  These  result,  in  this  view,  not  from  any 
peculiar  condition  of  one  region  alone,  but  from  the  conformation  of 
the  body  as  a  whole.  The  latter  interpretation  is  true,  but  it  does 
not  destroy  the  validity  of  the  other.  One  isolated  cause  may  produce 
the  same  effect  as  several  others  combined. 

1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  pratique  de  m£decine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  veteri- 
naires,  t.  v.  p.  ISO. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  119 

We  believe  that  the  more  flexible  and  elastic  the  vertebral  column 
is  the  more  it  will  disperse  the  effects  of  concussion  from  violent 
exertion  or  accidents.  The  back  will  at  any  time  lose  this  quality  as 
soon  as  the  alternative  efforts  which  elevate  and  depress  it  are  enacted 
in  an  irregular  manner.  Let  us  recall  the  regular  movements  of  the 
rope-dancer ;  nothing  more  graceful  and  of  better  rhythm.  But  would 
they  have  the  same  rhythmical  character  if,  for  example,  he  attempted  _ 
to  jump  without  regularity  upon  his  rope?  Evidently  not ! 

This  comparison  applies  to  a  certain  degree  to  our  subject.  In 
locomotion  the  weight  of  the  body,  whenever  it  touches  its  base  of 
support,  calls  into  activity  the  elasticity  of  the  vertebral  column,  which 
describes  oscillations  whose  amplitude  is  proportional  to  its  elasticity, 
its  degree  of  tension,  and  the  energy  of  muscular  contraction.  If,  for 
one  reason  or  other,  these  oscillations  are  excessive,  whenever  the  feet 
come  into  contact  with  the  surface  upon  which  the  animal  moves,  an 
•evident  antagonism  of  forces  Avill  result,  leading  to  a  succession  of 
rebounds,  which  render  the  reactions  still  more  exaggerated,  even  more 
so  than  if  the  back  had  an  opposite  conformation.  Here  is,  we  think, 
the  cause  of  the  divergence  of  opinions  'which  we  have  spoken  of. 

Horses  of  this  type  frequently  have  very  feeble  reaction  when  their 
gait  is  rhythmical  and  perfectly  regular,  as  in  the  ordinary  trot  or  the 
gallop ;  but  the  reactions  become  marked  as  soon  as  the  oscillations  of 
the  vertebral  column  cease  to  be  in  accord  with  the  movements  of  the 
foot  in  touching  the  ground,  as  in  trotting  or  running  at  great  speed. 

Sometimes  the  line  of  the  back  is  oblique  from  above  to  below,  and 
behind  to  before,  instead  of  being  horizontal,  concave,  or  convex.  Such 
a  form  is  called  dipped.  This  direction,  due  to  a  more  or  less  marked 
elevation  of  the  croup  above  the  withers,  entails  an  unequal  distribution 
of  the  body-weight  upon  the  four  extremities.  The  centre  of  gravity  is 
carried  towards  the  fore  limbs,  increasing  by  so  much  the  weight  which 
they  support.  We  shall  hereafter  have  something  further  to  add  in 
respect  to  the  objections  which  exist  with  regard  to  this  type  of  struct- 
ure when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  axial  measurements  of  the  body. 

Form. — In  horses  whose  muscular  system  is  very  highly  developed, 
there  exists  on  the  median  line  of  the  back  a  longitudinal  line  or  fur- 
row, which  is  slightly  surmounted  laterally  by  the  environing  parts 
on  account  of  the  volume  of  the  muscles  situated  in  the  costo-vertebral 
gutters.  This  characteristic  marks  that  kind  of  back  which  is  called 
double.  It  is  a  peculiarity  observed  in  heavy  and  well-muscled  animals 
whose  chest  is  wide,  the  back  somewhat  concave,  and  the  withers  low. 
Many  subjects  which  present  it  at  the  time  of  purchase  may  not 


120  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

retain  it  throughout  their  whole  life.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
work  to  which  the  animal  has  been  submitted,  and  poor  and  innutri- 
tions alimentation,  the  double  back  often  becomes  single  and  the  mus- 
cular organization  in  general  loses  its  volume  and  its  high  degree  of 
development. 

Conversely,  the  crest  of  the  back  becomes  prominent  and  stands 
out  in  relief  over  the  surrounding  muscles  in  subjects  emaciated  from 
the  ravages  of  age,  or  in  those  of  a  certain  natural  conformation  whose 
chest  is  narrow,  the  back  slightly  convex,  the  withers  high,  and  the 
muscles  less  voluminous.  In  the  latter  form  the  region  is  predisposed 
to  become  sharp,  and  is  more  exposed  to  wounds  from  the  saddle  or 
the  harness. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  back  is  in  relation  with  the  depth  of 
the  chest  and  the  rapidity  of  the  gait.  Its  measurement,  which  requires 
some  judgment,  is  usually  combined  with  that  of  the  loins.  The  typical 
back  is  regarded  as  equal  in  length  to  the  distance  between  the  dorsal 
angle  of  the  scapula  and  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium  or  the  haunch. 
The  determination  of  how  much  of  this  distance  belongs  to  the  loins 
is  of  little  practical  utility,  but  it  should  be  as  small  as  possible.  A 
long  back  implies  a  corresponding  length  of  the  thoracic  cavity  whose 
superior  wall  it  forms.  We  know  that  it  is  indispensable  to  seek,  for 
any  kind  of  work,  those  anatomical  dispositions  which  imply  the  de- 
velopment of  the  respiratory  apparatus.  Such  development  requires 
a  proper  separation  of  the  anterior  from  the  posterior  members ;  and 
this  separation  is  in  relation  with  rapidity  of  locomotion,  in  that  it  is 
the  expression  of  the  length  of  the  muscles  which  pass  from  the  trunk 
to  the  superior  part  of  the  limbs,  as  the  psoas,  great  dorsal,  and  pectoral ; 
also  of  those  which  occupy  the  costo-vertebral  gutters,  whose  function  is 
the  extension  and  propulsion  of  the  vertebral  column.  Again,  it  en- 
larges the  base  of  support  and  leaves  a  sufficiently  large  area  underneath 
the  trunk,  circumscribed  by  the  four  feet,  for  the  movements  of  the  pos- 
terior limbs.  The  latter  are  thus  less  liable  to  come  in  contact  with 
each  other,  and  so  to  produce  that  disagreeable  sound  called  forging. 

These  advantages,  however,  are  often  diminished  by  the  following 
associated  imperfections,  which  the  shortness  of  the  loins  cannot  always 
rectify. 

The  dorsal  column  being  long,  tends  to  alter  its  direction  under 
the  impetus  received  from  the  posterior  extremities  during  the  move- 
ments of  progression.  A  certain  part  of  this  impulsive  force  is  there- 
fore necessarily  lost  at  the  expense  of  propulsion.  Further,  from  the 
augmented  flexibility  and  diminished  solidity  of  the  vertebral  column, 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  121 

its  depression,  to  an  exaggerated  degree,  is  rendered  more  easy,  and  the 
back  may  even  become  concave  under  the  pressure  of  excessive  weight. 
Long-backed  horses  are  more  predisposed  than  others  to  fracture  of 
the  vertebrae  during  surgical  operations  in  the  recumbent  position. 

As  to  the  short  back,  it  presents  the  elements  of  great  strength 
and  solidity,  transmits  the  action  of  the  hind  limbs  with  greater  force, 
and  rarely  becomes  sway-backed  ;  but,  conversely,  it  lacks  flexibility 
of  movement,  diminishes  the  capacity  of  the  thoracic  cavity,  and  limits 
the  play  of  the  posterior  limbs.  The  animal  is  predisposed  to  forging 
as  soon  as  he  is  obliged  to  lengthen  his  steps,  unless  the  loins,  by  an 
excess  of  length,  preserve  the  required  proportions  of  the  dorso-lumbar 
region  as  a  whole.  Under  these  circumstances  this  defect  is  apt  to  be 
obscured  by  one  that  is  more  grave,  as  we  shall  see  further  on. 

Most  authors  who  have  written  of  this  subject  pretend  that  short- 
ness of  the  back  constitutes  its  first  beauty.  H.  Bouley l  has  very 
judiciously  asserted  that  this  proposition  is  too  absolute.  A  very  short 
back  is  not  desirable  except  in  animals  destined  to  carry  heavy  weights, 
as  the  shaft-horse,  the  pack-horse,  the  mule,  the  ass,  and  the  saddle- 
horse.  In  the  last,  from  which  speed  is  exacted,  a  deficiency  in  the 
length  of  the  chest  should  be  compensated  by  the  arching  of  the  ribs 
and  their  increased  projection  backward.  As  to  the  diminished  stride 
of  the  legs,  it  may  be  redeemed  by  the  multiplicity  and  rapidity  of 
their  movements.  An  elevated  carriage -of  the  head,  throwing  the 
weight  upon  the  hind  and  liberating  the  fore  limbs,  tends  to  prevent 
forging.  Moreover,  by  judicious  handling,  the  short-backed  saddle- 
horse  can  be  taught,  little  by  little,  to  elevate  the  anterior  members 
quickly  enough  and  sufficiently  far  in  advance,  so  that  they  will  not  be 
touched  by  the  posterior. 

The  same  considerations  are  applicable  to  animals  other  than  saddle- 
horses,  in  which  a  long  back  would  be  deemed  preferable,  with  the  pre- 
sumption that  the  dorso-lumbar  spine  be  well  directed  and  strongly 
muscled. 

Width. — The  width  is  also  one  of  the  qualities  of  the  back  to 
be  considered.  It  is  in  relation  with  the  transverse  diameter  of  the 
chest  and  the  volume  of  the  ilio-spinalis  muscles.  When  the  back  is 
narroiv,  the  ribs  are  often  flat,  the  thoracic  cavity  deficient  in  space  or 
volume,  the  spinal  crest  too  prominent,  and  the  parts  are  predisposed 
to  wounds  and  abrasions  from  the  harness  or  the  saddle.  Thus  narrow- 
ness of  the  back,  for  these  reasons,  may  become  a  positive  defect. 

1  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit.,  art.  "  Dos." 


122  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — Various  lesions  resulting  from  a  defective 
pattern  or  vicious  application  of  the  harness  or  the  saddle  are  sometimes  observed 
in  this  region.  Such  are  denudations,  excoriations,  bruises,  corns,  cysts,  abscesses, 
and  fistulse  which  exist  on  the  median  line,  or  the  lateral  parts.  Their  gravity 
varies  according  to  position  and  the  anatomical  structures  of  the  parts  involved. 
Cure  is  difficult  in  proportion  to  their  closeness  to  the  median  line.  Benign 
as  they  may  appear  at  the  beginning,  there  is  always  danger  of  complications 
which  may  prevent  the  animal  from  working  for  several  months.  The  presence 
of  cicatrices  or  of  white  hairs  are  the  indelible  evidences  which  follow  lesions 
of  this  nature.  Finally,  we  sometimes  find  the  marks  of  blisters  or  of  the 
actual  cautery,  which  will  indicate  that  the  animal  has  been  treated  for  some  one 
of  these  diseases. 

D.— The  Loins. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — This  symmetrical  region,  situ- 
ated behind  the  back  and  in  front  of  the  croup  and  the  haunches,  and  limited  on 
each  side  by  the  flank,  has  for  its  base  the  six  lumbar  vertebrae  (sometimes  only 
five),  whose  costiform  processes  continue  posteriorly  the  costo-vertebral  gutter. 
This  gutter  is  covered  by  the  transverse  spinous  and  the  ilio-spinalis  muscles,, 
the  anterior  extremity  of  the  gluteal  muscle,  and  the  aponeurosis  of  the  great 
dorsal  muscle. 

We  will  examine  this  region  as  to  its  length,  width,  form,  direction^ 
and  attachments. 

Width. — The  width  of  the  loins  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
development  of  the  costiform  apophyses  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  and 
corresponds  in  some  degree  with  that  of  the  muscles  named  above.  A 
wide  loin  is  regarded  as  a  feature  of  absolute  beauty. 

Length. — Whatever  may  be  the  work  the  animal  is  destined  to 
perform,  the  loins  should  be  as  short  as  possible,  a  condition  of  solidity 
important  to  recognize,  because  the  lumbar  vertebrae  have  no  support 
laterally,  being  simply  articulated  the  one  with  the  other.  Its  short- 
ness also  favors  the  transmission  of  the  impetus  given  by  the  posterior 
limbs,  because  it  lessens  the  elasticity  and  mobility  of  the  structures 
through  which  the  force  of  impulsion  must  pass.  As  to  the  relation  of 
the  entire  length  of  the  dorso-lumbar  region,  the  back  should  be  long 
and  the  loins  short,  especially  in  saddle-  and  pack-horses.  This  point 
cannot  be  impressed  too  strongly. 

Form. — As  in  the  back,  the  form  of  the  loins  is  dependent  mainly 
upon  that  of  the  muscles.  The  median  line  is  indicated  by  a  crest  or  a 
gutter.  In  the  former  case,  they  are  single,  and  should  be  well  muscled  ; 
in  the  latter,  they  are  double.  When  the  crest  is  very  high,  the  loins  are 
called  sharp,  which  is  a  sign  of  weakness  and  feeble  resistance. 

Direction. — As  to  their  direction,  the  loins  are  usually  straight,. 
and  their  convexity  is  observed  only  in  old  horses,  or  in  those  abused 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  123 

by  excessive  labor,  in  which  the  spinal  column  has  been  injured  by  the 
weight  and  muscular  traction  which  the  region  has  sustained.  In 
gravely -diseased  animals  they  are  often  arched  and  have  lost  suppleness. 

Attachments. — The  loins  should  become  insensibly  united  to  the 
croup  and  the  back.  When  they  are  mal-attached,  there  exists  in 
front  of  the  former  a  depression  of  variable  depth,  which  gives  them 
such  names  as  low,  weak,  false,  and  dipped.  Besides,  they  are -often 
long,  narrow,  and  feeble,  peculiarities  detracting  from  their  strength. 

Examination. — At  all  times,  in  conducting  an  examination  of 
the  horse,  veterinarians  are  in  the  habit  of  pressing  on  the  loins  to 
determine  by  their  flexibility  the  state  of  the  health  of  the  subject. 

This  practice  should  be  executed  with  some  precautions.  Taking  a  position 
at  the  side  of  the  animal,  with  the  back  towards  his  head,  the  hand  is  passed 
downward  over  the  back,  and  the  loins  are  pinched  on  the  median  line  by  making 
gentle  pressure  with  the  thumb  and  index  finger.  Under  this  influence  the 
animal,  when  in  a  state  of  health,  will  extend  the  spine,  or  flinch.  In  those 
suffering  from  weakness  or  certain  few  diseases  of  this  region,  as  osteoporosis,  or 
in  those  of  a  nervous  temperament,  the  sensitiveness  may  be  much  exaggerated. 
In  horses  suffering  from  fever  or  some  other  diseases,  the  region  will  remain  per- 
fectly rigid.  In  a  general  way,  its  sensitiveness  affords  an  index  of  the  health 
of  the  animal.  Certain  nervous  subjects  will  resist  this  manipulation  by  biting 
or  kicking ;  in  order  to  avoid  this,  the  head  should  be  raised  and  the  position  of 
the  clinician  should  not  be  too  close  to  the  body.  Others  will  yield  to  the  first 
attempt,  but  resist  a  repetition  by  stiffening  the  parts. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes.— The  wounds  of  this  region  are  of  the  same 
nature  as  those  of  the  back.  They  result  nearly  always  from  a  misfitting  harness 
or  its  improper  application.  The  posterior  part  of  the  saddle  frequently  bears  on 
the  origin  of  the  loins  and  wounds  them  on  the  median  line.  These  wounds  are 
always  painful  and  slow  to  cicatrize,  and  may  prevent  the  animal  from  working 
for  a  long  period.  In  olden  times  they  were  designated  under  the  name  evils  of 
the  loins. 

Strain  of  the  loins,  which  is  sometimes  observed,  is  a  much  more  grave  affec- 
tion, but  we  will  speak  of  it  under  the  defects  of  the  gait. 

It  manifests  itself  as  a  great  weakness  of  the  posterior  quarters,  which  is 
most  apparent  during  locomotion,  and  renders  its  victim  unfit  for  active  service. 

The  blemishes  are  traces  of  blisters  or  the  firing-iron,  more  or  less  exten- 
sive, proving  an  old  cauterization  for  a  serious  disease,  principally  strain  of  the 
loins.  There  may  also  be  excoriations,  white  markings  in  horses  of  a  dark  color, 
or  cicatrices  of  the  same  nature  as  those  which  we  have  indicated  in  the  region 
of  the  back. 

E.— The  Croup. 

Situation  ;  Limits. — The  croup  is  a  single  region  situated  on 
the  median  line  of  the  superior  surface  of  the  body.  It  is  bounded  in 
front  by  the  loins,  behind  by  the  tail,  and  on  each  side  by  the  thigh  and 
the  superior  part  of  the  buttock. 


124 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Although,  from  an  anatomical  and  physiological  point  of  view,  the  croup 
constitutes  the  first  segment  of  the  abdominal  limb,  yet,  on  account  of  its  close 
relationship  with  the  other  parts  of  the  back,  we  prefer  to  regard  it,  for  our 
present  purpose,  as  the  terminal  portion  of  the  trunk  giving  attachment  to  the 
hind  limbs.  Solidly  united  with  the  vertebral  column  by  bones  and  muscles,  it 

helps  to  form  the  periphery  of  the  pelvic 
cavity.  Accordingly,  we  shall  not,  in  this 
discussion,  separate  it  from  the  other  regions 
of  the  body  with  which  it  is  so  intimately 
associated. 

Anatomical  Base. — It  has  for  its 
base  the  two  coxse,  HF  (Fig.  34),  firmly 
united  on  the  median  line,  CD ;  anteriorly 
they  articulate  with  the  borders  of  the  sa- 
crum, S,  and  are  immovable  excepting  for  a 
certain  amount  of  elasticity.  These  bones 
are  covered  by  a  large  mass  of  muscles,  some 
of  which  extend  to  the  femur  and  to  the 
tibia.  On  the  side  is  the  coxo-femoral 
articulation,  0,  in  which  the  head  of  the 
femur  takes  part,  and  which  supports  this  region  upon  the  posterior  members. 

Considered  from  a  point  of  view  of  animal  mechanics,  the  coxa  can  be  repre- 
sented (Fig.  35)  by  a  bent  lever,  HOF,  composed  of  two  arms :  the  one  anterior, 

HO,  formed  by  the  ilium,  ex- 
tending from  the  external 
angle  of  the  haunch,  If,  to 
the  centre  of  the  coxo-femoral 
articulation,  0 ;  the  other, 
OF,  formed  by  the  ischium, 
extends  from  the  centre  of 
the  hip-joint  to  the  ischiatic 
tuberosity  or  the  point  of  the 
buttock,  F. 

These  two  bones  form  a 
a  very  obtuse  angle,  HOF, 
whose  mean  extent,  as  deter- 
mined by  our  researches,  is 
from  140  to  145  degrees,  but 
which  may  vary  ten  degrees 
in  either  direction,  accord- 
ing to  the  individual.  We 
will  call  it  the  ilio-ischlal 
angle. 

It  rests  by  its  summit,  0, 
upon  the  head  of  the  femur, 
at  an  inclination  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  individual; 

sometimes  it  is  inclined  forward,  and  then  the  line  of  direction,  HF,  tends  to  be- 
come more  horizontal ;  sometimes  it  tends  to  an  opposite  inclination. 


FIG.  35. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  125 

Finally,  the  femur  not  always  having  the  same  obliquity,  it  forms  with  the 
ilium  and  the  ischium  two  angles,  HOC  (ilio-femoral)  and  FOG  (ischio-Jemorat). 
for  this  reason  more  or  less  closed  or  open. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  femur  surmounts  the  centre  of  the  articulation, 
0,  by  the  great  trochanter,  T. 

Among  the  groups  of  muscles  we  recognize 

1st.  The  gluteal  muscles,  TH,  TS,  carrying  the  femur  backward  when  their 
fixed  point  is  H,  or  elevating  the  ilium  when  7*is  the  fixed  point. 

2d.  The  flexors  of  the  femur,  HP,  principally  the  psoas,  RP,  advancing  the 
thigh  when  H  is  their  fixed  point,  and  depressing  the  ilium  when  P  becomes  the 
fixed  insertion. 

3d.  The  ischio-tibial  (femoral  biceps,  semi-tendinosus  and  membranosus), 
FI  and  FF,  extending  the  femur  and  flexing  the  tibia,  have  as  their  fixed  point 
F  or  S;  when  /  or  /'  is  the  fixed  point,  the  ischium  swings  downward  or 
upward. 

The  remaining  muscles  are  all  similar  in  function  to  those  already  studied. 

We  observe,  therefore,  that  there  are  in  this  region  two  principal  groups 
of  muscles.  The  first,  PH,  flex  the  femur,  carrying  it  forward ;  the  second,  Tff, 
FI,  FVj  more  voluminous,  extend  this  region.  When  the  femoral  insertion  is 
fixed  these  muscles  are  capable  of  producing  the  same  movements  of  the  croup. 
The  flexors,  HP,  swing  the  coxae  downward  and  forward ;  the  extensors  rotate 
them  backward.  They  can  thus  contribute  directly  or  indirectly  in  supporting 
the  dorso-lumbar  region. 

The  croup  must  be  studied  with  regard  to  its  length,  width,  thiekness, 
direction,  muscular  development,  and  particular  forms. 

Length. — The  length  is  measured  from  the  external  angle  of  the 
ilium  (haunch)  to  the  ischiatic  tuberosity  (buttock).  Bourgelat  con- 
sidered it  equal  to  the  distance  comprised  between  the  summit  of  the 
head  and  the  commissures  of  the  lips.  These  dimensions  appear  to 
correspond  in  most  horses  of  a  regular  conformation,  except  in  thor- 
oughbreds, in  which  the  croup  is  relatively  longer  on  account  of  the 
exceptional  smallness  of  the  head. 

The  length  of  the  coxae  is,  without  dispute,  the  most  important  con- 
dition of  the  beauty  of  the  croup  in  animals  adapted  to  any  rapid  ser- 
vice. Whilst  it  is  not  a  necessity  in  draught-horses,  it  nevertheless 
adds  to  their  usefulness  and  beauty.  Among  Arabians  this  quality  is 
much  appreciated.  "As  to  the  horse  whose  croup  is  as  long  as  his 
back  and  loins  united,  you  can  safely  choose  him  even  with  your  eyes 
closed  ;  such  a  horse  is  a  blessing  I"  This 'is  one  of  their  maxims.  The 
principal  idea  which  this  metaphor  teaches  is  that  the  long  croup  should 
always  be  preferred,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 

The  reason  for  this  preference  is  readily  perceived.  The  great 
development  of  its  antero-posterior  diameter  corresponds  relatively 
with  the  length  of  the  muscles  of  the  croup,  notably  those  of  the 


126 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


gluteal  region,  the  principal  extensors  of  the  femur.  They,  in  con- 
nection with  the  other  extensors  of  the  hind  limb,  communicate  to  the 
body  a  greater  impulse,  which  carries  it  forward  by  a  sudden  and 
forcible  opening  of  all  the  locomotory  angles  and  a  straightening  of 
the  whole  limb.  The  greater  their  length  the  more  they  will  be  capable 
of  shortening  during  contraction,  and,  consequently,  the  greater  will  be 
the  force  which  the  hind  limb  possesses. 

This  impulsion,  besides,  will  have  greater  power,  because  the  inser- 
tion of  the  muscles  will  have  an  incidence  approaching  the  perpendicu- 
lar. The  line  CD',  which  represents  the  direction  (Fig.  36),  is  less 
oblique  to  5  (7  (or  CO)  than  the  line  CD. 

Again,  the  length  of  the  croup  is  concomitant  with  that  of  the 
ischio-tibial  muscles,  AB  and  AfB,  which  flex  the  tibia  or  rotate  the 
coxae  backward  during  rearing  or  progressive  movements  in  which  they 


FIG.  36. 


are  concerned,  as  the  gallop  or  leaping.  Not  only  the  length  but  the 
angle  of  incidence  is  also  modified. 

This  is  not  all.  It  is  also  instructive  to  inform  ourselves  as  to  how 
the  length  of  the  croup  is  produced,  for  there  are  three  principal  fac- 
tors which  enter  into  its  formation, — 1st,  the  degree  of  openness  of  the 
ilio-ischial  angle  ;  2d,  the  length  of  the  ilium  ;  and,  3d,  the  length  of  the 
ischium. 

The  openness  of  the  ilio-ischial  angle,  according  as  it  is  more  or 
loss  large,  separates  correspondingly  the  an  rle  of  the  haim  -h  from  the 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  127 

p}int  of  the  buttock,  and  makes  the  croup  long  or  short.  This  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  37.  The  lines  AB  and  A'E'  are  of  unequal 
lengths,  whilst  they  support  angles  whose  sides  are  exactly  equal ; 
nothing  but  the  inclination  of  these  lines  has  changed.  It  follows  from 
this  that  if  the  increase  of  the  length  of  the  croup  can  exist  without 
influence  upon  the  real  length  of  the  ilium  and  ischium,  it  modifies, 
nevertheless,  the  direction  of  the  region  in  such  a  way  that  4^  tends 
to  become,  in  general,  more  horizontal.  We  will  return  to  this  subject 
hereafter. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  that  in  our  larger  quadrupeds  the  line  of 
direction  of  the  croup  always  passes  perceptibly  above  the  centre  of 
the  coxo-femoral  articulation,  whilst  in  our  smaller  species,  as  rodents 
and  carnivora,  for  example,  the  ilium  and  the  ischium  standing  more 
nearly  in  the  same  line,  and  making  a  less  angle  the  one  with  the  other, 
this  line  passes  almost  through  the  centre  of  the  joint.  The  ilio-ischial 
angle,  in  this  respect,  seems  more  marked,  or,  if  it  be  preferred,  the  angle 
is  the  more  effaced  as  the  volume  of  the  body  becomes  less  and  the 
nimbleness  of  the  movements  greater.  Thus  it  augments  in  size  grad- 
ually from  the  horse  and  the  ox  to  the  pig  ;  from  the  pig  to  the  smaller 
ruminants  ;  and,  finally,  from  the  latter  to  the  carnivora  and  the  rodents. 
This  relative  openness,  or  largeness  of  the  angle,  with  the  corresponding 
modifications  in  the  length  of  the  muscles,  and  of  their  incidence  with 
the  osseous  levers,  and  the  play  of  the  angles  of  locomotion  in  the  pos- 
terior extremity,  seems  specially  adapted  to  the  execution  of  the  gallop 
and  leaping. 

Whatever  may  be  the  interpretation,  it  is  well  known  that  in 
horses  of  great  speed  this  angle  is  more  open  than  in  draught-horses. 
In  animals  used  for  rapid  services,  this  conformation  has  the  preference. 
It  is  manifested  externally  by  the  relation  of  the  centre  of  the  articu- 
lation with  the  line  of  direction  of  the  croup. 

The  length  of  the  croup,  however,  is  due,  more  than  to  aught  else,  to 
that  of  the  ilium  and  the  ischium,  the  ilio-ischial  angle  remaining  the 
same.  These  offer  some  important  individual  differences.  Thus  we 

have  seen  the  relation  of  these  two  bones  —     —  vary  from  1.55  to  1.87. 

iscmutn         1 

The  ratio  augments  in  fast-trotting  horses,  and  diminishes  in  hunters, 
saddle-horses,  and  draught-horses.  The  length  of  the  ilium  determines 
that  of  the  muscles  attaching  to  it,  and  favors  the  amplitude  of  the 
femoral  extension,  whilst  that  of  the  ischium  fixes  the  vertebral  column 
when  the  flexors  act,  and  facilitates  the  rotation  of  the  pelvis  downward 
and  backward. 


128  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Here  are  some  very  suggestive  figures  which  show  these  dimensions  relatively 
in  certain  species  other  than  the  horse :  We  have  found  the  relation  to  be  0.57  in 
the  swan;  0.87  in  the  turkey;  1.22  in  the  hare  and  the  rabbit;  1.30  in  the  lion  ; 
1.50  in  the  cat ;  1.60  in  the  greyhound ;  1.56  in  the  goat.  In  the  ox  it  is  only  1.24  : 
it  is  smaller  than  in  the  horse. 

In  all  animals  in  which  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  has  no  direct 
support,  as  in  birds,  or  is  comparatively  heavy,  as  in  the  larger  rumi- 
nants, or,  again,  when  the  natural  mode  of  progression  is  galloping  or 
leaping,  the  ratio  diminishes  in  consequence  of  the  relative  increase  of 
the  ischjum. 

The  result  is-  apparent.  It  is  easy  to  determine  the  proportions  of 
the  two  levers  constituting  the  coxa,  by  the  distance  comprised  between 
the  centre  of  the  articulation  and  the  point  of  the  buttock.  This  factor 
is  at  least  useful,  if  not  indispensable,  in  estimating  the  locomotory  apti- 
tude of  the  animal. 

To  recapitulate :  the  length  of  the  croup  is  in  close  relation  with 
the  production  of  speed.  The  ilio-ischial  line  is  an  insufficient  indica- 
tion, and  often  the  source  of  error.  We  should  primarily  strive  to 
estimate  the  length  of  the  bones  which  constitute  that  line,  and  should 
attach  only  a  secondary  importance  to  the  line  of  direction  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  to  the  openness  of  the  angle  which  they  form. 

Thickness. — Authors  have  said  but  little  upon  the  thickness 
of  the  croup,  a  point  which  should,  nevertheless,  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. We  may  define  it  as  the  distance  comprised  between  the 
antero-posterior  axis  of  the  coxae  and  the  summit  of  the  sacral  spine. 

The  interval  between  the  sacrum  and  the  coxae  is  greater  at  the 
outlet  than  at  the  inlet  of  the  pelvic  cavity,  on  account  of  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  croup  and  the  horizontal  tendency  of  the  axis 
of  the  sacrum.  It  varies  singularly  in  different  subjects,  owing  to  the 
peculiarities  of  the  form  of  the  sacral  spine  and  the  general  direction 
of  the  sacrum  itself.  This  bone  may  often  be  curved  in  draught-horses, 
while  it  is  ordinarily  more  or  less  rectilinear  in  animals  possessed  of 
speed,  notably  the  English  thoroughbred  and  his  descendants.  The 
more  it  is  depressed  the  smaller  will  be  the  coxo-sacral  interval,  or  the 
less  the  thickness  of  the  croup. 

When  it  is  straight,  on  the  contrary,  this  interval  augments,  and  the 
line  which  marks  the  profile  of  the  croup  contrasts  more  strongly  \vith 
the  ilio-ischial  line.  The  region  then  appears  horizontal. 

Numerous  muscles,  among  them  the  ischio-tibial  muscles,  charged 
with  the  rotation  of  the  pelvis  and  the  fixation  of  the  spinal  column, 
attach  to  the  sides  of  the  sacral  spine.  Its  straightness,  also  indicating 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  129 

the  thickness  "of  the  croup,  is,  therefore,  in  relation  with  the  length  of 
the  muscles,  the  extent  of  rotation  of  the  coxae,  and,  consequently,  the 
aptitude  for  galloping  and  leaping.  This  straightness  may  at  the  same 
time  be  considered,  in  horses  of  rapid  movement,  as  an  index  of  great 
power  and  strength  in  the  upper  part  of  the  hind  quarter. 

Width. — The  width  is  the  distance  between  the  external  angles 
of  the  ilia,  but  depends  also  upon  the  separation  of  the  points-of  the 
buttock. 

In  the  skeleton,  the  interval  between  the  external  angles  of  the  ilia 
always  slightly  exceeds  the  length  of  the  ilio-ischial  line ;  in  other 
words,  the  pelvis  is  wider  than  long,  the  excess  varying  from  two  to 
seven  centimetres,  according  to  our  measurements. 

In  the  living  animal  it  is  otherwise  on  account  of  the  thickness  of 
the  muscles  which  cover  the  ischiatic  tuberosity ;  the  length  of  the 
croup  becomes  equal  to,  and  sometimes  exceeds,  its  width  in  heavy 
horses  from  two  to  five  centimetres. 

The  development  of  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  region  varies 
evidently  with  the  race  and  the  conformation  of  the  animal,  but  is,  in 
general,  an  index  of  the  volume  of  the  muscles,  and,  consequently,  of 
their  contractile  power,  the  fibres  or  contractile  units  being  more 
numerous  in  a  wide  croup  than  in  any  other.  Such  a  croup  is,  there- 
fore, an  absolute  beauty,  and  a  most  desirable  feature  in  a  horse, 
no  matter  for  what  service  he  is  intended ;  but  it  is  especially  desirable 
in  horses  used  for  heavy  work,  in  which  the  greatest  possible  effort  is 
exacted.  It  is  even  more  desirable  in  broodmares. 

The  separation  of  the  haunches  is  far  from  furnishing,  though  it 
be  so  regarded,  the  best  criterion  for  judging  of  the  true  width  of  the 
croup.  Horses  having  an  equal  measurement  over  the  haunches  may 
have,  in  reality,  ilia  very  different  in  their  transverse  diameter.  It  is 
not  rare  to  meet  some  subjects  whose  haunches  are  less  separated  than 
most  others,  but  whose  pelvic  measurements  and  iliac  surfaces  are  con- 
siderably larger. 

We  have  convinced  ourselves  that  these  individual  differences 
depend  upon  the  following  causes : 

1st.  The  degree  of  inclination  of  the  iliac  surfaces  from  above  to 
below.  2d.  The  degree  of  concavity  of  the  external  iliac  fossae. 

The  first  cause  effects  a  lowering  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium 
in  relation  with  the  summit  of  the  croup,  and  brings  it  towards  the 
median  plane  of  the  body,  a  circumstance  which,  it  is  true,  diminishes 
the  distance  between  the  haunches,  but  which  exercises  no  influence  in 
any  manner  upon  the  peripheral  surface  of  the  bone  for  muscular  attach- 

9 


130  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

ment.  An  apparent  narrowness  of  the  croup,  due  to  this  cause,  may 
exist,  all  things  being  otherwise  normal,  so  marked  as  to  diminish  the 
transverse  diameter  of  the  croup  by  more  than  six  centimetres. 

As  to  the  degree  of  concavity  of  the  external  face  of  the  ilium,  its 
influence  is  easily  understood.  It  augments  thereby  the  surface  des- 
tined for  muscular  insertion.  Let  us  confine  ourselves  by  saying  that 
it  is  often  much  more  pronounced  than  can  be  determined  from  the 
exterior. 

The  practical  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  statements  is 
simple  :  to  judge  well  the  width  of  the  croup,  it  will  suffice  to  consider 
the  transverse  dimension  of  the  cavity  of  the  pelvis.  With  equal 
length  of  the  ilium,  preference  is  to  be  given  to  the  horse  in  which  the 
sides  of  this  region  are  inclined, — that  is  to  say,  a  great  difference  of 
level  between  the  haunch  and  the  summit  of  the  croup  is  desirable, 
the  separation  of  the  haunches  remaining  the  same. 

Two  objectionable  consequences  may  result  from  excessive  width 
of  the  croup  and  a  too  marked  inclination  of  its  sides.  Too  widely 
separated  from  the  median  line,  the  coxo-femoral  articulations  require  too 
large  a  base  of  support,  and  consequently  produce  exaggerated  lateral 
oscillations  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  body  during  locomotion.  From 
this  results  an  ungraceful  swaying  of  the  buttocks,  which  has  been 
called  the  rocking  of  the  horse  ;  whence  results  a  loss  of  force  and  time 
proportional  to  the  extent  of  these  movements  and  the  excessive  oscil- 
lations of  the  centre  of  gravity.  The  conditions  of  locomotion  require 
the  centre  of  gravity  to  move  in  as  straight  a  line  as  possible,  because 
force  is  required  to  displace  it  from  that  line.  In  draught-horses  this 
defect  is  of  no  importance ;  in  animals  used  for  other  purposes  it  is  detri- 
mental, and  a  mean  obliquity  of  the  sides  of  the  croup  is  preferable. 

Other  defects,  not  less  serious,  may  result  from  an  excessive  inclina- 
tion of  the  lateral  parietes  of  the  croup,  as  is  seen  more  particularly  in 
the  form  in  which  it  is  designated  sharp.  Here  the  base  of  support 
is  narrow  and  the  hind  limbs  do  not  have  their  necessary  freedom  of 
movement  during  rapid  locomotion  ;  they  approach  each  other,  the 
abduction  is  limited,  and  the  animal  will  interfere  or  forge.  Let  us 
add  that  such  a  croup  lacks  strength  and  beauty,  and  is  often  accompa- 
nied by  a  narrow  chest,  sufficient  cause  to  render  the  animal  unfit  for 
for  some  kinds  of  work. 

The  absolute  narrowness  of  this  region  is  at  all  times  regarded  as  a 
defect. 

Direction. — The  direction  of  the  croup  has  been  the  theme  of 
extensive  discussions  among  authors  who  have  written  upon  the  exte- 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  131 

rior.  More  recently,  our  learned  colleague,  M.  Neumann,1  has,  in  a 
full  review  of  this  subject,  endeavored  to  offer  diverse  criticisms  on 
certain  views  which  we  supported  on  this  point  in  our  first  edition. 
These  criticisms  have  induced  us  to  make  a  careful  revision  of  this  part 
of  our  book,  and  we  have  conducted  numerous  experiments,  the  results 
of  which  are  given  in  this  edition.  We  are  convinced  that  the  diver- 
gence from  our  opinion  regarding  the  direction  of  the  croup,  held^bysome 
writers,  is  much  less  reasonable  than  our  critics  imagine.  They  do  not 
sufficiently  consider  the  sources  of  error,  and  the  compensations  and 
exigencies  demanded  by  the  nature  of  the  work  which  the  animal  must 
perform.  Very  often  qualities  or  defects  which  belong  to  other  elements 
of  the  conformation  are  attributed  to  the  direction  of  the  croup  ;  finally, 
it  is  common  to  see  persons  who  choose  as  a  standard  of  excellence  such 
or  such  an  inclination  which  has  given  good  results  in  some  instances, 
without  reflecting  that  different  purposes  also  require  peculiar  anatomical 
conditions,  which  endow  the  mechanism  with  a  peculiar  aptitude. 

The  discussion  into  which  we  now  enter  will  furnish  the  proof  of 
what  we  have.  said. 

First,  how  is  the  direction  of  the  croup  manifested  ? 

Certain  writers  think,  incorrectly,  that  it  is  indicated  by  a  curve  on 
the  median  line  of  the  body  extending  from  the  termination  of  the 
loins  to  the  origin  of  the  tail.  This  line  denotes  only  the  degree  of 
convexity  of  the  sacral  spine  and  the  curvature  of  the  sacrum.  It  is 
altogether  independent  of  the  general  direction  of  the  coxse,  and 
influences  but  little  the  form  of  the  region. 

The  axis  of  the  croup,  in  our  opinion,  corresponds  almost  exactly 
with  a  line  uniting  the  angle  of  the  haunch  to  the  point  of  the  ischium 
and  passing  some  distance  above  the  coxo-femoral  articulation  ;  we  will 
call  it  the  ilio-ischial  line. 

We  are  prepared  to  assert  that  the  direction  of  this  line  depends 
upon  two  principles,  as  follows  : 

1st.  It  may  depend  upon  the  dimension  of  the  ilio-ischial  angle. 

2d.  It  may  depend  upon  the  more  or  less  inclined  position  of  the 
coxae  without  variation  in  its  angle. 

a.  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  DIMENSION  OF  THE  ILIO-ISCHIAL  ANGLE. 
— Two  causes  are  capable  of  modifying  the  size  of  this  angle ;  they 
may  act  alone  or  simultaneously.  It  may  be  the  inclination  of  the 
ilium  alone  which  varies,  or  that  of  the  ischium,  or,  finally,  that  of  both, 
which  may  vary  at  the  same  time. 

Let  us  examine  each  of  these  cases  in  particular. 

1  G.  Neumann,  Sur  la  direction  de  la  croupe ;  in  Revue  v<§te"rinaire,  1887,  p.  521. 


132 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


1st.  Variations  in  the  Inclination  of  the  Ilium. — When  the  ilium  approaches  the 
vertical  (Fig.  38),  the  croup  A/ B  is  more  oblique  and  shorter  than  the  croup  AB. 
The  length  of  the  gluteal  muscles  A/C  is  diminished;  nevertheless,  this 
incidence  is  more  favorable  than  that  of  AC,  whether  for  the  extension  of  the 
femur  or  the  support  of  the  vertebral  column.  The  advantages  which  follow 
from  this  incidence  are  more  efficacious  than  is  generally  believed.  Are  they  not 
evident  in  the  draught-horse,  for  example,  when  he  endeavors  to  move  his  load  ? 
The  effort  inclines  his  croup  and  closes  proportionally  his  articular  angles,  which 
otherwise  are  more  open.  Is  it  not  the  immediate  consequence  of  this  variation 
to  augment  the  intensity  of  the  muscular  contraction,  by  rendering  the  insertion 
more  perpendicular  to  the  bony  levers  on  which  they  act  ?  If,  therefore,  from  this 
circumstance  the  animal  approaches  a  conformation  which  saves  him  from  exerting 

all  his  efforts  during  traction,  he  will  realize 
a  certain  economy  of  force  which  must  not 
be  overlooked. 

The  coxo-femoral  angle,  A'OD,  being 
very  obtuse,  the  weight  of  the  body  will 
distribute  itself  more  perpendicularly  upon 
the  bones;  the  muscles  A'C  and  BE, 
charged  to  support  the  spinal  column, 
will  expend  less  force. 

From  an  opposite  point  of  view,  if  the 
coxo-femoral  angle,  A'OD,  become  more 
obtuse,  it  places  the  femur  in  a  position 
much  closer  to  its  limit  of  extension.  (See 
Generalities  of  the  Members.)  It  follows,, 
then,  that  if  the  coxa,  by  its  uprightness, 
increase  the  dimension  of  the  angle  A'OD, 
which  is  already  large,  this  bone  can  only 
pass  through  a  limited  distance  during  the 
act  of  extension,  because  at  the  moment  of 
the  propulsion  of  the  trunk  the  posterior 
limit  of  the  femoral  play  is  reached  much 
more  quickly.  The  movements  of  the  femur 

will,  on  the  contrary,  be  much  more  extensive  with  the  angle  A  OD  less  obtuse 
and  approaching  the  ilium  towards  the  horizontal  direction. 

If  the  ilium  be  lowered,  the  results  are  precisely  of  an  opposite  order.  We 
will,  therefore,  not  pass  further  into  details. 

The  following  conclusions  are  derived  from  the  study  of  this 
mechanism  (Fig.  38)  : 

With  the  oblique  ilium,  the  gluteal  muscles  are  shorter,  but  better 
inserted  for  intensity  of  power ;  the  fixation  of  the  spine  is  more  easy  ; 
the  movements  of  extension  and  flexion  lack  amplitude ;  and  the 
impulsion  is  transmitted  more  vertically.  Force  is  increased  and  speed 
is  diminished. 

With  the  ilium  horizontal  (that  is  to  say,  less  upright),  the  mechanical 
conditions  are  the  opposite  of  the  preceding ;  the  muscles  are  long ;  the 


FIG.  38. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  133 

femoral  movements  extensive  ;  impulsion  is  transmitted  horizontally, 
but  the  general  structure  is  not  adapted  to  increase  the  fixation  of  the 
spinal  column.  Velocity  is  increased  at  the  expense  of  force. 

The  first  conformation,  therefore,  should  exist  in  horses  which  are 
employed  to  carry  burdens  or  pull  heavy  loads ;  the  second  is  found 
in  those  which  are  adapted  to  rapid  locomotion  with  little  or  no 
weight  to  carry,  those  whose  value  depends  upon  their  qualities  of 
speed. 

2d.  Variations  in  the  Inclination  of  the  Ischium.— When  it  is  the  ischium 
which  is  lowered  (Fig.  39),  the  croup,  AB', 
is  more  oblique,  and  appears  longer. 
The  length  of  the  ischio-tibial  muscles, 
B'E,  diminishes,  but  they  have  an  inci- 
dence of  insertion  more  favorable,  whether 
for  the  rotation  of  the  coxae,  in  view  of 
fixing  the  spinal  column,  or  the  flexion  of 
the  leg  during  progression. 

The  coxo-femoral  angle,  AOD,  does 
not  vary,  and  the  extension  of  the  femur 
preserves  its  amplitude,  provided  the  ilium, 
AO,  remain  well  directed. 

The  force  of  propulsion,  at  the  same 
time,  continues  to  be  transmitted  in  its 
proper  direction,  OA. 

Nevertheless,  the  distance,  B'E,  be- 
tween the  ischium  and  the  tibia  dimin- 
ishes, which  can  only  be  compensated 
by  an  increase  in  the  femoro-tibial  angle, 
ODE,  thus  giving  to  the  bones  a  more 
vertical  direction,  such  as  is  often  seen 
in  thoroughbred  horses,  in  which  the  tibia  is  ordinarily  but  little  inclined. 

The  gluteal  muscles,  A  C,  do  not  vary. 

What  are  the  conclusions  from  these  statements  ?  Simply  this : 
that  the  obliquity  of  the  croup,  due  only  to  the  lowering  of  the 
ischium,  or,  if  it  be  preferred,  of  the  point  of  the  buttock,  favors 
again  force  at  the  expense  of  speed,  but  in  a  manner  less  prejudicial 
than  in  the  preceding  case,  since  the  femoral  amplitude,  as  well  as  a 
good  direction  of  the  force  of  impulsion,  are  preserved. 

This  conformation,  if  it  be  not  exaggerated,  will  be  excellent  for 
most  ordinary  services,  because  it  corresponds  more  uniformly  to  the 
mean  requirements  of  power,  resistance,  and  velocity  demanded  from 
the  horse  of  to-day. 

3d.  Simultaneous  Variations  of  the  Ischium  and  the  Ilium. — If  the 
angle,  A  OB,  instead  of  preserving  its  mean  dimension,  becomes  smaller 


134 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


by  the  approximation  of  its  two  sides,  so  as  to  become  A'OB',  the 
results  are  as  follows  (Fig.  40) : 

The  apparent  length  of  the  croup,  A'£',  will  be  diminished,  although  the 
dimension  of  the  levers  OA'  and  OB'  do  not  change.  The  distance  between  the 

point  of  the  ischium  and  the  tibia  becomes 
longer. 

The  coxo-femoral  angle,  A'OD,  being 
larger,  the  impulsive  force  of  the  femur 
will  be  reduced,  because  it  is  transmitted 
too  vertically.  This  is  the  principal  dis- 
advantage of  this  conformation. 

The  fixation  of  the  dorso-lumbar  spine 
is  easy  and  powerful,  on  account  of  the 
greater  obliquity  of  the  ilium  and  the  per- 
pendicular incidence  of  insertion  of  the 
gluteal  muscles,  A'C* 

Such  a  croup  appears  short  and 
poorly  defined  ;  the  animal  lacks  mo- 
bility and  develops  a  vertical  im- 
pulsion ;  the  region  possesses  great 
strength,  and  he  is  well  fitted  to  exe- 
cute the  gallop  or  leap,  on  account  of 
FIG.  40.  the  length  of  the  buttock,  but  he  is 

without  great  speed.    We  have  known 

many  horses  whose  croup  had  these  characteristics,  and  which  per- 
formed ordinary  work  satisfactorily. 

In  the  opposite  conformation,  A"  OB",  the  croup  will  appear  longer,  but  will 
have  a  tendency  to  weakness  from  the  horizontal  direction  of  the  ilium. 

The  movements  of  the  femur  will  be  more  extensive,  the  angle  A//  OD  being 
smaller. 

The  impulsion  will  be  better  transmitted  than  in  the  preceding  case. 

Finally,  the  buttock  will  be  shorter. 

Feebleness  of  the  croup  and  loins,  greater  propulsion  from  behind, 
and  little  aptitude  for  the  gallop  and  for  leaping  are  the  principal 
characteristics  of  this  form.  The  gait  will  lack  neither  amplitude 
nor  grace,  but  the  weight  on  the  back  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
The  subject  will  perform  good  service  as  a  carriage-horse  or  for  light 
traction. 

An  interesting  remark  to  be  made  in  passing  is,  that  in  the  three 
varieties,  AB,  A'B1 ',  A"Bh ',  the  general  direction  of  the  croup  is  not 
sensibly  modified,  while  the  conditions  of  force,  strength,  and  speed 
are  all  of  different  orders.  We  shall  return  to  this  point  later. 

6.  INFLUENCE  OF  THE   MISPLACEMENT  OF  THE   COX^E  AS  A 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY. 


135 


WHOLE. — The  pelvis,  as  a  whole,  may  incline  more  or  less  towards 
the  horizontal  or  the  vertical  line. 

Although  these  misplacements  are  more  rare  and  less  marked  than 
those  of  the  individual  bones,  such  general  misplacements  are  never- 
theless sometimes  observed. 

The  ilio-ischial  angle  in  such  cases  is  ordinarily  more  closed  than 
is  normal,  owing  to  a  diminished  obliquity  of  the  ischium^  -The  for- 
ward and  backward  rotation  of  the  coxae  can  thus  be  accomplished 
without  perceptibly  modifying  the  direction  of  the  floor  of  the  pelvic 
cavity. 

This  rotation,  in  one  direction  or  in  the  other,  modifies  the  obliquity 
of  the  croup  (Fig.  41)  more  than  the  partial  variations  to  which  we 
have  alluded. 

When  the  coxce  are  rotated  backward,  A'OB',  the  combined  result,  a 
straightening  of  the  ilium  and  lower- 
ing of  the  ischium,  is  both  favor- 
able and  unfavorable.  Velocity  is 
diminished  and  force  increased.  The 
croup  and  loins  are  strengthened, 
and  the  power  for  traction  increased. 
The  femoral  impulsion  is  reduced 
because  it  is  applied  too  vertically. 
This  conformation,  when  it  is  exag- 
gerated, disturbs  the  axis  of  the 
members  by  placing  the  latter  under 
the  trunk ;  it  is  altogether  incom- 
patible with  great  speed,  but  is  not 
detrimental  to  slow  work  which  re- 
quires great  force. 

An  inverse  displacement,  A"  OB", 
naturally  means  opposite  results. 
The  muscles  are  longer,  their  play  is 

augmented,  the  transmission  of  the  motor  impulse  is  more  horizontal, 
but  the  regions  above  are  weakened. 

As  soon  as  the  horizontal  direction  passes  beyond  certain  limits, 
the  hind  limbs  tend  to  rest  posterior  to  their  vertical  axis,  and  the 
extension  and  flexion  of  the  femur  become  insufficient.  There  is  a 
tendency  towards  a  disposition  analogous  to  that  in  the  ox,  whose 
loins  are  weak,  not  only  on  account  of  their  great  length,  but  also  in 
consequence  of  the  conformation  of  the  croup,  whose  inclination  is  but 
faintly  marked. 


FIG.  41. 


136  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  DIRECTION  OF 
THE  CROUP. — If  the  reader  is  not  already  discouraged  by  having  fol- 
lowed us  in  the  minute  analysis  which  we  have  given,  he  will  now 
recognize  that  the  terms  horizontal  croup  and  oblique  croup  only  have 
a  relative  signification,  always  more  or  less  vague,  unless  they  are 
somewhat  arbitrarily  defined.  He  will  know  that  such  or  such  a  croup 
is  not  necessarily  well  directed,  from  the  statement  that  the  ilio-ischial 
line  is  oblique  or  horizontal,  as  the  case  may  be.  He  will  then  under- 
stand the  distinctions  to  be  made  in  the  two  factors,  the  ilium  and  the 
ischium,  which  occupy  such  an  important  relation  in  the  modification 
of  the  general  direction  of  the  coxse.  Finally,  he  will  perceive  that 
each  special  aptitude  of  the  horse  is  associated  with  a  particular 
inclination  of  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  factors. 

The  modern  horse  must  respond,  by  his  conformation,  to  multiple 
purposes.  The  two  principal,  which  embrace  all  the  others,  require 
the  animal  to  employ  either  force  or  speed.  The  muscular  forces, 
however,  which  in  the  two  cases  are  intrusted  with  the  double  result, 
must,  for  the  production  of  the  one  or  the  other,  act  according  to  a 
mechanism  entirely  different  as  to  its  mode  of  construction.  Whence 
we  meet  certain  qualifications,  absolute  for  speed,  while  those  for  force 
may  be  absent,  and  vice  versa. 

In  this  region  of  the  croup,  any  osseous  inclination  which  implies 
long  gluteal  and  ischio-tibial  muscles,  a  large  femoral  extension,  and  a 
transmission  of  the  motor  impulse  as  horizontally  as  possible,  should  be 
considered  as  the  three  factors  which  exemplify  the  best  conditions  of 
speed. 

The  distinctly-horizontal  croup  has  an  inclination  of  20  to  30 
degrees,  a  low  ilium  inclined  25  to  30  degrees,  a  horizontal  ischium, 
and  an  open  ischio-ilial  angle.  The  animal  thus  conformed  will  have, 
if  the  femur  be  well  directed,  a  coxo- femoral  angle  of  105  to  110 
degrees.  This  increases  the  arc  of  oscillation  of  the  thigh,  the  limit 
of  which  during  extension  passes  well  beyond  the  vertical  line  of  the 
members.  We  know,  in  fact,  that  the  impulsive  force  especially  is 
only  utilized  during  progression  after  the  moment  that  the  direct  axis 
of  the  member  has  passed  beyond  the  vertical  line  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  coxo-femoral  articulation. 

Such  a  horse,  however,  becomes  incapable  of  carrying,  without  great 
fatigue,  a  heavy  weight  on  his  back  ;  light  jockeys,  therefore,  are 
necessary  for  the  running-horse ;  the  vehicle  which  he  draws  must  also 
be  very  light.  Constructed  for  running-,  and  carrying  only  his  own 
weight,  his  speed  will  be  extreme;  more  than  this  should  not  be 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  137 

demanded  of  him.  How  many  of  his  likeness  appear  on  the  turf 
which  are  capable  of  astonishing  speed  for  a  short  distance,  but  which 
cannot  maintain  it  when  the  distance  is  increased,  being  overburdened 
by  the  weight  which  they  must  carry  ! 

Let  us  change  the  data  of  this  problem.  Let  us  exact  from  the 
motor  the  production  of  a  force  of  the  greatest  possible  intensity, 
whether  it  be  for  carrying  a  heavy  weight  or  drawing  a  heavy  load. 
Upon  what  will  be  based  the  influence  of  the  direction  of  the  croup 
in  such  a  case  ? 

With  M.  Neumann,1  we  respond  that  it  depends,  so  to  speak, 
exclusively  upon  the  inclination  of  the  croup  and  the  coxo-femoral 
structures,  or,  if  it  be  preferred,  the  position  of  the  ilium  under  the 
dorso-lumbar  arch.  Here  the  length  of  the  muscles  and  the  extent  of 
the  movements  are  a  secondary  consideration  ;  it  suffices  to  overcome 
the  intensity  of  the  resistance.  Consequently,  any  anatomical  disposi- 
tion whose  effect  is  to  furnish  to  the  pieces  of  the  skeleton  a  part  of 
the  effort  required  from  the  muscles,  or  which  gives  incidences  of  inser- 
tion to  them  more  favorable  to  their  contraction,  must  be  regarded  as 
being  in  conformity  with  the  adaptation  of  the  subject  to  this  variety 
of  labor. 

A  strongly-oblique  croup,  inclined  40  to  45  degrees,  with  an  oblique 
ilium  inclined  45  to  50  degrees,  and  with  a  low  ischium,  will  well 
fulfil  these  conditions.  A  large  coxo-femoral  angle,  which  will  be  the 
consequence,  will  place  the  coxae  as  a  strong  support  underneath  the 
vertebral  column  and  render  the  muscles  able  to  sustain  the  latter,  even 
if  it  be  heavily  charged.  To  exact  the  least  speed  from  such  a  horse 
will  be  in  opposition  to  physiological  laws ;  he  can  only  employ  his 
force  at  a  slow  pace. 

Between  these  two  extremes  there  are  numerous  intermediary  types, 
which  may,  with  sufficient  ease,  be  grouped  into  three  categories,  as 
follows : 

1.  Saddle-horses,  which  are  obliged  to  move  a  more  or  less  heavy 
weight  carried  on  their  back,  at  a  sufficiently  great  velocity,  whether 
at  the  trot  or  the  gallop.  Those  which  are  destined  for  the  turf  should 
have  a  croup  approaching  the  horizontal  ideal  of  25  degrees,  but  with 
a  more  oblique  ilium  (30  degrees),  for  the  purpose  of  giving  solidity  to 
the  structures  anterior  to  it.  Trotters2  are  benefited  by  a  somewhat 

1  G.  Neumann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  527. 

2  In  the  American  trotting-horse  the  obliquity  of  the  croup  is  subject  to  the  greatest  varia- 
tion.    In  some  it  is  horizontal,  in  others  oblique.     In  the  mare  Sunol,  three  year-old,  record 
2.10%,  it  is  extremely  oblique.    In  such  cases  the  mechanical  disadvantage  is  compensated  by  an 
excessive  length  of  the  ischio-tibial  muscles  and  those  of  the  thigh  and  leg  in  general.   (Harger.) 


138  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

more  oblique  direction  of  the  ilium  (35  degrees).  As  to  hunters  and 
cavalry  horses,  used  exclusively  under  the  saddle,  and  from  which 
great  strength  of  the  loins  and  posterior  quarters,  but  less  speed,  are 
demanded,  their  croup  should  have  an  intermediary  position  between 
the  oblique  croup  of  the  draught-horse  and  the  horizontal  one  of  the 
thoroughbred.  The  ilium  should  incline  35  degrees,  and  the  ischium 
be  slightly  lowered,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  ilio-ischial  line  shall 
preserve  this  intermediate  relation. 

2.  Driving-horses,  employed  on  the  track  or  as  animals  of  luxury, 
whose  exclusive  gait  is  the  trot,  without  any  weight  on  the  back,  can, 
without  disadvantage,  have  a  horizontal  croup.     This  is  appreciated  as 
a  quality  of  beauty  and  fashion  as  well  as  for  its  mechanical  advan- 
tages in  rapid  locomotion. 

3.  In  draught-horses  for  fast,  heavy  work,  or  mixed  motors,  com- 
bining at  the  same  time  force  from  their  bulk  and  their  muscular  power, 
and  a  certain  speed  from  their  relative  muscular  activity,  united  with 
the  length  of  the  segments,  a  croup  slightly  more  inclined  than  that  of 
the  cavalry  horse  or  the  trotting-horse  will  fulfil  the  required  conditions. 

ERROES  IN  THE  ESTIMATION  OF  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  CROUP. — 
The  deep  situation  of  the  coxo-femoral  structure,  the  large  mass  of 
muscles  which  cover  and  conceal  it,  more  or  less,  and,  finally,  the  com- 
plexity of  the  function  which  it  fulfils  as  an  apparatus  of  station,  impul- 
sion, and  locomotion,  render  its  study  particularly  difficult.  Without 
a  trained  eye,  capable  of  observing  and  often  inferring  the  anatomy 
through  the  external  form,  errors  are  not  only  possible  but  frequent, 
even  with  experts.  Some  prefer  the  horizontal  and  others  the  oblique 
direction,  while  still  others  have  no  preference  between  the  two  direc- 
tions, but  assert  that  the  inclination  of  the  coxae  alone  is  without  effect 
on  the  locomotory  aptitude. 

Nevertheless,  here,  as  in  all  other  circumstances,  the  correct  method 
of  selection  is  regular  and  scientific.  Each  direction  offers  advantages 
which  correlate  with  some  determined  exigency  or  need  ;  each  one  also 
has  its  expediencies  with  regard  to  the  qualities  of  speed  or  of  force 
which  it  is  desired  to  obtain.  The  difficulty  lies  in  establishing  the  kind 
of  conformation  which  is  suitable  to  each  special  case. 

In  order  to  accomplish  this,  a  thorough  examination  of  the  parts  is 
required,  irrespective  of  special  appearances.  Nothing,  for  example, 
produces  such  a  deceptive  appearance  of  horizontally  in  the  croup, 
as  the  slight  prominence  and  small  convexity  of  the  superior  line  and 
the  horizontal  direction  of  the  ischium  and  the  sacrum.  Conversely, 
a  depressed  ischium  and  sacrum  and  a  superior  surface  curved  and 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  139 

oblique,  seem  to  augment  the  inclination  of  the  coxse.  As  we  have 
seen,  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  that  in  the  two  cases  the  obliquity  of  the 
ilium  is  equal  and  even  more  horizontal  in  the  one  which  appears  the 
more  oblique.  Hence  it  is  especially  the  direction  of  the  ilium  which 
it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  in  the  determination  of  the 
conditions  of  force  and  strength  of  the  regions  in  front  of  the  croup, 
and  particularly  its  characteristics  of  length,  width,  and  thickness, 
which  we  have  already  detailed.  A  certain  intuition  which  not  every 
one  possesses  is  necessary  to  appreciate  these,  and  hence  the  errors  of 
judgment  which  are  so  common. 

M.  Richard1  has  good  reason  to  criticise  persons  who  make  no 
difference,  in  their  selection  for  speed,  between  the  horse  with  a  hori- 
zontal croup  and  one  in  which  it  is  oblique,  and  asserts  that  compensa- 
tions can  equalize  their  mechanical  aptitude,  if  not  in  blood,  at  least  in 
structure.  Vallon 2  has  not  expressed  a  different  opinion  in  advancing 
that  an  oblique  croup  is  capable  of  forcibly  propelling  the  body  and 
of  communicating  to  it  great  speed,  provided  the  anterior  part  of  the 
trunk  is  low  and  light.  The  length  of  the  locomotory  segments,  the 
degree  of  the  openness  of  the  articular  angles,  the  position  of  the 
limbs  under  the  trunk,  the  muscular  development,  the  race,  the  energy, 
and  many  other  factors  of  speed,  can  accompany  a  croup  with  an 
oblique  ilium,  and  would  be  more  or  less  defective  in  subjects  with  a 
horizontal  croup.  It  is  incorrect  to  connect  a  special  aptitude,  what- 
ever it  be,  to  the  conformation  of  one  region  alone,  and  much  more  so 
to  pretend  that  it  depends  exclusively  upon  one  particular  osseous 
inclination.  We  will  not  dwell  on  this  point. 

MODIFICATIONS  IN  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE  CROUP  RESULTING 
FROM  LABOR. — The  direction  of  the  croup  is  not  always  congenital; 
it  is  often  modified  by  the  manner  of  utilization  or  work. 

Young  animals  which  are  attached  to  heavy  loads  too  early,  and 
those  which  are  employed  in  mountainous  districts  for  traction  or  as 
animals  of  burden,  will  have,  in  time,  a  croup  more  and  more  oblique. 
On  the  contrary,  in  the  saddle-  or  the  pack-horse  which  are  placed  in 
service  prematurely,  this  region  tends  to  become  more  horizontal. 

Muscularity. — Besides  the  qualifications,  length,  width,  thickness, 
and  direction,  which  we  recognize  in  this  region,  it  is  also  necessary 
that  the  muscles  be  firm,  dense,  well  outlined,  and  well  developed. 

Without  these  qualifications  the  region  will  be  entirely  deficient  in 


1  Richard  (du  Cantal\  Etude  du  cheval  de  service  et  de  guerre,  Ce  6d.,  p.  215,  Paris,  1882. 

2  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  tome  i.  p.  41'6,  Paris,  1863. 


140  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

power.     This  is  a  common  defect  in  many  horses  of  a  sluggish  and 
lymphatic  temperament  and  raised  in  low,  marshy  districts. 

Forms. — The  different  forms  of  the  croup  are  dependent  upon  : 

1.  The  dimensions,  length,  and  width. 

2.  The  direction  of  its  large  axis. 

3.  The  direction  of  its  superior  line. 

4.  The  muscular  development. 
5. .  The  movements. 

The  description  of  these  which  we  have  already  given  above  will 
allow  us  to  notice  them  rapidly  in  review. 

1.  In  relation  to  its  dimensions,  the  croup  can  be  long  or  short, 
wide  or  narrow.     When  the  haunches  and  the  points  of  the  buttocks 
are  in  planes  which  tend  to  be  parallel,  and  at  the  same  time  the  region  is 
long  and  wide,  the  horse  is  said  to  be  square  behind,  a  qualification 
which  is  to  be  admired,  because  it  gives  force  and  velocity.1     When 
the  croup  has  a  certain  width  in  front  but  is  narrower  behind,  it  takes 
the  names  almond-shaped,  mule-like;  the   horse  viewed  from   behind 
appears  narrow,  pointed. 

2.  In  relation  to  its  great  axis,  we  know  that  the  croup  may  be 
oblique  or  horizontal.     These  terms  are  applicable  to  these  directions 
when  the  latter  exist  in  an  ordinary  degree  ;  when  they  are  not  exag- 
gerated.    It  often  happens  that  they  become  faulty  from  an  excess  or  a 
deficiency  in  the  one  sense  or  the  other. 

Too  horizontal,  it  lacks  force,  renders  the  animal  incapable  of  sup- 
porting the  least  weight  on  his  back,  and  alters  the  vertical  axis  of  the 
posterior  limb  by  displacing  the  latter  too  far  backward.  Too  oblique, 
it  acts  prejudicially  to  this  axis  by  placing  the  limb  too  far  under  the 
trunk,  transmits  the  force  of  impulsion  ineffectively,  and  predisposes 
the  back  to  disease  from  undue  strain.  It  is  then  called  low,  cut-off, 
slanting. 

3.  Direction  of  its  Superior  Line.— When  the  sacral  spine  is 
prominent,  so  that  the  sides  slope  strongly  outward,  downward,  and 
backward,  as  is  remarked  in  certain  strains  of  horses  in  the  south  of 
central  France,  the  croup  is  designated  sharp  or  mule-like.     This  con- 
formation, quite   common  in   the   barb-horse  of  Andalusia,  becomes 
defective  only  when  it  is  accompanied  by  a  narrowness  of  the  posterior 
quarters,  lessening  the  strength  of  the  parts  and  the  velocity  of  the  gait. 

The  croup  is  called  hen-tailed  when  it  presents  a  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct depression  anterior  to  the  base  of  the  tail.  In  such  animals  the 

1  A.  Rivet,  Guide  pratique  de  1'acheteur  de  chevaux,  1877. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  141 

latter  is  badly  carried  ;  the  aspect  which  it  presents  gives  it  the  name  of 
rabbit's  tail ;  it  is  observed  in  certain  Frisian  and  German  horses  with 
slanting  croups. 

4.  The   development  of  the  muscles   of  the  croup  varies 
according  to  the  race. 

When  the  median  line  presents  a  longitudinal  gutter,  limited  on 
each  side  by  an  elevation  of  the  gluteal  muscles,  the  croup  is  double;  its 
lateral  diameter  is  then  nearly  always  large.  It  is  a  characteristic  of 
great  force,  and  is  observed  in  draught-horses  of  a  lymphatic  type.  It 
must  be  considered  as  being  detrimental  to  the  production  of  speed, 
because  it  surcharges  the  posterior  extremities  and  occasions  excessive 
lateral  displacements  of  the  centre  of  gravity. 

When,  on  the  contrary,  the  sacral  spine  projects  above  the  sur- 
rounding muscles,  otherwise  well  developed,  the  croup  is  said  to  be 
angular.  This  conformation,  which  renders  the  lines  and  the  contour 
of  the  region  more  apparent,  is  not  a  defect,  but  denotes  great  power 
of  the  bony  levers.  If,  however,  it  results  in  a  disappearance  of  the 
harmony  between  the  bones  and  the  muscles,  and  the  latter  are  weak 
and  poorly  developed,  the  preceding  advantages  will  be  absent. 

"  If  the  muscles  of  the  croup  of  the  mare  appear  sunken,  so  that 
the  base  of  the  tail  is  well  detached  and  the  abdomen  somewhat  pen- 
dulous and  projecting  on  each  side,  we  can  presume  that  she  is  preg- 
nant ;  a  slow  and  heavy  walk  confirms  this  presumption"  (Captain 
Rivet). 

5.  Finally,  in  relation  to  its  movements,  we  remark  that  the 
croup  should  propel  the  trunk  without  swinging  from  side  to  side.    If 
this  condition  be  not  fulfilled,  the  region  is  said  to  be  dscillating,  and  if 
it  is  more  exaggerated,  the  animal  rocks  himself. 

In  the  first  case,  the  region  lacks  propulsive  force ;  in  the  second, 
the  gait  is  ungraceful  and  deprived  of  speed. 

"  In  the  pregnant  mare,  nine  times  out  of  ten  the  muscles  attaching 
to  the  summit  of  the  croup  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  tail  will 
tremble  when  she  walks'7  (Captain  Rivet).  This  condition  is  due  to 
a  relaxation  of  the  sacro-ischiotic  ligament,  a  fact  which  we  have 
demonstrated.1 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — Certain  authors  assert  that  the  coxo-femoral 
articulation  is  quite  frequently  the  seat  of  a  peculiar  strain,  against  which  cau- 
terization, setons,  and  vesicants  are  employed  (Vallon,  Merche). 

This  disease,  consigned  to-day  to  the  list  of  maladies  whose  names  have 

i  Arm.  Goubaux,  Soci6t£  de  Biologic,  ann6e,  1869,  p.  125. 


142  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

encumbered  ancient  veterinary  medicine,  serves  as  a  pretext  for  a  treatment  of 
which  the  region  sometimes  bears  the  traces,  and  which  is  too  often  the  proof  of 
the  uncertainty  into  which  a  lameness  whose  seat  is  unknown  sometimes  leads  the 
veterinarian.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  will  be  necessary  to  examine  carefully  the  other 
regions  of  the  posterior  member  in  which  the  coxo-femoral  articulation  presents 
evidence  of  such  disease. 

The  blemishes  of  the  croup  are  not  numerous.  They  are  due  to  excoria- 
tions and  wounds  which  result  from  continued  friction,  caused  by  a  misfitting  or 
a  vicious  application  of  the  crupper. 

The  muscles  of  the  croup,  with  those  of  the  thigh  and  buttock,  sometimes 
become  the  seat  of  atrophy,  which,  manifesting  itself  by  a  considerable  reduction 
in  their  volume,  places  the  osseous  apparatus  in  relief.1 

This  atrophy  of  the  croup,  whether  of  nervous  origin  or  otherwise,  is  always 
due  to  a  prolonged  inactivity  of  the  muscles,  and  is  sometimes  rebellious  to  treat- 
ment. It  depreciates  the  value  of  the  animal,  especially  when  it  is  the  manifes- 
tation of  a  local  paralysis. 

The  Haunch. 

Situation  ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  haunch,  an 
asymmetrical  region,  is  situated  upon  the  antero-external  part  of  the 
croup,  with  which  it  becomes  more  or  less  confounded,  according  to 
the  subject.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  its  study  as  a  distinct  region 
is  somewhat  difficult. 

It  is  limited  below  by  the  flank  and  the  anterior  crural  region, 
above  by  the  loins  and  the  croup,  and  has  for  its  principal  base  the 
external  angle  of  the  ilium  and  the  muscles  which  attach  to  the  latter. 

Related  in  front  to  the  hollow  of  the  flank  and  behind  to  the 
croup,  it  forms,  in  horses  of  a  coarse  conformation,  a  large  eminence 
which  then  receives  the  qualification  well  detached.  If  its  prominence 
be  due  to  the  meagre  development  of  the  surrounding  muscles,  as  is 
sometimes  seen  in  lean  and  poorly-developed  subjects,  in  the  angular 
croup  of  certain  Norman  horses,  and  in  many  with  oblique  croups,  it 
becomes  defective  and  renders  the  animal  too  angular.  We  are  familiar 
with  the  old  jest  alluded  to  by  De  Curnieu,  in  which  the  jockey  tries  to 
hang  his  hat  on  the  haunch  of  a  horse  which  is  very  meagrely  developed 
in  this  respect.2 

When  prominence  of  the  haunch  is  not  due  to  a  vicious  conforma- 
tion of  the  croup,  it  simply  appears  ungraceful  to  the  eye  and  has  no 
influence  upon  the  qualities  of  its  possessor. 

In  other  instances,  the  haunch  may  show  an  opposite  defect ;  it  is 
not  sufficiently  salient,  and  then  becomes  effaced,  low,  dropped,  or  sunken. 

1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  de  medecine,  d'hygiene  et  de  chirurgie  vet^rinaires,  t. 
viii.  p.  517. 

2  De  Curnieu,  Lemons  de  science  hippique  generate,  1855,  t.  i.  p.  248. 


SUPERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  143 

This  is  the  usual  form  which  it  exhibits  in  very  fat  horses,  or  in  those 
whose  croup  is  of  insufficient  width.  We  have  sufficiently  discussed 
this  defect  and  will  not  return  to  it  here. 

From  the  preceding  statements  it  follows  that  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  draw  any  indications  of  importance  from  the  mere  examination  of 
the  haunches.  Nevertheless,  this  is  not  the  view  taken  by  certain  hip- 
potomists.  The  reason  for  this  difference  of  opinion  lies  in  the-4V>llo\\ '- 
ing  considerations.  Bourgelat  first  described  this  region  as  having  for 
its  base  the  whole  of  the  ilium,  including  that  part  of  the  body  ex- 
tending from  the  external  angle  of  that  bone  to  the  coxo-femoral  articu- 
lation. Many  of  his  disciples,  following  his  example,  have  made  use 
of  such  expressions  as  long,  short,  narrow,  wide,  straight,  and  oblique 
haunches,  terms  which  are  still  used  in  the  veterinary  world,  but  wrhose 
meaning  is  hard  to  determine,  if  we  take  them  in  their  literal  sense. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  it  is  illogical  to  make  such  a  distinction  as  to 
separate  the  anterior  part  of  the  coxa  from  the  posterior,  to  call  the  one 
part  a  haunch  and  the  other  a  croup,  to  examine  separately  structures 
which  are  so  intimately  united  and  so  harmoniously  blended  in  their 
nature  and  their  anatomy.  Accordingly,  to  avoid  those  repetitions  and 
confusions  which  otherwise  would  not  fail  to  spring  up  in  our  minds, 
the  haunch  is  best  regarded  as  only  a  secondary  region  of  the  croup, 
interesting  us  by  reason  of  its  particular  forms,  and,  more  especially, 
its  blemishes.  These  are  the  reasons  why  we  have  imitated  those  of 
our  predecessors  who  have  not  accepted  the  distinction  established  by 
Bourgelat. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  haunch  may  be  the  seat  of  exc.oriations 
and  wounds  of  more  or  less  gravity,  and  sometimes  accompanied  by  severe  com- 
plications. They  are  always  found  on  horses  which  have  been  injured  by 
passing  through  narrow  door-ways,  on  those  which  have  to  keep  the  recumbent 
position  for  a  long  time  after  surgical  operations  or  during  serious  diseases,  upon 
a  bed  with  insufficient  litter,  or,  finally,  in  those  which,  suffering  from  violent 
attacks  of  colic,  throw  themselves  on  the  ground. 

In  other  cases,  the  haunch  is  the  seat  of  hcemafomafa  (blood-tumors),  cysts, 
abscesses,  bruises,  partial  or  total  fractures.  The  latter  are  followed  by  marked 
deformities  of  this  region ;  one  haunch  is  lower  than  the  other,  from  the  fact  that 
the  detached  portion  is  carried  downward  and  forward  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscle  of  the  fascia  lata  and  the  small  oblique  of  the  abdomen.  The  lameness 
which  exists  at  the  outset  of  such  an  accident  disappears  at  the  expiration  of  a 
certain  time,  but  the  deformity  will  always  persist.  An  animal  which  presents 
it  is  called  hip-shot ;  it  has  received  a  stroke  from  a  broom. 

"  Finally,  it  is  possible  that  in  young  horses  the  centre  of  ossification 
which  forms  the  tuberosity  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium  may  become 
detached  by  the  force  of  muscular  contractions,  as  when  the  animal  is  forced 


J44  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

into  a  restrained  position  for  the  performance  of  a  surgical  operation,  castration, 
for  example ;  thus  may  be  produced  an  accident  which,  if  it  is  not  a  fracture 
properly  speaking,  simulates  it  by  its  deformity  and  by  its  results."  l 


CHAPTER    II. 

ANTERIOR   EXTREMITY   OF   THE   BODY. 


A.— The  Breast,  or  Pectoral  Region. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  breast  is  a 
symmetrical  region  situated  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  trunk,  and 
limited  in  front  by  the  inferior  border  of  the  neck,  behind  by  the 
axillce  and  the  inter-axillary  region,  and  on  each  side  by  the  arm. 

It  has  for  its  main  osseous  element  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
sternum,  on  which  are  inserted  the  sterno-hyoideus,  sterno-thyroideus, 
sterno-maxillaris,  and  sterno-humeralis  muscles,  and  these  are  separated 
from  the  internal  face  of  the  skin  by  an  abundance  of  connective  tissue. 
It  contains  the  plate  vein,  situated  in  the  gutter  formed  by  the  adjoining 
borders  of  the  sterno-humeralis  and  mastoido-humeralis  muscles,  which 
can  be  located  easily  from  the  exterior,  and  on  which  phlebotomy  is 
sometimes  practised. 

Form. — The  configuration  of  the  external  surface  of  the  pectoral 
region  varies  according  to  the  subject,  from  the  fact  that  the  volume 
of  the  above-mentioned  muscles  leaves  the  trachelian  appendix  of  the 
sternum  more  or  less  prominent.  But  little  attention  need  be  given 
to  this  prominence.  Nevertheless,  if  it  is  very  marked,  the  region  is 
qualified  as  sharp.  Sometimes  the  breast  presents  two  deep  depressions 
situated  within  the  scapulo-humeral  angles ;  these  depressions  are  due  to 
a  meagreness  of  the  muscles  or  to  a  change  in  the  direction  of  the 
scapulo-humeral  angle.  This  peculiarity  is  very  common  in  horses 
which  are  poorly  developed,  and  the  breast  is  then  described  as  hollow, 
or  sunken. 

Width. — The  width  is  the  principal  element  to  be  considered  in 
the  examination  of  the  breast,  and,  as  Bourgelat  has  said,  it  should  be 
proportional  to  the  volume  of  the  body  or  the  general  development  of 
the  animal. 

1  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit. 


ANTERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    BODY.  145 

Most  authors  have  advanced  the  opinion  that  its  width  is  propor- 
tionate with  that  of  the  chest.  In  our  opinion,  it  is  easy  to  see  in  this 
assertion  the  false  interpretation  of  the  fact  (for  the  most  part  very  well 
established)  that  narrowness  of  the  breast  accompanies  a  thorax  of 
little  capacity  and  slender  limbs. 

It  might  be  supposed,  indeed,  that  there  ought  to  be  a  certain 
relation  between  this  narrowness  and  the  space  enclosed  by  the  first  two 
ribs.  This  is,  however,  an  error  which  we  have  exposed  by  more  than 
fifty  observations  made  upon  the  living  subject  and  completed  after- 
wards upon  the  cadaver.  We  have  never  found  marked  differences  in 
this  respect  among  subjects  of  the  same  size,  whatever  may  have  been 
the  width  of  the  breast.  This  is  due  to  the  simple  reason  :  it  is  not 
at  the  anterior  extremity  that  the  dimensions  of  the  chest  vary,  but 
rather  in  the  middle  and  posterior  regions.  Also,  the  differences  in  the 
width  of  the  pectoral  region  are  the  result  of  causes  other  than  the 
separation  of  the  anterior  ribs.  We  must  attribute  them  to  the  varying 
thickness  of  the  pectoral  muscles  which  form  its  base.  It  is  also  true 
that -this  region  can  accidentally  become  narrow  in  animals  whose 
thorax  is  spacious.  It  is  only  necessary  to  place  them  in  bad  hygienic 
conditions,  or  to  give  them  improper  food  and  injudiciously-chosen  work, 
to  convince  ourselves  that  emaciation  causes  a  diminution  of  its  width. 

It  is  physiologically  true,  however,  that  the  general  development  of 
the  respiratory  apparatus  is  directly  proportional  to  that  of  the  muscular 
system.  The  functional  activity  of  the  muscles  causes  an  augmenta- 
tion of  their  volume,  and  their  contractions  produce  an  increase  of  the 
amount  of  oxygen  consumed.  No  lungs,  no  muscles  ;  and,  conversely, 
dense  and  vigorous  muscles  require  a  spacious  thorax  ;  whence  it  follows 
that  the  width  of  the  pectoral  region,  owing  to  the  volume  of  its  muscles, 
should  coincide  with  a  certain  degree  of  respiratory  power.  If,  there- 
fore, this  region  is  narrow,  it  becomes  desirable  to  determine  to  what 
cause  this  narrowness  is  due,  whether  to  that  of  the  thorax  directly,  or 
to  the  animal's  "  condition." 

The  size  being  equal,  the  breast  of  the  English  thoroughbred 
horse  is  less  wide  than  that  of  the  heavy  coach-horse,  whilst  he  is 
endowed  with  a  chest  equally  if  not  more  spacious.  In  this  case  the 
harmonious  development  of  the  locomotory  apparatus  must  also  be 
considered ;  the  power  of  the  muscles,  instead  of  being  the  effect  of 
their  thickness,  is  due  to  their  length  ;  and  the  sternum  appears  more 
prominent  than  it  does  in  a  horse  with  thick  muscles.  Besides,  these 
muscles  are  dense,  firm,  and  habituated  to  repeated  energetic  and 
extensive  contractions. 

10 


146  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

There  are,  therefore,  two  elements  to  be  considered  in  the  width  of 
the  pectoral  region  :  whether  it  depend  solely  upon  the  volume  of  the 
pectoral  muscles,  or  if  to  this  cause  is  also  added  a  well-developed 
thoracic  cavity.  In  the  former  case,  the  width  of  the  breast  will  vary 
according  to  the  general  condition  and  health  of  the  animal ;  in  the 
latter,  its  variations,  whatever  they  may  be,  cannot  be  presumed  to  be 
due  to  narrowness  or  feeble  development  of  the  thorax. 

The  width  should  not  exceed  certain  limits ;  for  when  these  limits 
are  passed  width  of  the  breast  becomes  a  defect,  since  it  gives  too  large 
an  area  to  the  base  of  support.  Horses  endowed  with  speed  should  be 
well  open  in  front,  but  their  openness  must  not  be  excessive,  because 
the  lateral  displacements  of  the  centre  of  gravity  can  only  take  place  at 
the  expense  of  the  velocity  of  the  gait. 

The  English  thoroughbred  is  not  too  open  in  front,  whilst  his 
chest,  which  appears  narrow,  is  high  and  salient  in  such  a  way  that  the 
extremity  of  the  sternum  is  prominent  and  gives  attachment  to  long 
muscles. 

Draught-horses  can,  without  being  defective,  be  very  open  in  front. 
The  lateral  oscillations  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  being  only  prejudicial 
to  velocity,  do  not  diminish  the  energy  of  his  efforts.  His  power 
depends  upon  his  mass,  and  he  demands,  therefore,  firm  and  volumi- 
nous muscles.  From  this  point  of  view  we  may  regard  a  wide  breast 
as  an  absolute  beauty,  or  as  a  point  of  great  merit,  because  it  gives 
to  the  trunk  the  volume  which  is  necessary  for  it  to  have  in  order  to 
overcome  easily,  but  slowly,  heavy  resistances. 

When  the  breast  is  very  narrow,  it  is  said  that  the  horse  is  closed 
in  front.  In  all  such  cases,  this  conformation,  the  opposite  of  the  pre- 
ceding, is  defective.  It  indicates  a  feeble  development  of  the  muscular 
system,  and  very  often  respiratory  organs  of  small  amplitude.  If  such 
animals  offer  some  appearance  of  energy  when  they  are  exercised,  they 
are  generally  incapable  of  enduring  continuous  and  laborious  work. 

Narrowness  of  the  breast,  as  well  as  its  width,  may  be  congenital 
or  acquired.  When  it  is  congenital,  it  is  observed  in  those  subjects 
which,  at  birth,  show  themselves  to  be  defective  in  the  development  of 
the  muscular  and  the  respiratory  systems.  When  it  is  acquired,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  consequent  upon  a  state  of  emaciation,  exhaustion,  diverse 
chronic  diseases,  and,  in  general,  a  profound  debility  of  the  organism. 
In  this  case,  the  extremity  of  the  sternum  becomes  salient,  the  points 
of  the  shoulders  project  forward,  and  leave  between  them  and  the  sterno- 
humeralis  muscles  two  deep  depressions  which  terminate  inferiorly  the 
jugular  gutters. 


ANTERIOR    EXTREMITY    OF    THE    BODY.  147 

Blemishes. — The  most  common  blemishes  of  the  breast  are  traces  of 
«etons,  but  these  need  not  arouse  any  apprehension,  because  people  are  in  the 
habit  of  inserting  these  counter-irritants  for  the  most  trifling  causes.  More  or 
less  extensive  cicatrices  or  denudations  are  also  met  here,  which  result  from  the 
application  of  revulsives  and  blisters  in  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  respira- 
tory apparatus. 

Finally,  in  draught-horses  it  is  common  to  observe  excoriations  or  cicatrices 
which  extend  from  the  inferior  border  of  the  neck  to  the  anterior  "border  of 
the  shoulders,  following  the  direction  of  the  collar.  These  have  no  important 
significance,  and  are  even  utilized  by  the  horse-merchant  to  indicate  to  the  buyer 
a  proof  that  the  animal  settles  freely  into  the  collar. 

B.— The  Inter-axilla. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  inter-axilla 
is  a  symmetrical  region  limited  in  front  by  the  breast,  behind  by  the 
xiphoid  region,  and  on  each  side  by  the  axillary  space.  It  responds  to 
the  inferior  border  of  the  sternum  and  to  the  origin  of  the  sterno- 
humeralis  and  sterno-aponeuroticus  muscles. 

Having  a  variable  conformation,  concave  or  convex,  according  to 
the  volume  of  the  muscles,  it  presents  nothing  remarkable  as  regards  the 
exterior.  Setons  are  applied  in  this  region,  to  which,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  no  more  importance  need  be  attached  than  to  the  cicatrices  which 
follow  them. 

C.— The  Axilla. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  axilla  corre- 
sponds in  situation  with  the  point  of  junction  of  the  supero-internal 
extremity  of  the  forearm  with  the  trunk. 

Limited  in  front  by  the  breast,  behind  by  the  elbow  and  the  xiphoid  region, 
internally  by  the  inter-axilla,  and  externally  by  the  forearm,  the  axilla  has  for  its 
anatomical  base  the  sterno-aponeuroticus  muscle  and  the  muscular  interstice 
situated  between  the  adjoining  borders  of  the  sterno-humeralis  and  mastoido- 
humeralis,  in  which  the  vein  of  the  axilla  (brachio-cephalic  trunk)  is  lodged.  The 
skin  is  soft,  pliable,  and  mobile. 

Little  importance  is  attached  to  this  region,  viewed  from  the  exte- 
rior. Nevertheless,  in  certain  thin-skinned  and  fat  horses  whose  skin 
in  the  axilla  offers  numerous  folds,  it  presents,  during  the  summer  and 
after  a  long  march  on  dusty  roads,  excoriations,  accompanied  by  redness 
and  great  sensibility,  which  may  prevent  them  from  performing  their 
duties  for  several  days.  This  accident,  frequent  in  cavalry  horses,  and 
generally  of  no  gravity,  is  called  fraying  of  the  axilla. 

We  may  also  allude  to  bloodletting  from  the  brachio-cephalic  vein, 
which  is  sometimes  followed  by  a  thrombus. 


148  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


CHAPTER    III. 

INFERIOR  FACE  OF  THE  BODY. 


A.— The  Xiphoid  Region. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  xiphoid  re- 
gion corresponds  to  the  inferior  part  of  the  sternum  and  the  xiphoid 
cartilage  (a  tract  whose  approaches  are  flattened  from  above  to  below), 
at  the  level  of  which  usually  passes  the  girth  of  the  saddle  and  the  belly- 
band,  when  the  thorax  is  properly  suspended  between  the  anterior  mem- 
bers and  the  abdomen  has  a  good  conformation.  If  the  withers  are 
low  or  elevated,  or  the  abdomen  like  that  of  the  greyhound,  these  bands 
must  be  carried  either  forward  or  backward  of  their  proper  place.  It 
is  then  understood  without  difficulty  that  the  situation  of  the  latter 
must  be  changed  according  to  the  circumstances. 

Limited  anteriorly  by  the  inter-axilla,  posteriorly  and  on  the  sides 
by  the  abdomen  and  the  ribs,  and  laterally  by  the  elbow  and  the  ribs, 
this  region  is  more  or  less  plainly  marked,  according  to  the  subject, 
by  a  slight  concavity  which  insensibly  passes  into  the  neighboring 
regions,  and  especially  into  the  abdomen.  It  is  of  no  great  interest 
with  respect  to  the  information  which  it  furnishes,  but  is,  nevertheless, 
the  seat  of  blemishes  as  well  as  of  wounds. 

The  blemishes  are  excoriations,  cicatrices  of  variable  sizes,  and  traces  of 
revulsives  and  blisters,  recent  or  remote,  applied  for  therapeutic  purposes  in 
serious  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs.  The  diseases  of  the  thoracic  cavity 
which  require  the  employment  of  such  means  may  not  leave  any  permanent 
alteration  of  the  organs  affected,  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  examine 
the  thoracic  organs  carefully,  as  well  as  the  movements  of  the  flank. 

The  wounds  are  generally  caused  by  a  harness  which  is  misfitting  or 
improperly  applied.  In  saddle-horses,  a  girth  whose  tension  is  severe  will,  if 
it  be  too  stiff,  too  wide,  soiled,  or  exert  unequal  pressure,  irritate  the  skin  and 
render  it  extremely  painful.  It  is  then  necessary  to  use  one  which  is  narrower, 
or  made  of  softer  material,  as  cotton,  or  lined  with  silk.  In  draught-horses  the 
same  wounds  are  caused  by  the  pinching  of  the  skin  between  the  girth  and  the 
belly-band.  These  denudations  disappear  never  to  return  when  use  is  made  of 
one  wide  girth,  upon  which  one  more  narrow  is  fastened  by  means  of  two  keeps. 

Other  means,  such  as  sheepskin  with  the  wool  on,  and  soft  pads,  are  insuffi- 
cient, irritating,  and  difficult  to  keep  clean. 


INFERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  149 

B.— The  Abdomen. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — In  external  anatomy 
this  region  corresponds  to  the  inferior  surface  of  the  abdominal  cavity. 

It  is  circumscribed  in  front  by  the  xiphoid  region;  behind  by  the 
sheath  and  the  scrotum  in  the  male,  and  in  the  female  by  the  mammary 
glands  ;  on  each  side  by  the  ribs,  the  flank,  and  the  groin. 

The  structures  which  form  its  base  are,  proceeding  from  without  to 
within,  the  skin,  the  panniculus  carnosus,  the  tunica  abdominalis,  the 
abdominal  muscles,  and,  finally,  the  peritoneum,  the  serous  membrane 
which  covers  the  parietes  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  the  contained 
organs. 

Beauties  and  Defects. — It  is  important  to  consider  the  region 
of  the  abdomen,  for  by  its  volume  and  its  weight  it  influences  loco- 
motion. By  certain  other  characteristics  it  gives  information  as  to  the 
qualities  of  the  animal  and  its  state  of  health  or  of  disease.  We  shall 
now  discuss  it  as  to  the  two  following  points,  intimately  associated  with 
each  other  :  the  volume  and  the  form. 

Volume. — In  a  state  of  health  the  abdomen  is  elastic  and  yields 
to  digital  pressure.  It  augments  in  volume  after  a  meal  and  diminishes 
in  a  measure  when  digestion  is  completed.  It  should  be  proportional 
to  the  size  and  the  type  of  the  horse. 

It  varies  according  to  the  breed.  Though  larger  in  some  and  smaller 
in  other  strains,  it  is  not  on  this  account  disproportional,  comparatively 
speaking.  In  animals  used  for  slow  or  rapid  work,  its  vertical  diameter, 
measured  from  the  middle  of  the  back,  is  most  generally  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  head.  It  is  always  more  voluminous  in  the  light  saddle- 
horse,  the  product  of  a  half-breed  and  a  pure-blooded  animal,  or  of  the 
latter  stock  alone,  except  during  the  period  of  training. 

It  is,  perhaps,  most  exact  to  consider,  with  M.  Eug.  Gayot,  the 
volume  of  the  abdomen  as  beautiful  whenever  this  region  continues  the 
external  form  of  the  thorax, — i.e.,  when  the  latter  becomes  insensibly 
continuous  with  the  arch  described  by  the  ribs  and  the  flank.  Its 
inferior  line,  when  viewed  in  profile,  should  describe  a  graceful  curve 
from  the  sternum  to  the  inguinal  region.  In  this  case  it  can  be  pre- 
sumed that  digestion  and  assimilation  are  well  performed,  because  the 
amplitude  of  the  abdominal  cavity  corresponds  to  the  volume  of  the 
enclosed  viscera,  which  is  in  relation  with  their  functional  activity, 
particularly  when  the  diet  consists  of  aliments  of  good  quality. 

When  the  abdomen  is  defective  through  lack  of  volume,  it  indi- 
cates an  animal  with  impaired  assimilation,  whose  digestive  functions 


150  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

are  irregular  and  incomplete,  unless  this  state  be  due  to  the  mode 
of  alimentation,  or  to  the  special  functional  gymnastics  to  which  the 
race-horse  is  submitted. 

A  too  voluminous  abdomen  denotes  an  animal  of  a  ravenous  appe- 
tite, of  common  breeding,  or  reared  in  low  and  damp  countries  with 
coarse,  very  aqueous,  and  innutritions  food.  Being  compelled  to  take  a 
large  quantity  of  these  aliments  in  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  nutri- 
tive material,  the  horse  submitted  to  this  regimen  has  a  distended 
stomach  and  intestines  which,  pressing  against  the  posterior  face  of  the 
diaphragm,  compress  the  heart  and  the  lungs.  The  muscles  remain 
feeble,  flabby,  and  little  developed ;  the  skin  becomes  thick  and  the 
hairs  coarse;  the  form  is  thick  and  clumsy,  and  the  constitution  soft. 
The  step  is  heavy,  the  respiration  constrained  by  the  weight  of  the 
intestinal  mass.  The  pace  is  impeded  by  the  lowering  and  forward 
displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  this  fact  renders  the  horse 
unable  to  execute  even  the  least  laborious  efforts  for  any  length  of  time. 

In  young  horses,  from  the  nature  and  the  quantity  of  the  sub- 
stances which  they  ingest,  the  abdomen  is  ordinarily  voluminous.  They 
receive  little  grain,  and  their  diet  consists  principally  of  dry  forage 
and  of  grass  which  they  obtain  in  pastures.  In  broodmares  the 
abdomen  is  also  more  developed,  either  from  the  fact  of  gestation  or 
from  the  peculiarities  of  their  food. 

We  do  not  believe,  as  some  veterinarians  do,  that  the  volume  of 
the  abdomen  has  any  influence  upon  the  disposition  of  the  horse.  If 
certain  subjects  are  irritable,  whimsical,  gentle,  or  quiet,  their  disposition 
pertains  to  their  inherent  nature,  and  not  exclusively  to  the  conforma- 
tion of  such  or  such  a  part  of  the  body.  In  fact,  the  exceptions  to 
the  rule  proposed  by  the  veterinarians  we  have  alluded  to  are  so  fre- 
quent that  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  this  matter  any  further  attention. 

Form. — The  abdomen,  of  which  the  form  is  in  close  proportion 
to  its  volume,  is  generally  cylindrical  in  those  animals  that  are  well 
nourished. 

If  its  inferior  line,  instead  of  describing  the  graceful  curve  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  passes  obliquely  backward  and  upward,  as  we 
observe  it  in  greyhounds,  it  is  called  greyhound-like. 

The  horse  which  presents  it  is  lank,  deficient  in  the  volume  of  the 
bowels  and  of  the  body,  which  possess  poor  assimilation  ;  too  much  air 
passes  underneath  the  abdomen ;  the  digestive  functions  are  imperfect. 
Arrived  in  the  stable  after  a  long  drive,  he  stands  back  from  the  man- 
ger, sulks  over  his  food,  reads  the  newspaper,  according  to  the  language 
of  horsemen,  and  is  incapable  the  next  day  of  resuming  his  work. 


INFERIOR    FACE    OF    THE    BODY.  151 

This  condition  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  retraction  of  the 
abdomen  which  is  temporarily  the  result  of  training  in  the  horse,  or 
of  an  exclusive  diet  of  oats  for  those  required  to  perform  laborious 
services. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  inferior  line  of  the  abdomen  is  very  convex, 
descending  abruptly  backward  from  the  sternum,  it  is  spoken  of  as 
dropping,  pendulous,  or  cow's  belly.  This  is  a  conformation  indicating, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  horse  with  a  ravenous  appetite,  sluggish,  without 
activity,  and  predisposed  to  be  sway-backed  and  short-winded.  In 
breeding  districts  where  the  forage  is  nutritious  and  fattening,  as  in  the 
Valley  of  Auge  and  in  the  Cotentin,  it  is  not  necessary  to  hesitate  over 
a  voluminous  abdomen  when  the  conformation  of  the  chest  is  good,  and 
particularly  in  the  case  of  mares  which  are  pregnant,  and  that  of  foals 
and  colts.  Diet  and  exercise  will  soon  .cause  its  disappearance.  The 
skill  of  the  buyer  consists  in  selecting  under  adverse  circumstances, 
often  with  little  to  enlighten  him,  the  animal  which,  in  spite  of  a  heavy 
abdomen,  will  with  proper  care  assume  a  light,  graceful,  and  stylish 
appearance.1 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  diseases  and  blemishes  of  the  abdomen 
it  is  important  to  recognize.  They  are : 

1.  CEdema,  or  a  serous  infiltration  of  the  connective  tissue,  an  enlargement 
of  variable  area,  which  is  soft  (but  not  hot  or  fluctuating)  and  yields  (pits)  to 
the  pressure  of  the  finger.     It  results  often  from  prolonged  rest  in  the  stable, 
and  sometimes  also  follows  traumatisms,  castration,  or  the  application  of  irri- 
tating substances  used  with  a  therapeutic  object. 

2.  Exomphalus,  or  umbilical  hernia,  very  common  in  colts,  which  con- 
sists of  a  subcutaneous  swelling  from  a  protrusion  of  a  portion  of  the  intestines 
through  the  umbilical  opening,  whose  obliteration  after  birth  has  not  taken  place. 
This  affection  is  very  rare  in  adults,  because  it  is  treated  at  an  early  period,  and 
because  it  reduces  itself  spontaneously  as  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  abdominal 
cavity  increases. 

3.  Ventral  hernia,  which  only  differs  from  the  preceding  in  that  the  rup- 
ture of  the  parietes  through  which  the  abdominal  organ  passes  is  accidental,  and 
may  be  situated  upon  any  part  of  the  abdomen,  instead  of  being  natural  and 
occupying  always  the  position  of  the  umbilical  opening.     It  is  due  to  rupture 
of  the  muscular  and  fibrous  parietes  of  the  abdomen.     When  the  solution  of 
continuity  extends  to  the  skin  and  the  intestines  protrude,  it  is  called  an  eventration. 
The  two  terms  do  not  carry  the  same  importance.     Although  they  are  only  different 
degrees  of  the  same  accident,  yet,  in  relation  to  their  gravity,  they  are  not  com- 
parable. 

4.  Traces  of  setons,  which  certain  practitioners  prefer  inserting  in  this 
region  rather  than  in  the  axilla  or  inter-axilla,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
application  of  the  girth  and  the  belly-band.     They  have  no  importance. 

1  A.  Rivet,  Guide  pratique  de  1'acheteur  de  chevaux,  p.  71. 


152  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

5.  Excoriations  following  vesicants  or  revulsives.  These  should  induce  the 
buyer  to  examine  with  care  the  state  of  the  lungs,  for  these  agents  are  some- 
times intentionally  applied  here  to  divert  the  attention  from  the  place  which 
should  more  particularly  require  their  application. 

Let  us  say,  finally,  that  in  some  instances  the  abdomen  may  be  distended, 
tympanitic,  and  painful  to  pressure.  These  symptoms  indicate  acute  or  chronic 
inflammation  of  the  digestive  viscera,  or  the  peritoneum,  or  the  presence  of 
diverse  profound  lesions  which  we  shall  here  only  hint  at. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

LATERAL  FACES  OF  THE  BODY. 


A.— The  Costal  Region  ;  Ribs ;  Sides. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  region  of  the 
ribs  is  situated  upon  the  lateral  parts  of  the  trunk,  below  the  back, 
behind  the  shoulder  and  arm,  in  front  of  the  flank,  and  above  the 
xiphoid  region  and  the  abdomen. 

It  has  for  its  base  the  last  twelve  ribs,  which  are  not  concealed  by  the 
shoulder,  and  which  are  covered  by  the  great  dorsal,  the  great  serratus,  and  the 
great  oblique  muscles  of  the  abdomen ;  the  intercostal  muscles,  external  and 
internal,  fill  the  spaces  which  exist  between  them. 

Movements. — In  the  normal  state,  the  ribs  execute  regularly  alternative 
movements  of  elevation  and  depression,  more  or  less  extensive  according  to  the 
state  of  respiration  and  the  numerous  circumstances  which  modify  its  rhythm. 
These  movements,  especially  perceptible  under  the  skin  of  emaciated  horses,  are 
of  two  kinds :  the  first  movement  takes  place  during  inspiration,  and  is  explained 
by  an  augmentation  of  the  intercostal  spaces  and  the  rotation  of  the  ribs  forward 
and  their  abduction  from  the  median  line ;  it  corresponds  to  the  dilatation  of  the 
thoracic  cavity  and  the  lungs ;  the  second  movement,  coinciding  with  expiration, 
consists  in  the  approximation  of  the  ribs  and  in  their  rotation  backward  and 
inward ;  it  corresponds  to  the  contraction  of  the  thorax  and  the  compression  of 
the  lungs. 

Form. — Slightly  flattened  towards  its  superior  part,  and  much 
more  rounded  as  it  is  examined  more  posteriorly,  this  region  presents 
two  opposite  conformations.  The  ribs  are  called  round  when  they 
describe,  as  a  whole,  a  well-defined  convexity  from  above  to  below ; 
they  are  flat  in  the  contrary  disposition. 

Beauties. — The  due  curvature  of  the  ribs,  their  definite  separation 
from  each  other,  and  their  full  development  in  length  are  three  absolute 
beauties,  or  points  of  excellence,  to  be  desired  in  all  horses,  whatever 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY. 


153 


may  be  their  service.  In  explaining  the  reasons  for  this,  we  will  show 
the  inconveniences  resulting  from  their  flatness,  their  nearness  to  each 
other,  and  their  want  of  length. 


FIG.  42. 

1st.  The  normal  curvation  of  the  ribs  is  in  direct  relation  with  a 
large  transverse  diameter  of  the  thoracic  cavity,  and,  consequently,  with 
the  development  of  the  respiratory  apparatus. 

Before  proceeding  further,  let  us  determine 
what  is  understood  by  the  convexity  of  a  curve.  It 
is  the  relation  which  exists  between  the  height  of 
its  arch  and  the  length  of  its  chord,  supposing, 
be  it  well  understood,  that  we  are  speaking  of 
a  regular  curve.  In  other  words,  a  curve  is  much 
more  convex  when  it  forms  a  greater  projec- 
tion upon  a  shorter  chord.  Thus,  the  two  arcs 
ADB,  A'D'B'  (Fig.  42),  although  belonging  to  two 
circumferences  of  the  same  radius  (OA  =  0/A/),  have 
not  the  same  convexity  relatively  to  the  chord  which 
unites  them,  for  the  arcs  and  their  chords  are  differ- 
ed C'D' 
ent,  and  their  relations,  "Tip  T//P  are  not  equal« 

Again,  the  curve  AOB  (Fig.  43)  is  more  convex 
than  the  curve  AO C,  although  its  height  be  equal, 

because  the  ratio  ~TT>  ^  greater  than  the  ratio  -~ 

Therefore,  because  two  curves  have  the  same  projection  upon  their  chord, 
it  must  not  be  concluded  that  their  convexity  is  the  same,  this  condition  being 
realized  only  when  the  chords  are  equal. 

What  we  have  just  applied  to  the  arcs  can  be  extended  to  the  ribs,  although 


154  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

complete  similarity  may  not  be  possible,  on  account  of  the  irregularity  of  their 
curvature  and  the  variations  of  their  length  and  form. 

Henry  Cline  long  ago  demonstrated1  that  the  more  the  pectoral 
cavity  deviates  from  a  cylindrical  form  the  more  its  capacity  is  di- 
minished. It  results  from  this  that  the  rib  which  presents  the  greatest 
curvature  will  also  be  the  one  which  circumscribes  the  greatest  space. 
Depress  a  cone  or  cylinder,  and  the  reduction  of  their  volume  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  flatness  of  their  surface.  The  thorax  may  be  regarded  as 
a  flattened  cone  ;  and  this  is  why  we  say  :  for  an  equal  length  of  the  ribs, 
the  chest  can  never  gain  in  height  what  it  has  lost  in  width  ;  or,  in  other- 
words,  the  convexity  of  the  ribs  is  the  first  beauty,  or  point  of  struct- 
ural merit,  to  be  sought  for  in  a  good  conformation  of  this  region. 

2d.  This  is  not  all^  the  ribs,  as  structural  elements  of  the  costal 
region,  should  also  be  llSlg,  for  this  length  of  ribs  constitutes,  for  an 
equal  width  of  the  chest,  the  thoracic  measurement  in  the  vertical  sense. 
The  volume  of  a  solid  depends  upon  the  relation  which  exists  between 
its  three  dimensions ;  to  be  large,  it  is  necessary  that  the  dimensions 
should  all  be  as  large  as  possible. 

It  is,  however,  interesting  to  know  that  the  rib  can  make  up  by 
its  length  for  the  lack  of  chest-volume  occasioned  by  its  loss  of  con- 
vexity. This  proposition,  which  appears  to  be  contradictory,  in  prin- 
ciple, to  that  which  we  have  just  given  above,  is,  however,  very  logical, 
as  we  shall  see. 

In  the  preceding  case  we  supposed  the  length  of  the  rib  invariable^ 
and  only  made  its  curvature  variable.  In  the  present  case  we  inves- 
tigate the  problem  under  its  two  aspects  by  modifying  its  data  to  find 
the  compensations,  if  any  exist.  This  method  can  be  illustrated  by  the 
following  comparison :  Is  there  for  two  horses,  the  one  having  very 
round  ribs  and  a  low  chest,  the  other,  less  convex  ribs  and  a  very  high 
chest,  any  compensation  in  respect  to  the  thoracic  capacity  ? 

Nearly  all  authors  answer  this  question  in  the  affirmative,  and,, 
theoretically  speaking,  they  are  correct. 

Let  us  suppose  the  two  ribs  A  OB  and  ADC  (Fig.  44).     Let  us  also  remem- 


ber that  they  have  not  the  same  convexity,  since  the  ratio  —  —  is  greater  than  — — , 

AB  AC 

which  indicates  that  the  first  is  more  curved  than  the  second. 

A  glance  at  the  figure  shows  that  not  only  does  the  rib  ADC  circumscribe  a 
surface  equal  to  that  of  the  rib  AOB,  but  one  that  much  exceeds  the  latter. 
Here,  then,  are  two  animals  having  the  same  width  of  the  chest  and  a  different 
convexity  of  the  ribs,  for  which  there  is  more  than  a  compensation.  Another 

1  Henry  Cline,  Trait£  sur  la  forme  des  animaux,  published  in  the  work  of  M.  G.  Lefevre  de- 
Sainte-Marie :  De  la  race  bovine  courte  corne  amelioree,  dite  Race  de  Durham,  Paris,  1849,  p.  325.. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY.  155 

form  of  rib,  AOG,  might  be  found,  for  example,  circumscribing  a  narrower  chest 
for  which  there  would  be  a  proper  compensation. 

Such  are  the  results  which  can  be  deduced 
from  an  examination  of  the  figure. 

But  unfortunately  for  the  position  of  those 
who  defend  this  opinion,  there  is  here  much 
difference  between  theory  and  practice ;  and 
since,  after  all,  we  must  view  the  horse  as  he 
is,  and  not  as  we  desire  him  to  be,  we  must 
say  that  the  ratio  existing  between  the  height 
of  the  chest  and  its  width  does  not  vary  to  a 
great  extent.  In  thirty-six  horses  of  differ- 
ent races,  measured  in  this  respect,  we  have 
seen  this  ratio  range  between  1.125  and 
1.468  ;  it  should  have  a  mean  of  1.273. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  compensa- 

FlG.  44. 

tions  offered  by  the  chest  in  its  height  are 

not  as  valuable  as  we  were  at  first  sight  tempted  to  believe,  because  of 
the  harmonious  relations  which  exist  between  the  two  diameters  of  the 
thorax.  A  flat  rib  is  in  most  instances  short ;  a  round  one  is  more 
often  long  ;  the  thoracic  cavity  but  little  developed  in  one  sense  has 
many  chances  of  being  small  in  another ;  this  is  especially  the  reason 
why  a  fiat  side  should  be  rejected. 

It  would  always  be  in  defiance  of  the  most  elementary  observation 
to  say  that  the  existence  of  pectoral  compensations  is  to  be  absolutely 
denied.  Such  compensations  are  possible  theoretically,  and  in  practice 
they  do  exist ;  but  they  are  rare  and  very  limited.  If  a  large  number 
of  horses  be  measured,  some  are  found  having  the  same  conformation 
and  the  same  width  of  the  chest,  with  a  difference  of  only  two  or  three 
centimetres  in  the  height  of  the  latter.  Less  commonly,  horses  are  seen 
which  present  a  diminution  of,  perhaps,  one  or  two  centimetres  in  the 
width  of  the  chest,  but  which  redeem  themselves  by  an  excess  of  three 
or  four  centimetres,  at  most,  in  the  height.  But  these  last  are  excep- 
tions so  difficult  to  meet  that  we  have  reason  to  doubt  whether  the 
internal  mensurations  of  the  thorax  would,  in  fact,  give  the  proof  of 
a  real  compensation. 

It  is  always  true  that  the  ribs,  even  if  deficient  in  convexity,  are  still 
capable  of  circumscribing  a  spacious  thoracic  cavity,  upon  the  sole  condi- 
tion that  they  are  long  and  their  flatness  is  not  very  marked.  The  essen- 
tial point  is  to  know  when  the  defect  will  be  compensated  and  when  it 
will  not  be.  This  is  a  point  which  demands  great  practical  skill,  and 


156  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

upon  which  many  connoisseurs  are  led  into  error.  We  think  that  we  are 
giving  good  advice  to  beginners  in  recommending  them  always  to  dis- 
approve of  the  flat  rib,  whatever  may  be  its  apparent  length.  In  the 
presence  of  such  a  conformation  they  should  not  neglect  to  assure 
themselves,  by  a  more  complete  examination  of  the  other  regions,  of  the 
state  of  development  which  the  respiratory  organs  present.  This  is, 
in  our  opinion,  the  easiest  and  most  positive  means  of  recognizing  the 
compensation,  if  any  exists. 

Besides,  the  roundness  of  the  chest-wall,  often  more  apparent  than 
real,  may  lead  superficial  observers  into  error.  The  volume  of  the 
muscles  which  cover  the  thoracic  walls  and  the  abundance  of  fat  and 
subcutaneous  tissue  may  have  the  effect  of  making  the  parietes  of  the 
chest  appear  more  round  than  it  really  is,  and  of  concealing  the  essential 
bony  pieces  which  constitute  its  base  and  limit  its  internal  cavity. 

3d.  The  width  of  the  intercostal  spaces  is  a  beauty,  or  point 
of  excellence,  of  no  less  importance.  When  the  ribs  are  well  separated, 
the  thoracic  walls  present  a  large  surface,  extending  from  before  to 
behind,  and  circumscribing  a  deeper  cavity.  Their  separation  from 
each  other  coincides  also  with  their  great  projection  backward,  and  it  is 
easily  understood  that  the  latter  gives  the  measure  of  their  projection 
forward  during  inspiration.  The  movements  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  thorax  should  be  as  extensive  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  lungs 
may  have  sufficient  freedom  of  action.  Large  intercostal  spaces  support 
strong  inspiratory  muscles,  and,  therefore,  imply  great  possible  dis- 
placement of  the  pectoral  walls. 

To  recapitulate,  the  beauty  of  the  ribs  resides : 

1st.  In  their  great  curvature  from  the  shoulder  backward. 

2d.  In  their  length,  or  in  the  vertical  extent  of  the  thoracic  pe- 
rimeter. 

3d.  In  their  strong  projection  backward. 

4th.  Finally,  in  their  separation  from  each  other. 

Defects. — Ribs  that  are  flat,  short,  little  inclined  backward,  little 
separated,  characterize  a  horse  which  is  short-winded  and  without 
power,  whatever  may  be  his  breed,  his  stature,  his  temperament,  or  his 
origin. 

In  ordinary  language,  this  vicious  conformation  is  expressed  by 
saying  that  the  false  ribs  are  short  and  the  hoop-ribs  are  but  little 
descended,  or  that  the  animal  has  need  of  ribs. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — a.  Horses  which  have  suffered  from  a  pro- 
longed sickness,  and  which  for  this  reason  have  assumed  the  decubitus  for  a  long 
time,  sometimes  present  a  flatness  of  the  one  or  the  other  region  of  the  ribs. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY.  157 

b.  Those  which  have  been  affected  with  a  serious  pneumonia  or  a  pleurisy, 
and  to  which  repeated  applications  of  revulsives  and  blisters  have  been  made, 
often  show  along  the  inferior  surface  of  the  region  denudations  accompanied  by 
large  discolorations  of  the  skin  or  the  hairs.     It  is  important,  in  examining  such 
animals,  to  observe  attentively  the  character  of  the  cough  and  the  movements 
of  the  flank,  in  order  to  be  assured  that  these  affections  no  longer  exist. 

c.  At  other  times  there  are  cicatrices  situated  at  the  level  and  in  front  of 
parts  covered  by  the  saddle,  and  ^due  to  setons  inserted  for  a  therapeutic-  pur- 
pose.    These  counter-irritants  are  directed  vertically,  or  are  slightly  oblique  from 
before  backward  and  from  above  to  below.     When  they  are  observed,  or  their 
traces  are  found,  we  should  inform  ourselves  more  completely  as  to  the  reasons 
for  their  application,  and  the  present  condition  of  the  horse,  according  to  the 
manner  indicated  below. 

d.  Heavy  draught-,  light  draught-,  and  saddle-horses  offer  also,  on  the  parts 
which  receive  pressure  and  friction  from  the  shafts,  the  pole,  the  traces,  the  saddle, 
and  the  girth,  depilations,  wounds,  cicatrices,  and  sit-fasts,  known  under  the  name 
of  corns,  which  are  the  result  of  wounds  occasioned   by  these  pieces  of  the 
harness. 

e.  Finally,  bony  tumors  may  be  seen  upon  the  course  of  one  or  several  of  the 
ribs.    These  are  traces  of  old  fractures,  usually  situated  upon  the  middle  parts  of 
the  region.     Nearly  always  they  are  complicated  by  contracting  adhesions  with 
the  lung,  through  the  existence  of  a  localized  inflammation  of  the  pleura  which 
covers  the  internal  surface  of  these  bones.     Likewise,  as  Lecoq  says,  we  have 
reason  to  fear,  especially  when  several  ribs  have  been  fractured,  that  a  super- 
vening affection  of  the  chest  may  be  aggravated  by  this  cause. 


The  Chest  in  General. 

We  have  now  examined  separately  the  regions  which  concur  to 
form  this  vast  cavity,  and  we  shall  next  investigate  it  as  a  whole  with 
regard  to  the  correlation  between  its  dimensions  and  its  beauties.  ;  >•" 

Definition  ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base ;  Usages. — The  chest  is  that 
part  of  the  "body  which  corresponds  to  the  bony  cage  designated  under  the  name 
of  thorax.  Bounded  above  by  the  withers  and  the  back  ;  in  front  by  the  neck  and 
the  breast;  on  each  side  by  the  shoulder,  the  arm,  the  axilla,  and  the  ribs ;  below 
by  the  inter-axilla,  the  xiphoid  region,  and  the  abdomen  ;  and,  finally,  behind  by 
the  abdomen  and  the  flanks,  it  has  for  its  osseous  base  the  following  parts : 

a.  On  the  median  line  and  above,  the  bodies  of  all  the  dorsal  vertebra. 

b.  Laterally,  the  ribs  and  the  intercostal  spaces. 

c.  Inferiorly,  the  superior  face  of  the  sternum  and  the  cartilages  of  prolonga- 
tion of  the  ribs. 

d.  Behind,  the  diaphragm,  convex  in  front  and  pierced  by  three  openings, 
traversed  by  the  aorta,  the  oesophagus,  and  the  posterior  vena  cava. 

Open  in  front  to  afford  passage  to  the  trachea,  the  oesophagus,  and  the  vessels 
cf  the  head  and  anterior  members,  as  well  as  to  the  important  nerves,  it  has  in 
general  the  form  of  a  cone,  with  the  base  posterior  and  truncated  obliquely  from 
above  to  below,  and  from  behind  to  before ;  it  is  depressed  upon  its  lateral  faces. 

Its  functions  are  complex  and  of  three  kinds : 


158  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Through  the  bony  parts,  it  is  primarily  an  apparatus  of  protection  to  the 
central  organs  of  respiration  and  circulation.  By  the  mobility  which  it  possesses, 
it  constitutes  the  most  important  agent  in  the  respiratory  mechanism.  Finally, 
by  its  resistance,  its  connections  with  the  spine,  and  the  extent  of  its  skeletal 
surface,  it  plays  an  important  role  in  locomotion  by  furnishing  numerous  points 
of  attachment  to  the  muscles  which  belong  to  the  superior  sections  of  the  thoracic 
members.  To  fulfil  this  last  purpose,  its  first  pieces  are  short,  strong,  straight, 
and  but  slightly  movable,  for  their  action  woi^ld  be  very  much  disturbed  by  their 
relation  with  the  shoulder  and  arm.  The  last  pieces,  on  the  contrary,  are 
curved  more  and  more,  narrower,  removed  from  the  median  plane,  and  leave 
.a  wide  space  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  pulmonary  lobes. 

Beauties. — Although  the  chest-wall  is  far  from  being  observable 
over  its  whole  extent  from  the  outside,  it  is  possible  to  judge  of  its 
capacity  with  much  precision.  This  knowledge  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, for  it  furnishes  information  upon  the  essential  elements  of  the 
value  of  the  horse. 

The  chest  may  be  called  beautiful  when  it  is  high,  wide,  and  long. 
Let  us  see  the  meaning  which  should  be  attached  to  these  three  words : 

1st.  Height. — This  is  measured  from  the  summit  of  the  withers 
to  the  inferior  surface  of  the  xiphoid  region ;  this  line,  then,  marks 
the  true  vertical  diameter  of  the  thorax,  that  diameter  being  greatest  at 
the  spinous  process  of  the  fifth  dorsal  vertebra,  which  forms,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  culminating  point  of  the  withers. 

This  dimension  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  depth,  which  is 
measured  from  before  to  behind  ;  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  some  hip- 
potomists  have  changed,  in  this  connection,  the  meaning  of  a  term 
established  by  long  usage.1 

In  speaking  of  the  ribs,  we  have  said  that  this  height,  with  the 
corresponding  width,  is  directly  proportional  to  the  length  of  these  bony 
arches.  When  this  height  is  considerable,  the  chest  is  said  to  be  well 
descended,  an  epithet  which  depicts  its  situation  relative  to  the  ground. 

We  must  remember,  moreover,  that  the  extent  of  this  thoracic 
dimension  is  one  of  the  conditions  of  pectoral  amplitude.  It  should, 
however,  not  be  forgotten  that  this  factor  alone  is  insufficient  to  the 
development  of  the  thoracic  capacity ;  the  curvature  of  the  ribs  must 
also  be  taken  into  the  reckoning.  Leaving  out  of  the  account  the 
length  of  the  fifth  dorsal  spinal  apophysis,  the  height  of  the  chest  is 
nothing  else  than  the  chord  of  the  arch  represented  by  the  ribs.  Mere 
height  of  the  chest  has  no  longer  any  importance  but  for  the  coexistent 

1  The  depth  of  a  thing,  says  Littre,  is  the  extent  of  this  thing,  considered  from  its  entrance 
to  its  bottom.  The  entrance  of  the  chest  is  situated  between  the  first  two  ribs;  its  bottom  is  the 
diaphragm.  Therefore,  here,  depth  is  synonymous  with  length. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY.  159 

curvature  of  the  ribs.  In  fact,  it  is  known  that  by  depressing  a  cylinder 
its  capacity  can  be  reduced  Avithout  diminishing  its  surface. 

It  is  not  correct  to  believe  that  the  height  of  the  chest  is  always 
proportionate  to  the  height  of  the  withers.  We  have  already  shown 
that  the  length  of  the  spinal  apophyses  of  this  region  is  subject  to 
numerous  variations,  and  that  the  prominence  of  the  withers  often 
depends  upon  the  mode  of  suspension  of  the  trunk  between- the 
anterior  members. 

A  horse  whose  chest  has  a  good  height  should,  according  to  M. 
Gayot,1  measure  a  greater  distance  from  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the 
interior  face  of  the  sternum  than  from  this  point  to  the  ground.  The 
first  distance  would  exceed  the  second  thirty  centimetres  in  well-formed 
saddle-  and  driving-horses,  with  a  height  of  about  one  hundred  and 
sixty  centimetres,  whilst  it  might  not  be  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty 
centimetres  in  animals  of  an  inferior  conformation. 

We  must  acknowledge  that  we  are  still  ignorant  of  the  exact  pro- 
portions. Not  only  is  the  distance  between  the  ground  and  the  xiphoid 
region  not  equal  to  the  height  of  the  chest,  but  the  latter  is  always 
several  centimetres  greater  ;  the  difference  may  even  be  twenty  centi- 
metres. Our  measures  have  been  made  with  the  aid  of  the  metrical 
standard  and  the  compass  of  depth  upon  more  than  fifty  horses  of  all 
varieties, — slow  and  rapid  Avorkers,  saddle-  and  race-horses,  etc. ;  they 
have  been  taken  upon  common  horses,  Percherons,  Boulonnaise,  Bel- 
gians, Bretons,  Normans,  Berrichons,  Andalusians,  Barbs,  Tarbans,  and 
English  thoroughbreds. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  this  height  must  be  examined 
from,  the  side  of  the  chest ;  it  Avould  be  impossible  to  appreciate  it 
accurately  by  vieAving  the  region  from  any  other  direction.  The  chest, 
to  be  high  and  well  descended,  should  extend  Avell  beloAV  the  summit  of 
the  elboAv. 

2d.  Width. — The  width  of  the  chest  is  the  result  of  the  curva- 
ture of  its  osseous  parts.  It  is  measured  from  the  middle  ribs  to  those 
which  correspond  to  them  upon  the  opposite  lateral  plane.  To  do  this, 
the  observer  is  stationed  in  front  of  the  animal,  so  as  to  see  the  profile 
of  the  ribs  and  the  degree  in  which  they  project  beyond  the  shoulders 
on  the  right  and  the  left.  The  roundness  of  the  ribs  is  also  judged 
by  vieAving  the  horse  obliquely,  either  in  front  or  behind. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  refer  here  to  the  advantages  of  a  large  trans- 
verse development  of  the  thoracic  cavity,  but  Ave  would  caution  the 


1  L.  Moll  et  Eug.  Gayot  La  connaissance  generate  du  cheval,  Paris,  1861,  p.  137. 


160  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

reader  against  certain  ideas  which  are  too  absolute,  and  which  exist 
among  horsemen.  Some  prefer  the  cylindrical  chest  for  slow  and 
heavy  motors ;  they  reject  it,  on  the  contrary,  for  rapid  services,  in 
which  they  would  prefer  the  elliptical  form.  The  latter  form,  whilst 
giving  equal  space  within  the  chest,  tends  to  limit  the  lateral  displace- 
ments of  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  thus  facilitates  the  velocity  of  the 
gait.  Others  insist  that  there  is  sufficient  compensation  between  the 
two  forms,  but  consider  width  of  chest  as  a  beauty,  or  point  of  merit, 
in  all  cases. 

We  have  seen,  when  speaking  of  the  ribs,  that  a  high  chest  is 
spacious  only  on  account  of  its  proportional  width,  but  the  relation 
between  the  vertical  and  the  transverse  diameters  varies  less  than  is 
generally  thought.  The  development  in  one  direction  very  often  carries 
with  it  a  correlative  development  in  the  other.  The  digressions  which 
seem  to  contradict  this  principle  are  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the 
condition  of  the  body  has  much  influence  upon  the  external  dimensions 
of  the  chest.  Take  a  horse  in  good  health,  vigorous,  well  proportioned, 
and  subject  him  to  excessive  work  and  insufficient  food,  and  measure 
his  chest  when  emaciation  has  reached  its  extreme  limits.  Not  only  is 
he  unrecognizable  in  his  general  form,  but  his  narrow  thorax  and  his 
flat  ribs  have  modified  the  correlation  of  his  two  thoracic  diameters,  and 
we  shall  be  astonished  to  find  it  to  be  1 .4,  Avhen,  for  example,  it  was 
1.2.  When  the  animal  is  ill  cared  for,  when  good  nourishment  and 
moderate  exercise  no  longer  maintain  the  harmonies  of  the  economy,  all 
the  functions  are  diminished,  especially  those  of  respiration  and  circula- 
tion. The  chest  tends  to  become  contracted,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
muscles  become  smaller,  for  the  lungs  are  less  active  in  the  animal 
which  is  emaciated. 

To  make  a  contrary  experiment,  take  the  same  horse  and  entirely 
change  his  conditions  of  existence ;  his  chest  will*  reassume  its  form, 
according  as  its  muscles  augment  in  volume,  density,  and  energy. 

The  training  which  animals  destined  for  the  race-course  undergo, 
and  that  which  results  from  the  special  labor  to  which  work -horses  are 
subjected,  constitute,  again,  important  causes  of  a  development  of  fulness 
of  the  chest.  In  the  horse,  as  in  man,  muscular  gymnastics  have  the 
effect  of  increasing  the  thoracic  perimeter.  If  we  were  not  convinced 
of  this  fact  in  practice,  our  purchasing  officers  would  every  day  refuse 
horses  whose  chest  is  not  perfect  at  the  moment  of  the  sale.  Our 
remounts  take  them  because  they  know  that  this  defect  will  partly  dis- 
appear after  sufficient  exercise. 

Thus,  in  our  opinion,  amplitude  of  all  the  thoracic  diameters  should 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY.  161 

be  desired,  whatever  may  be  the  service  required,  for  they  are  correla- 
tive to  one  another.  The  variations,  in  this  respect,  are  so  insignificant 
that  they  do  not  deserve  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  English 
thoroughbred  horse  differs  essentially  in  his  form  from  the  heavy 
draught-horse,  but  the  relations  of  the  three  dimensions  of  his  chest 
are  sensibly  the  same  as  in  the  latter  when  both  have  a  spacious  lung. 
All  proportions  considered,  the  rib  seems  perhaps  a  little  longer  und  less , 
convex ;  what  tends  especially  to  make  it  appear  thus  is  the  particular 
nature  of  the  tissues  and  muscles  which  cover  it. 

3d.  Depth  or  Length. — The  length  of  the  chest  is  measured 
from  before  backward,  from  the  angle  of  the  shoulder  to  the  middle 
part  of  the  last  rib.  It  is  easily  appreciated  by  examining  the  horse 
in  profile.  It  depends  upon  :  1st,  the  width  of  the  intercostal  spaces  ; 
2d,  the  degree  of  projection  of  the  ribs  behind. 

The  chest  may  be  deep  without  the  back  acquiring  an  immoderate 
length. 

In  fact,  ribs  very  much  arched  and  strongly  oblique  behind  and 
below  cause  the  thoracic  cavity  to  encroach  in  a  certain  proportion  upon 
the  abdomen.  Nevertheless,  as  the  width  of  the  intercostal  spaces  is 
in  direct  ratio  with  the  length  of  the  dorsal  region,  it  follows  that  a 
long  chest  is  incompatible  with  a  short  back.  The  English  horse  pre- 
sents a  very  fine  chest  when  he  is  well  formed,  and  he  generally  trans- 
mits this  beauty  to  his  descendants  as  well  as  to  the  offspring  of  his 
crosses  with  our  native  horses. 

Defects. — When  the  chest  is  deficient  in  height,  the  horse  is  said  to 
be  too  far  from  the  earth  ;  he  has  no  chest,  no  xiphoid  region  ;  too  much 
air  passes  under  his  abdomen  ;  he  is  wanting  in  girth  ;  his  sides  or  fake 
ribs  are  short ;  his  hoops  are  not  low  enough.  When  the  chest  is  wanting 
in  width,  it  is  said  to  be  narrow  ;  it  is  short,  on  the  contrary,  when  it 
is  wanting  in  length  or  depth. 

Finally,  when  it  is  deficient  in  its  three  dimensions,  the  animal 
lacks  or  has  no  insides. 

In  describing  the  inherent  beauties  of  a  large  development  of  the 
chest  we  have,  at  the  same  time,  demonstrated  the  inconveniences  of  its 
defects  ;  it  is,  therefore,  not  necessary  to  return  to  the  latter  here. 

To  recapitulate,  the  chest,  to  be  beautiful,  or  ideally  perfect,  should 
be  high,  wide,  and  long. 

The  relation  existing  between  its  different  diameters  varies  but 
little  in  horses  of  the  same  race. 

The  differences  depend  in  most  instances  upon  the  state  of  fatness 
or  emaciation  of  the  animals,  or  upon  improper  exercise  and  training. 

11 


162  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

In  a  general  way,  the  chest  is  or  is  not  spacious,  the  harmony  of  the 
whole  implying  only  that  an  increase  in  one  direction  is  ordinarily 
followed  by  an  augmentation  in  the  others. 

It  is  from  this  point  of  view,  especially,  that  animals  differ  in  regard 
to  their  thoracic  capacity. 

Exceptions  are  always  found.  Certain  horses  are  deficient  in  one  or 
another  of  the  diameters,  most  often  in  the  width. 

In  such  cases  compensations  are  possible,  but  within  a  very  small 
limit.  They  are  always  very  rare  and  very  difficult  to  estimate. 

We  must  not,  then,  allow  ourselves  to  be  misled  by  appearances ;  we 
should  form  our  judgment  on  a  complete  examination  of  the  respiratory 
apparatus. 

B.— The  Flank. 

Situation ;  Limits  ;•  Anatomical  Base.— The  flank  is  a  double 
region,  situated  behind  the  ribs,  in  front  of  the  haunch,  the  thigh,  and 
the  stifle-joint,  below  the  loins,  and  above  the  abdomen,  with  which  it 
is  continuous.  Its  principal  base  is  the  small  oblique  muscle  of  the 
abdomen,  with  a  portion  of  the  great  oblique  and  the  transverse. 

Divisions. — Three  divisions  are  recognized,  more  or  less  distinct 
according  to  the  individuals  and  the  conditions  in  which  they  are 
placed ;  the  names  which  have  been  given  to  them  indicate  quite  accu- 
rately the  special  configuration  which  they  present. 

The  first,  external  to  the  lumbar  region  and  in  front  of  the  haunch, 
is  called  the  hollow  of  the  flank,  because  it  presents  a  depression  so  much 
more  distinct  as  the  intestinal  mass  is  heavy  and  farther  removed  from 
it.  It  is  very  pronounced  in  horses  with  a  pendulous  or  cow's  abdomen. 

The  second  division,  or  cord  of  the  flank,  corresponds  especially  to 
the  fleshy  part  of  the  small  oblique  muscle  of  the  abdomen.  It  forms 
a  rounded  relief,  oblique,  downward  and  forward,  which  extends  from 
the  angle  of  the  haunch  to  the  cartilaginous  circle  of  the  false  ribs. 

Finally,  the  third  division,  the  most  inferior  of  all,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  movable  portion  of  the  flank,  is  united  to  the  stifle-joint 
by  a  very  mobile  cutaneous  fold,  and  becomes  insensibly  continuous 
with  the  abdomen. 

Three  things  are  to  be  examined  in  this  region  :  its  form,  its  extent, 
and  its  movements. 

1st.  Form. — When  the  flank  is  well  formed,  its  hollow  is  but 
little  observed,  its  cord  is  scarcely  prominent,  and  its  movable  part 
continues  regularly  with  the  external  surface  of  the  abdomen  and  the 
last  ribs.  A  flank  of  this  description  is  seen  in  animals  that  are  well 
fed  and  in  a  proper  state  of  flesh. 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY.  163 

When  its  concavity  is  too  deep,  it  is  said  to  be  hollow,  as  may  be 
observed  in  horses  that  are  indolent,  of  a  lymphatic  temperament,  and 
of  large  form  and  pendulous  abdomen.  It  is  also  seen  in  meagre 
animals,  and  in  those  which  are  poorly  nourished,  or  which  have  been 
obliged  to  endure  great  fatigue  or  a  long  period  of  sickness. 

It  is  called  corded  when  its  cord  or  middle  part  projects  above  the 
two  others,  through  the  simultaneous  effect  of  the  depression:  of  one 
and  the  retraction  of  the  other.  This  state  is  noticed  under  the  same 
circumstances  as  those  which  cause  the  hollow  flank,  of  which  we  have 
just  spoken. 

When  the  inferior  part  of  the  flank  becomes  abruptly  continuous 
with  the  abdomen,  and  appears  as  if  pushed  back  towards  the  sub- 
lumbar  region,  it  is  said  to  be  tucked  up.  Some  authors  also  call  it 
a  greyhound  flank  when  it  becomes  a  permanent  retraction,  the  tucking 
up  being,  in  their  opinion,  only  a  transient  disposition,  always  dis- 
appearing under  an  appropriate  regimen.  The  greyhound  flank,  on  the 
contrary,  constitutes  a  veritable  defect,  being  "  an  indication  that  the 
animal  does  not  eat  enough,  which  is  the  fault  of  a  poorly-developed 
appetite  ;  it  is  impossible  to  repair  in  a  just  measure  the  waste  caused 
by  the  action  of  the  apparatus  of  locomotion,  and  as,  by  a  singular 
contradiction  of  nature,  greyhound  horses  are  usually  endowed  with 
great  energy,  they  are  exposed  to  an  early  ruin  if  they  are  not  used 
with  care,  since  the  losses  which  they  sustain  are  only  slowly  repaired."  * 

Finally,  if  the  flank  unites  the  three  preceding  vicious  conforma- 
tions,— if,  in  other  words,  it  is  hollow,  corded,  and  tucked  up, — the 
animal  is  said  to  be  thin,  poor. 

2d.  Extent. — The  extent  of  this  region  is  estimated  by  its  width, 
measuring  from  the  angle  of  the  haunch  to  the  last  rib.  This  measure- 
ment should  be  as  small  as  possible,  and  a  flank  of  this  kind  is  said  to 
be  short  or  narrow.  Let  us  see  the  reasons  for  this. 

Most  hippotomists  assert  that  the  width  of  the  flank  is  in  direct 
relation  with  the  length  of  the  loins,  and  that  the  measure  of  the  one 
gives  correctly  that  of  the  other.  This  assertion  can  be  considered 
only  as  relatively  true,  for  the  reason  that  the  last  rib,  on  account  of 
its  projection  backward,  does  not  end  where  the  lumbar  region  begins. 
No  doubt  the  width  of  the  flank  will,  to  a  certain  degree,  depend  upon 
the  great  or  small  extent  of  the  loin,  for  the  rib  comes  more  or  less  near 
to  the  haunch.  In  order  that  this  last  proposition  should  become 
rigorously  true,  it  would  be  necessary  that  the  length  of  the  loins 

1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  dictionnaire  pratique,  etc.,  t.  vii.  p.  54,  art.  "  Flanc." 


164  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

should  correspond  always  to  the  width  of  the  flank,  which,  as  we  have 
just  stated,  is  not  the  case. 

A  more  exact  relation  then  remains  to  be  established  :  it  is  that  this 
width  is  the  consequence  of  the  depth  of  the  chest  first,  and  the  length 
of  the  lumbar  region  afterwards.  The  latter  varies  much  less  than  is 
generally  believed  in  horses  of  the  same  size  and  race.  It  is  quite 
otherwise  with  the  former.  When  speaking  of  the  chest,  we  have  seen 
that  the  different  depths  of  this  cavity  depend  especially  upon  the 
degree  of  backward  projection  of  the  ribs,  supposing  a  constant  length 
of  the  back.  The  shortness  of  the  flank  indicates  a  deep  chest,  short 
loins,  and  well-developed  muscles  ;  it  is  in  these  features  that  its  beauty 
resides.  All  are  in  accord  upon  this  point.  Horse-dealers  do  not  fail 
to  show,  by  placing  two  fingers  flat  upon  the  region,  that  the  animal 
has  only  two  fingers'  width  of  flank. 

It  seems  useless  to  detail  the  disadvantages  of  a  contrary  conforma- 
tion. It  is  evident  that  too  much  area  is  a  defect,  indicating,  at  the 
same  time,  the  mobility  and  lack  of  solidity  of  the  loins  and  the  want 
of  capacity  of.  the  chest.  In  this  case  the  flank  is  said  to  be  long. 

3d.  Movements. — Composed  exclusively  of  soft  structures,  and 
attached  to  the  last  rib,  whose  movements,  normal  or  abnormal,  it  fol- 
lows, the  flank  is  indeed,  as  has  been  said,  the  true  mirror  of  the  thoracic 
cavity. 

In  ordinary  conditions,  when  the  horse  is  at  rest,  it  rises  and  fallsr 
alternately  recedes  from  and  approaches  the  median  line,  as  the  air  enters 
the  lungs  or  is  expelled  from  them.  During  inspiration  its  cord  is- 
effaced,  its  hollow  is  depressed,  its  inferior  part  enlarges,  descends,  and 
is  confounded  with  the  hypochondriac  circle.  During  expiration,  on 
the  contrary,  its  cord  is  quite  apparent,  its  hollow  is  less  deep,  its- 
movable  part  ascends,  is  retracted,  and  increases  the  prominence  of  the 
false  ribs. 

These  movements  should  be  executed  regularly,  slowly,  without  any 
jerks,  and  should  succeed  each  other  at  almost  equal  intervals.  Let 
us,  however,  notice  a  very  correct  observation  of  J.  Girard,  ignorance 
of  which  might  lead  one  into  error :  after  six  or  seven  equal  respira- 
tions a  longer  one  occurs. 

The  number  of  respiratory  movements  of  the  flank  varies  according 
to  the  age,  the  seasons,  and  the  physiological  condition ;  but  its  mean 
may  be  estimated  at  twelve  or  fourteen  to  the  minute.  It  increases  with 
exercise  according  to  the  duration,  extent,  rapidity,  and  intensity  of  the 
efforts  which  the  animal  has  been  obliged  to  make.  We  have  determined 
it  to  be  eighty-seven  after  a  gallop  of  about  half  an  hour.  This  number 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY.  165 

is  always  much  greater  immediately  after  than  during  the  exercise. 
This  results  from  the  fact  that  the  thorax  furnishes  numerous  points  of 
attachment  to  the  muscles  of  locomotion,  and  thus  loses  its  rigidity 
during  work,  precisely  in  the  measure  necessary  to  assure  pulmonary 
oxygenation  and  avoid  asphyxia.  After  a  race,  on  the  contrary,  the 
muscles  which  extend  from  the  thorax  to  the  members  no  longer  act; 
and  the  ribs  need  preserve  no  longer  the  same  fixity ;  the  respiratory 
movements  are  now  as  much  accelerated  as  they  were  before  separated. 

All  horses  do  not  have  exaggerations  of  the  respirations  in  the 
same  proportion  after  exercise ;  some  become  breathless  much  more 
quickly  than  others.  We  shall  explain  this  fact  when  we  discuss  the 
depth  of  the  chest.  However  it  may  be,  the  horse  which  remains 
"  winded"  a  long  time  after  exertion  lacks  endurance,  is  said  to  be 
panting,  or  short-breathed,  and  usually  has  a  narrow  chest  and  a 
tucked-up  flank. 

Examination  of  the  Flank. — We  often  limit  ourselves  to  a 
superficial  examination  of  this  region,  but  this  practice  is  wrong,  for  it 
is  one  of  the  most  important  regions  of  the  surface  of  the  horse's  body. 
To  avoid  any  doubt  as  to  the  regularity  of  its  movements,  two  ex- 
aminations should  be  made  :  the  first  in  the  morning  and  when  the  horse 
.is  at  rest,  and  the  next  after  a  certain  amount  of  exercise.  It  will  be 
well  in  both  cases  to  give  the  animal  several  handfuls  of  oats. 

These  are  the  reasons  for  this  procedure  :  at  rest  and  in  the  morn- 
ing the  respiratory  movements  are  less  frequent;  the  horse  is  not 
excited,  and  at  this  time  he  presents  the  most  regular  and  most  normal 
manifestation  of  his  functions.  After  light  exercise,  the  respiratory 
movements  are  increased,  and  those  of  the  flank  are  more  numerous 
and  more  intense,  and  sometimes  reveal  respiratory  diseases  which 
would  have  remained  unperceived  had  not  the  organs  themselves,  so  to 
speak,  been  obliged  to  show,  by  a  greater  activity,  their  physiological 
imperfections  or  their  pathological  alterations.  Finally,  the  few  hand- 
fuls of  oats  which  the  animal  eats  have  the  effect  of  turning  his  attention 
away  from  the  persons  or  things  which  surround  him. 

In  summer  it  will  also  be  well  to  free  him  from  all  insects  which 
may  torment  him. 

The  observer  should  place  himself  in  such  a  position  as  to  view  the 
flank  obliquely,  in  order  to  distinguish  better  its  profile.  He  may  be 
stationed  either  in  front,  one  metre  from  the  shoulder,  or  behind,  and 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  croup ;  the  eye  will  then  follow  with 
care  and  ease  the  oscillations  of  the  lower  part  of  the  flank  at  the  level 
of  its  attachment  to  the  cartilages  of  the  false  ribs.  The  examination 


166  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

will  be  made  successively  upon  the  two  flanks,  for  it  is  sometimes 
accomplished  better  on  the  one  side  than  on  the  other.  The  purely 
anatomical  explanation  which  has  been  given  for  this  is  not  sufficiently 
satisfactory  to  arrest  our  attention  here. 

It  will  be  possible,  with  the  aid  of  these  precautions,  to  determine 
"the  modifications  of  number  and  rhythm  of  the  movements  without 
much  difficulty.  However,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  certain  amount  of 
practice  and  possess  some  knowledge  of  the  different  diseases  which  may 
aifect  this  region,  for  it  is  a  question  of  slight  variations,  sometimes 
scarcely  apparent,  the  appreciation  of  which  requires  the  co-operation 
of  an  expert. 

Among  the  most  common  alterations  of  the  flank  there  is  one  which 
is  quite  compatible  with  all  the  apparent  signs  of  health,  and  which 
frequently  escapes  detection  up  to  the  moment  of  sale ;  it  is  that  due 
to  pulmonary  emphysema,  an  alteration  which  produces  characteristic 
lesions  in  the  lungs,  consisting  of  an  infiltration  of  air  into  the  paren- 
chyma of  those  organs.  This  lesion,  clearly  proved,  is  redhibitory,  and 
nullifies  the  contract  of  sale  or  exchange,  according  to  the  terms  of 
Article  2  of  the  law  of  August  2,  1884. 

The  expiratory  movement  in  the  emphysematous  horse  is  double, 
and  is  separated  by  a  short  interval  of  time  (hence  called  double  time), 
during  which  the  flank  suddenly  expands,  and  stops  for  an  instant,  to 
continue  again  its  former  expiratory  movement. 

This  double  expiratory  effort  is  more  or  less  apparent  according  to 
the  stage  of  the  disease.  However  this  may  be,  as  soon  as  the  disease 
has  been  detected,  the  animal  should  be  made  to  cough  by  compressing 
the  origin  of  the  trachea.  If  the  cough  is  dry,  slight,  abortive,  and 
several  times  repeated  ;  if  the  nostrils  are  much  dilated  after  exercise  ; 
if  they  are  both  covered  in  cold  weather  with  a  grayish  discharge 
adhering  to  the  ala ;  if  the  chest  has  an  abnormal  resonance  on  per- 
cussion ;  if  the  movements  of  the  flanks  cause  the  entire  body  to  move, 
particularly  the  anus;  if  labore  dbreathing  is  rapidly  developed  in 
warm  weather,  the  respiration  loud,  the  anxiety  extreme,  etc.,  the  exist- 
ence of  a  very  advanced  case  of  emphysema  may  be  positively  affirmed. 

Unfortunately,  these  characteristics  are  far  from  being  always 
evident  at  the  time  of  the  sale,  and  they  very  often  pass  unperceived 
by  inexperienced  persons.  By  placing  such  animals  in  special  con- 
ditions of  alimentation,  by  submitting  them  to  a  particular  mode  of 
treatment  in  which  arsenious  acid  plays  an  important  part,  merchants 
can  sometimes  conceal  the  disease,  or,  at  least,  mitigate  it  in  a  notable 
degree.  The  purchaser  cannot  be  too  exacting  as  to  the  integrity  of 


LATERAL    FACES    OF    THE    BODY.  167 

the  movements  of  the  flank,  nor  too  much  discredit  all  the  more  or  less 
specious  reasons  which  the  seller  never  fails  to  give,  in  such  cases,  in 
opposition  to  any  unfavorable  assertions  concerning  the  horse. 

Diseases  and  Defects. — The  flanks  may  be  the  seat  of  tumors  of  diverse 
nature.  Sometimes  these  are  indurations  of  the  skin,  a  kind  of  callosities  pro- 
duced by  the  ring  of  the  breeching  in  shaft-horses;  at  other  times  they  are 
abscesses,  which  are  caused  by  the  continual  rubbing  of  that  part  of  the  harness. 
They  may  be  the  result  of  a  ventral  hernia,  a  portion  of  the  intestine  being 
expelled  from  its  cavity  on  account  of  a  rent  in  the  abdominal  walls.  Finally, 
they  are  due  to  the  presence  of  farcy-buds  or  lymphatic  cords  which  cross  the 
flank  to  reach  the  ganglia  of  the  inguinal  region. 

"  The  frequent  expulsion  of  gas  from  the  anus,  which  takes  place  in  emphy- 
sematous  horses,  has  induced  ignorant  horsemen  to  make  an  artificial  fistula 
above  or  upon  the  side  of  the  anus,  by  which  they  pretend  to  relieve  the  horse 
of  the  great  quantity  of  air  which  he  has  in  his  body.  At  present  this  ridiculous 
operation,  which  formerly  annulled  the  redhibitory  action  in  regard  to  horses 
upon  which  it  had  been  practised,  is  abandoned." * 

The  special  object  of  this  procedure,  of  which  we  have  seen  some  examples, 
was  to  prevent  the  noisy  expulsion  of  gas  through  the  anus  by  giving  it  a  more 
direct  outlet,  in  order  to  conceal  to  a  certain  extent  the  severe  emphysema  of 
which  it  is  one  of  the  symptoms. 

C.— The  Groin. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  groin,  which 
until  now  has  not  been  comprised  among  the  regions  of  the  exterior, 
nevertheless  deserves  to  be  pointed  out,  on  account  of  the  examination 
which  should  be  made  of  it. 

It  corresponds  on  each  side  to  the  cutaneous  fold  extending  from  the  abdomen 
to  the  thigh,  and  has  for  its  base  the  inferior  inguinal  ring,  which,  as  we  know, 
gives  passage,  in  the  male,  to  the  testicular  cord  and  the  external  pudic  vessels, 
and,  in  the  female,  to  the  mammary  nerves  and  vessels.  The  superficial  inguinal 
ganglia  are  also  seen  here  on  the  side  of  the  abdomen ;  much  more  deeply,  and  on 
the  side  of  the  thigh,  the  elongated  group  of  deep  inguinal  ganglia,  less  directly 
explorable  than  the  preceding ;  finally,  the  part  is  covered  by  a  fine  skin,  with 
downy  hairs,  oily  to  the  touch,  usually  black  and  very  pliable. 

Limited  in  front  by  the  abdomen,  behind  and  externally  by  the 
superior  and  internal  extremity  of  the  thigh,  internally  by  the  scrotum, 
or  the  mammce,  this  region  presents,  properly  speaking,  neither  beauties 
nor  defects.  We  need  only  assure  ourselves  of  the  absence  of  blemishes. 

In  undertaking  its  exploration,  some  precautions  must  be  taken, 
especially  in  irritable  horses.  In  examining  the  right  side,  for  instance, 
the  observer,  after  having  warned  the  animal,  will  station  himself 

i  Lecoq,  Trait<§  de  I'extSrieur  du  cheval,  5e  6d.,  p.  92. 


168  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

opposite  the  flank,  apply  his  left  hand  to  the  croup,  and  with  his  right 
seek  the  inguinal  ring,  taking  care  to  avoid  being  injured  by  the  pos- 
terior member.  If  the  horse  is  very  sensitive,  and  attempts  to  rear, 
bite,  or  kick,  an  anterior  member  or  the  left  posterior  should  be  raised. 
The  manoeuvres  are  of  the  same  nature,  but  of  an  inverse  order,  when 
the  groin  of  the  opposite  side  is  explored. 

The  principal  alterations  which  are  observed  in  this  region  are  enlargements 
known  by  the  name  of  glands,  which  involve  the  superficial  inguinal  lymphatic 
glands,  and  whose  presence  often  coincides  with  the  existence  of  a  glanderous 
diathesis.  It  will  be  prudent  in  such  a  case  to  examine  the  corresponding  mem- 
ber, as  well  as  the  surface  of  the  body,  and,  particularly,  the  course  of  the 
lymphatics,  to  see  if  no  other  symptoms  of  farcy  exist,  such  as  cords  and  buds. 

Inguinal  hernia  is  sometimes  observed  in  the  groin,  which  enlarges  the  tes- 
ticular  cord  and  no  longer  permits  the  different  parts  which  compose  it  to  roll 
under  the  fingers.  We  will  refer  to  it  again  when  treating  of  the  scrotum. 


CHAPTEE    V. 

POSTERIOR   EXTREMITY. 


A.— The  Tail. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  tail  is  a  long, 
flexible  appendix,  situated  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  trunk, 
limited  in  front  by  the  croup,  below  by  the  anus,  and  laterally  by  the 
point  of  the  buttock. 

This  appendage  is  an  ornament  to  the  horse  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  mane,  and  is  of  great  utility  in  protecting  him  against  insects. 

It  has  for  its  base  the  coccygeal  vertebrae,  as  well  as  the  four  pairs  of  coccy- 
geal  muscles,  which  cover  their  surface.  These  muscles  endow  it  with  movements 
of  elevation,  depression,  and  lateral  inclination ;  the  skin  which  covers  them, 
and  which  is  very  adherent,  is  furnished  with  long  hairs  over  its  whole  surface, 
except  upon  its  inferior  face  and  at  the  level  of  its  base. 

Two  divisions  are  recognized  in  this  region, — the  stump  and  the 
hairs. 

Attachment  and  Carriage. — The  tail  should  be  strong  at  its 
origin,  commencing  high  up  on  the  croup,  and  be  harmoniously  sup- 
ported during  locomotion.  It  is  then  said  to  be  well  attached  and  well 
carried.  When  it  does  not  present  this  uniformity  of  character,  it  is 


POSTERIOR    EXTREMITY.  169 

called  badly  attached,  or  badly  carried.  Often  in  very  energetic  horses, 
during  work,  it  is  concave  superiorly,  and  even  retro  verted  forward, 
which  is  expressed  by  saying  that  it  is  of  trumpet  form.  Some  persons 
call  it  rabbit's  tail,  planted  as  in  an  apple,  when  it  originates  almost 
horizontally  from  a  very  oblique  croup. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  its  attachment  and  its  carriage  depend 
upon  the  direction  of  the  croup.  When  the  latter  is  horizontal,  the 
animal  carries  this  organ  with  elegance ;  with  an  oblique  croup,  on  the 
contrary,  the  tail  is  poorly  sustained,  being  applied  against  the  buttock. 

According  to  its  good  or  its  vicious  position,  admirers  of  horses 
draw,  in  a  manner  entirely  empirical,  an  accurate  conclusion  as  to  the 
energy  and -vigor  of  the  animal.  The  explanation  of  this  opinion  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  when  the  elevator  muscles  are  well  developed 
and  have  a  dominant  action  over  the  depressors,  it  is  an  excellent  sign 
in  subjects  whose  general  muscular  system  is  strongly  developed.  As 
horses  of  the  finer  races  have  the  sacrum  rectilinear  from  before  to 
behind,  whilst  those  of  the  common  races  have  it  usually  convex  in  the 
same  direction ;  as,  besides,  this  direction  of  the  bone  has  an  influence 
upon  that  of  the  croup,  and,  therefore,  upon  the  carriage  of  the  tail, 
we  must  guard  ourselves  against  forming  the  conclusion  that  the  beau- 
tiful attitude  of  the  latter  is  in  all  cases  the  expression  of  great  energy. 

Formerly,  dealers  and  owners  frequently  attempted  to  remedy  the 
ungraceful  carriage  of  the  tail  by  excising  a  part  of  the  depressor 
muscles  so  as  to  allow  the  elevators  their  full  degree  of  action ;  this 
procedure  was  simplified  by  amputating  a  more  or  less  considerable 
portion  of  the  stump.  This  was  the  operation  on  the  tail  after  the 
English  fashion ;  the  animal  which  had  undergone  this  operation  was 
said  to  be  docked  in  the  English  style  ;  it  gave  him  a  certain  degree  of 
distinction.  Cutting  the  depressor  muscles  alone,  the  stump  being 
spared,  was  called  nicking  ;  the  horse  was  then  nicked. 

This  custom  is  very  old,  for  Hartmann1  reports  that  the  council 
of  Calchyd,  meeting  in  England  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, prohibited  the  practice  of  thus  docking  horses,  on  the  ground 
that  it  was  a  barbarous  custom.2  There  is  no  doubt  that  from  this 
usage  was  derived  the  nickname  Caudati,  which  wras  given  to  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  thirteenth  century.3  The  procedure  did  not  long  prevail  in 
England  before  it  passed  into  Germany.4 


1  Hartmann,  Trait£  des  haras,  p.  274. 

2  Journal  de  Paris,  ann6e  1787,  Nos.  201  and  216. 
8  Dufresne,  Glossar,  word  "  Caudati." 

*  Neue  Kriegsbibliothsk,  Breslau,  1771,  8vo,  6th  part. 


170  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

It  is  not  in  place  here  to  speak  of  the  different  accidents  which  may 
be  the  consequence  of  docking ;  they  are  quite  numerous,  and  more  or 
less  serious.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  operation  is  not  always 
without  danger. 

Many  docked  horses  carried  their  tails  either  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left  side,  like  certain  terrier  dogs.  This  resulted  from  raising  the  tail 
upon  the  croup  after  the  operation,  and  maintaining  it  there  by  sup- 
porting it  by  its  superior  face  upon  a  pad  of  straw.  The  latter  often 
became  disarranged  during  locomotion,  was  displaced  backward  and 
forward  upon  the  croup,  and  rendered  the  cicatrization  irregular. 

State  of  the  Stump. — The  stump  has  the  form  of  a  quadrangular 
pyramid,  whose  summit  corresponds  to  the  free  extremity ;  its  inferior 
face  is  normally  always  devoid  of  hairs. 

The  tail  whose  stump  is  intact  is  called  entire ;  it  is  said  to  be 
docked,  when  a  portion  has  been  amputated  from  the  latter.  We  should 
not  neglect  to  note  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  conditions  when  a 
description  of  the  animal  is  required. 

Some  persons  attach  importance  to  the  development  of  this  part, 
because  it  is  generally  in  harmony  with  the  other  muscles  of  the  body. 
It  is  also  customary  to  raise  it  at  the  time  of  the  sale,  and  to  estimate 
the  vigor  of  the  animal  according  to  the  degree  of  resistance  which  it 
opposes.  As  H.  Bouley  affirms,  "  the  information  furnished  by  this 
measurement  of  force  seldom  leads  into  error."  l 

State  Of  the  Hairs. — When  the  tail  is  entire,  its  stump,  intact, 
naturally  carries  all  the  hairs  which  it  can  support.  At  present  the 
horse  is  said  to  have  a  full  mane  and  tail  when  they 
have  not  been  shortened.  In  such  cases,  their  abun- 
dance and  their  length  vary  much  according  to  the 
race  and  the  subject.  It  is  known  that  in  Arabian 
horses  the  hairs  of  the  tail  often  touch  the  ground  ;  in 
others,  they  usually  stop  more  or  less  below  the  hock ; 
they  are  always  disposed  in  a  point  inferiorly,  like  the 
bristles  of  a  brush. 
FIG  45.  It  is  rare  that  they  are  preserved  in  this  state.  They 

are  usually  shortened  in  different  ways;  they  are 
divided  transversely,  sometimes  on  a  level  with  the  chestnuts  or  the 
point  of  the  hock,  sometimes  towards  the  fold  of  the  buttock.  In  the 
description,  this  kind  of  section  should  be  indicated  in  the  following 
manner :  entire  tail,  shortened  hairs.  All  race-horses  are  thus  treated 

i  H.  Bouley,  Maison  rustique  du  XIX«  stecle,  1,  ii.  p.  203. 


POSTERIOR    EXTREMITY. 


171 


(Fig.  45).  The  tail  is  then  more  easily  turned  up,  it  soils  the  rider 
less,  and  is  much  less  liable  to  cateh  the  reins,  an  accident  often  serious 
on  account  of  the  energetic  kicking  which  it  at  times  provokes. 

As  soon  as  the  stump  has  been  shortened,  it  is  plain  that  a  certain 
number  of  hairs  are  wanting  ;  the  horse  can  no  longer  be  described  as 
having  a  full  tail.  Special  designations  have  been 
employed  which  recall  the  particular  disposition  of  the 
hair  upon  the  horse's  tail. 

When,  for  example,  after  amputation  practised 
upon  the  stump,  the  remaining  hairs  preserve  their 
entire  length,  the  tail  is  like  a  broom  (Fig.  46),  on 
account  of  the  aspect  it  presents ;  inferiorly  it  termi- 
nates in  a  tapering  point,  like  a  paint-brush,  as  in 
horses  with  full  mane  and  tail.  When  it  is  too  long, 
it  is  sometimes  shortened  with  the  knife,  but  its  form 
is  preserved.  It  is  usually  allowed  to  have  its  full 
length  in  draught-horses. 

If,  after  the  amputation  of  a  portion  of  the  stump, 
the  hairs  are  cut  transversely  at  the  level  of  the  fold 
of  the  buttock,  or  slightly  below,  the  tail,  still  quite 
long,  is  called  banged.     Such  is  the  custom  adopted  in  the  army,  and 
in  horses  performing  light  work,  coach-horses,  etc. 

At  present  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  fashionable  to  have  the 
tail  very  short  in  certain  horses  kept  for  pleasure,  principally  Irish 
cobs,  race-horses,  and  ponies.  It  then  scarcely  extends  beyond  the 
point  of  the  buttocks. 

Three  principal  forms  are  given  to  the  tail  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  hairs  are  cut ;  besides,  it  has  not  the  same  aspect  on  the  animal 


FIG.  46. 


FIG.  47. 


when  at  rest  as  when  at  work,  in  profile  as  behind,  as  is  shown  by  the 
figures.  It  is  called  a  short  tail  when  the  hairs  have  been  cut  off  per- 
pendicularly to  the  stump  and  close  to  the  latter  (Fig.  47). 


172 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Sometimes  the  hairs  are  cut  obliquely  from  below  upward  and  from 
behind  to  before  (Fig.  48). 


FIG.  48. 


Finally,  the  tail  is  called  bushy  when  the  hairs,  a  little  longer  than 
the  stump,  are  excised  obliquely,  as  in  the  preceding  form,  but  follow- 
ing a  convex  curve,  which  is  insensibly  continued  on  each  side  to  join 
the  root  of  the  stump.  When  well  supported,  it  resembles  the  brushes 
which  bakers  use  to  clean  loaves  of  bread  (Fig.  49). 


FIG.  49. 


Formerly,  the  name  club-tail  designated  one  whose  stump,  with 
the  hairs  removed  in  the  middle,  cut  very  short,  presented  upon  the 
sides  two  long  locks  which  were  allowed  to  flow  freely.  The  origin 
of  this  appellation  being  much  disputed,  and,  besides,  being  of  little 
interest,  we  will  say  nothing  more  about  it.  This  form  of  tail  is  no 
longer  fashionable.  However,  Lecoq  reports  that  it  is  still  sometimes 
seen  in  tow-path  horses.1 

Finally,  the  horse  is  said  to  be  rat-tailed  when  the  hairs,  thinly  scat- 
tered, render  the  partly-denuded  skin  of  the  stump  visible.  Although 
a  proverb  asserts  that  never  does  a  horse  with  rat-tail  leave  his  master  in 
trouble,  this  peculiarity  should  always  be  considered  as  an  inconven- 

1  Lecoq,  Ext6rieur  du  cheval,  p.  73. 


POSTERIOR    EXTREMITY.  173       ^ 

ience,  on  account  of  the  function  devolving  upon  this  region,  especially 
in  broodmares ;  it  is  rejected  in  services  of  luxury,  on  account  of  the 
ungraceful  appearance  which  it  gives  to  the  animals. 

We  have  already  said,  in  speaking  of  the  mane,  that  horses  with  a 
gray  or  white  coat,  with  curled  woolly  mane,  always  have  melanotic 
deposits  in  the  interior  of  the  body.  This  state  of  the  mane  is  extended 
also  to  the  tail,  and  constitutes  a  cause  of  depreciation  so  much  greater 
as  it  is  more  accentuated,  for  melanotic  tumors  often  cause  the  most 
serious  complications. 

Merchants  have  the  habit  of  plaiting  the  tails  of  their  horses  when 
the  hairs  are  very  long,  principally  in  those  of  heavy  draught,  before 
they  present  them  for  sale.  This  practice,  intended  to  give  greater 
apparent  width  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  trunk  and  to  make  the 
posterior  quarters  appear  more  prominent  and  vigorous,  is  generally 
accompanied  by  a  small  fraud,  which  consists  in  introducing  a  piece  of 
ginger  into  the  anus.  Suddenly  the  animal  feels  very  energetic,  a 
feeling  which  he  manifests  by  the  elevated  carriage  of  his  tail  and  the 
vivacity  of  his  movements.  We  will  return  to  this  custom  when  speak- 
ing of  the  animal  at  the  sale. 

A  more  serious  fraud,  the  employment  of  which,  however,  is,  rare, 
is  the  application  of  a  false  tail  to  horses  with  a  rat-tail,  for  example,  or 
in  the  case  of  a  pair  of  horses  in  which  this  region  is  dissimilar.  If 
any  doubt  is  entertained  as  to  this  manoeuvre,  it  may  always  be  detected 
by  unpiaiting  the  tail  and  withdrawing  the  straw  and  other  accessories 
which  jockeys  employ  when  the  horse  is  to  be  sold. 

When  the  tail  has  been  the  seat  of  operations  practised  by  dealers, 
it  is  useful,  at  the  time  of  buying,  to  be  guaranteed  as  to  the  pos- 
sible results.  On  two  occasions  we  have  seen  animals  die  of  tetanus 
following  amputation  of  this  organ,  performed  by  the  seller. 

In  relation  to  its  movements,  the  tail,  during  work,  should  be 
carried  high  and  remain  immobile.  If  it  is  agitated  in  a  jerking  way, 
the  animal  switches  the  organ,  as  seen  in  urinating,  ticklish  mares  when 
the  posterior  parts  of  their  bodies  are  touched  or  approached.  Care 
should  then  be  taken  against  kicks  and  bites  ;  the  attitude  of  the  ears 
and  the  expression  of  the  physiognomy  afford  information  concerning 
the  intentions  of  the  animal. 

Let  us  remark,  in  conclusion,  that  the  horse  threatened  or  struck 
from  behind  instinctively  depresses  the  tail  between  the  buttocks.  It 
is  often  sufficient  to  seize  him  by  this  appendage  and  exercise  upon  the 
hairs  strong  traction  from  above  downward,  to  prevent  him  from 
rearing. 


174  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

One  of  the  most  frequent  diseases  of  this  region  is  pruritus,  occasioned  by 
the  uncleanliness  of  the  skin  of  the  stump,  sometimes  by  the  presence  of  intes- 
tinal worms  (oxyures),  or  the  itch,  which  is  manifested  by  depilations,  excoria- 
tions, and  eschars,  more  or  less  extensive.  These  affections  always  begin  by  a 
peculiar  straightening  of  the  hairs,  which  should  attract  the  attention  of  the 
purchaser ;  otherwise  they  are  not  serious. 

The  crupper  quite  frequently  causes  wounds  when  it  is  not  well  fitted  or 
padded,  especially  in  animals  low  in  front,  in  which  the  saddle  and  harness  have 
a  tendency  to  slip  towards  the  withers.  These  lesions  are  also  observed  on  horses 
of  a  good  conformation  which  are  harnessed  without  the  breeching,  and  which  are 
required  to  descend  steep  hills.  However  caused,  these  wounds  sometimes  make 
it  impossible  for  the  animal  to  endure  the  crupper.  We  have  seen  them  so  deep 
that  they  could  take  the  place  of  nicking.  Generally  it  is  sufficient  to  increase  the 
thickness  of  the  crupper  or  to  discontinue  the  use  of  this  part  of  the  harness,  to 
enable  the  sores  to  heal  at  once. 

We  shall  further  on  speak  of  cicatrices,  longitudinal  or  transverse,  traces  of 
docking  or  nicking ;  of  fistulse  which  require  a  long  time  to  heal,  and  which  com- 
plicate these  operations ;  finally,  of  melanotic  tumors,  sometimes  ulcerated,  which 
cause  a  black,  fetid,  and  unclean  discharge. 

B. — The  Anus. 

Situation ;  Limits  ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  anus  is  the 
posterior  orifice  of  the  digestive  tube.  Situated  underneath  the  tail 
and  above  the  perineum,  it  has  for  its  base  the  most  posterior  muscular 
fibres  of  the  rectum,  surrounded  by  a  strong  sphincter,  related  on  the 
sides  to  two  retractor  muscles  (ischio-anal).  Its  skin  is  fine,  pliable, 
oily,  devoid  of  hairs,  and  black  even  in  white  horses ;  we  can  some- 
times find,  however,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  other  natural  openings,  pinkish 
surfaces  deprived  of  pigment,  called  leprous  spots.  Internally  it  is 
covered  by  the  rectal  mucous  membrane. 

In  vigorous  and  healthy  horses  the  anus  forms  a  rounded  projection, 
firm,  depressed,  and  folded  at  its  centre  like  the  mouth  of  a  purse ;  it 
is  described  as  prominent.  In  animals  weakened  by  age,  work,  and 
sickness,  it  appears  sunken,  soft,  and  sometimes  gaping.  It  shows,  in 
this  case,  its  mucous  interior,  and  becomes  powerless  to  retain  the  faecal 
matters,  which — poorly  moulded,  on  account  of  the  general  atony  of  the 
digestive  tube — are  expelled  with  much  gas  during  locomotion  or  while 
the  animal  is  taking  a  deep  inspiration.  This  state  is  characterized  by 
giving  the  animal  the  epithet  evacuator. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  anus  is  especially  to  be  exam- 
ined in  regard  to  its  alterations. 

Let  us  speak  first  of  the  melanotic  tumors  in  certain  white  or  gray  horses, 
the  volume  of  which  is  an  obstacle  to  the  expulsion  of  the  excrements.  These 


POSTERIOR    EXTREMITY.  175 

tumors  soon  soften,  ulcerate,  and  acquire  a  repulsive  aspect  and  an  unpleasant 
odor,  and  they  lead  to  fatal  results  whenever  sufficient  inflammation  is  excited. 

Anal  fistulas  were  quite  common  at  the  time  when  the  operation  of  docking 
the  tail  was  more  usually  practised,  of  which  they  constituted  one  of.  the  compli- 
cations. It  was  not  less  frequent  to  find  here  other  fistulae  which  were  voluntarily 
made,  under  the  name  of  whistle,  or  nightingale,  with  the  object  of  relieving  horses 
affected  with  emphysema,  in  which  the  expulsion  of  gas  through  the  anus  is 
almost  constant.  As  we  have  shown  on  a  previous  page,  this  practice_has  long 
since  fallen  into  disrepute,  and  is  now  only  the  appendage  of  a  gross  empiricism. 

In  certain  horses  a  particular  larva  is  sometimes  found,  attached  strongly  to 
the  margin  of  the  anus  by  the  hooks  of  its  cephalic  appendix ;  it  is  that  of  the 
CEstrus  hcemorrhoidalis,  which  comes  from  the  stomach  and  is  expelled  from  the 
digestive  tube  to  perform  its  metamorphosis. 

There  is  another  larva,  that  of  the  Hippobosca  equina,  or  horse-tick,  better 
known  under  the  name  of  flat  fly,  or  spider-fly,  because  of  its  special  form.  These 
larvae  are  seen  under  the  tail,  on  the  sides  of  the  anus,  and  on  the  genital  organs, 
particularly  in  Oriental  horses.  They  are  flat,  resistant  to  pressure,  and  very 
adherent  to  the  above-mentioned  parts.  These  flies  sometimes  emigrate  to  animals 
which  are  not  accustomed  to  them,  and  excite  the  horses  to  such  a  state  of  agita- 
tion that  they  are  suddenly  seized  with  fright,  run  away,  and  demolish  everything 
in  their  way.  It  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  cause  of  this  agitation  as  soon 
as  it  manifests  itself,  in  order  to  avoid  with  certainty  such  formidable  dangers. 

C.— The  Perineum  and  the  Median  Raphe'. 

The  perineum  is  a  single  region  comprised  between  the  anus  and 
the  external  genital  organs. 

In  the  male  it  extends  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  scrotum  to 
just  below  the  anus.  Situated  at  first  between  the  thighs,  then  between 
the  buttocks,  it  is  in  relation  anatomically  to  the  corresponding  part  of 
the  urethra  and  to  the  perineal  aponeurosis  which  covers  the  latter.  Its 
skin  is  black,  or  sometimes  marbled,  from  the  presence  of  leprous  spots, 
which  peculiarity  should  not  be  omitted  in  the  description  of  the  horse. 

It  offers  neither  beauties  nor  defects  for  consideration  ;  it  should  be 
perfectly  distinct  and  exempt  from  cicatrices,  which  might  be  the  result 
of  a  dangerous  operation,  urethrotomy ,  practised  in  the  treatment  of 
calculus  of  the  bladder,  or  the  consequence  of  blow^s  received  by  the 
animal. 

In  the  mare  this  region  is  much  smaller ;  it  corresponds  only  to 
the  narrow  space  situated  between  the  vulva  and  the  anus. 

Some  authors  have  regarded  it  as  extending  to  the  mammae,  whose 
situation  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  testicles.  But  even  if  we  should 
observe  this  analogy,  the  study  of  the  perineum,  with  regard  to  the 
exterior,  would  not  gain  in  importance. 

As  to  the  raphe,  as  its  name  indicates,  it  is  a  kind  of  cutaneous 


176  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

thickening  which  marks  the  median  line,  from  the  sheath  and  the 
testicles,  or  the  mammae,  to  the  anus.  It  is  shown  in  the  form  of 
a  small  crest,  more  or  less  prominent  according  to  the  subjects,  'is 
a  simple  peculiarity  of  the  regions  upon  which  it  is  observed,  and, 
therefore,  is  devoid  of  all  interest. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

GENITAL   ORGANS. 

THE  examination  of  the  genital  organs  should  not  be  neglected, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their  good  conformation  in  ani- 
mals which  are  destined  for  reproduction,  or  for  simply  proving  their 
state  of  health  or  of  disease. 

§  1.  GENITAL  ORGANS  OF  THE  MALE. 

These  comprise,  with  respect  to  the  exterior,  the  testicles  and  the 
penis,  to  which  are  annexed  the  protecting  coverings,  dependencies  of 
the  integument,  known  under  the  name  of  enveloping  tunics  for  the 
former  and  sheath  for  the  latter. 

A.— The  Testicles  and  their  Enveloping  Tunics. 

The  organs  which  secrete  the  semen,  the  reproductive  fluid  of  the 
male,  are  two  glands,  situated  on  each  side  of  the  median  line,  in  the 
inguinal  region,  and  between  the  thighs.  They  constitute,  as  a  whole, 
an  irregularly-rounded  mass,  divided  in  its  middle  into  two  almost 
equal  lobes,  by  a  slight  groove,  a  sort  of  raph6,  which  behind  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  perinea!  raphe,  and  in  front  is  prolonged  upon  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  sheath. 

1st.  The  Enveloping  Tunics. — The  testicles  are  surrounded  by  several 
superposed  envelopes,  which  are,  proceeding  from  the  superficial  to  the  deep 
parts : 

a.  The  scrotum,  or  the  skin  (but  the  whole  double  sac,  composed  of  all  the 
enveloping  tunics,  is  also  spoken  of  as  the  scrotum). 

b.  The  dartos,  very  adherent  to  the  latter,  and  forming  for  each  testicle  an 
independent  musculo-elastic  sac. 

c.  The  sub-dartoid  connective  tissue,  a  more  or  less  dense  layer,  which  separates 
the  dartos  from  the  following  tunic. 

d.  The  cremaster  or  tunica  erythro'ides,  a  striated  muscle  which  is  attached  to 


GENITAL    ORGANS.  177 

the  external  surface  of  the  fibrous  tunic,  and  determines  the  rapid  ascending 
movements  of  the  testicle. 

e.  The  fibrous  tunic,  which  surrounds  the  serous  sac  in  which  the  testicle  is 
suspended. 

/.  Finally,  the  vaginal  tunic  or  sheath,  a  diverticulum  of  the  peritoneum, 
covering  the  inner  face  of  the  fibrous  tunic  and  surrounding  the  testicle  as  well  as 
its  suspensory  cord. 

The  development  of  the  testicular  envelopes  varies  according  to 
diverse  circumstances,  such  as  the  degree  of  descent  of  the  testicles,  the 
state  of  health  or  of  disease,  rest  or  exercise,  the  temperature,  the 
race,  etc. 

Contrary  to  the  general  opinion,  they  are  always  formed  at  birth, 
at  which  time  occurs  the  commencement  of  the  descent  of  the  testicles ; 
but  they  soon  disappear,  to  reappear  towards  the  end  of  the  first  year, 
following,  consequently,  the  migration  of  the  organs  which  they  protect. 

These  tunics,  thin,  soft,  unctuous,  and  shiny  in  fine  and  well-nour- 
ished subjects,  are  thick,  coarse,  dull-colored,  and  rough  in  common 
horses.  The  scrotum  or  skin  is,  with  few  exceptions,  almost  hairless, 
of  a  black  color,  or  only  covered  by  some  downy  hairs.  Nevertheless, 
in  light-colored  animals  it  is  sometimes  deprived  of  pigment  in  certain 
places,  and  then  offers  white  or  red  spots  of  a  variable  area,  to  which 
is  given  the  name  leprous  spots. 

2d.  The  Testicles. — Suspended  at  the  extremity  of  a  cord  con- 
stituted by  the  vas  deferens,  blood-vessels,  and  nerves,  these  glands 
consist  of  ovoid  masses  depressed  laterally,  and  related  by  their  external 
face  and  superior  border  each  to  an  elongated  organ,  the  epididymis, 
enlarged  at  its  two  extremities  and  formed  by  an  indefinite  number  of 
convolutions  of  its  excretory  canal.  They  float  freely  in  their  envelopes, 
but  are  neither  in  the  same  horizontal  plane  nor  in  the  same  transverse 
line  :  the  left  is  always  more  inferior  and  more  posterior  than  the  right. 
The  two  testicles  are,  therefore,  so  disposed  that  they  can  approach  the 
median  line  without  being  mutually  compressed  during  the  adduction 
of  the  thighs,  between  which  they  are  situated.  It  is  apparent  how 
painful  to  the  animal  and  dangerous  to  these  organs  such  friction  and 
compression  would  be  if  frequently  repeated. 

The  examination  of  the  testicular  region  requires  some  precautions, 
particularly  in  irritable  and  sensitive  horses. 

Let  us  suppose  that  this  examination  be  practised  upon  the  left 
testicle. 

The  head  is  maintained  in  an  elevated  position  by  an  assistant ;  in 
addition,  the  anterior  right  foot  may  be  raised.  This  being  done,  the 

12 


178  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

surgeon  stations  himself  opposite  the  croup  of  the  same  side,  places 
the  left  hand  upon  the  dorse-lumbar  region,  being  careful  not  to  stand 
in  the  line  of  action  of  the  corresponding  posterior  member,  and  goes, 
with  the  right  hand,  in  search  of  the  testicles,  having  previously 
caressed  the  parts  which  surround  the  region. 

When  these  organs  are  well  developed,  lie  in  the  scrotum,  and  are 
consequently  visible  and  tangible  from  the  exterior,  the  horse  is 
entire,1  and  is  also  called  stallion;  he  is  called  gelding  after  emascu- 
lation. Emasculation  is  performed  for  various  reasons,  most  usually 
with  a  view  of  completely  destroying  the  function  of  these  organs. 

The  testicles,  in  the  entire  male,  should  be  well  down,  rounded, 
almost  equal,  firm,  and  rolling  under  the  pressure  of  the  fingers,  with- 
out showing  any  abnormal  sensibility.  They  are  larger  in  the  adult 
animal  than  in  the  colt,  and  in  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Andalusian  stallions 
than  in  those  of  other  races.  In  hot  weather  they  may  become  some- 
what flabby  and  pendulous.  When  they  are  small  and  retracted 
towards  the  inferior  orifice  of  the  inguinal  canal,  soft,  or  altogether 
pendulous,  they  indicate  a  horse  that  is  degenerated,  without  energy, 
without  vigor,  and  unsuited  for  reproduction. 

The  gelding  has  the  testicular  envelopes  flattened  and  almost  indis- 
tinguishable from  the  posterior  part  of  the  sheath  of  the  penis.  There 
always  exist  on  each  side  of  the  median  line,  at  the  place  where  the 
testicles  have  been,  two  linear  cicatrices,  slightly  excavated,  which 
present  the  same  characters  in  all  emasculated  animals,  and  which  are 
due  to  the  excision  of  these  glands. 

A  horse  may  have  been  subjected  to  an  operation  destroying  his 
reproductive  faculties,  and  still  have  his  testicles  in  the  scrotum.  This 
operation,  known  under  the  name  bistournage,  is  nothing  else  than  a 
subcutaneous  torsion  of  the  testicular  cord,  which  is  soon  followed  by 
a  complete  atrophy  of  the  organ  due  to  the  obliteration  of  the  blood- 
vessels which  nourish  the  testicle. 

Although  very  little  practised  upon  the  horse  at  present,  bistournage 
leaves  traces  which  can  be  easily  recognized  :  the  volume  of  the  tes- 
ticle is  no  more  than  that  of  a  large  walnut ;  it  occupies  an  elevated 
situation,  and  is  no  longer  movable  in  its  envelopes,  in  consequence  of 
the  adhesions  which  are  established  under  the  influence  of  the  inflam- 
matory phenomena  consequent  upon  the  torsion. 

When  the  testicular  envelopes  present  the  characters  recognized  in 
the  gelding,  and  ther*e  exists  on  the  surface  no  appreciable  cicatrix ; 

1  Technically,  the  word  horse  signifies  the  entire  male. 


GENITAL    ORGANS.  179 

when,  besides,  the  animal  neighs  frequently,  has  an  erection  of  the 
penis  at  the  approach  of  mares,  and  shows  himself  endowed,  in  appear- 
ance at  least,  with  all  the  instincts  and  aptitudes  of  the  most  vigorous 
entire  male,  it  is  certain  that  he  has  not  been  castrated  by  bistournage, 
or  otherwise,  but  that  his  testicles  have  not  made  their  normal  descent, 
and  either  float  in  the  abdominal  cavity  or  remain  lodged  in  the  ingui- 
nal canal.  In  either  case  the  horse  is  called  a  cryptorchid l  -or  an 
enorchid.2  Very  often  he  is  called  an  (worchid*  but  this  is  an  improper 
designation,  because  it  indicates  the  absence  of  the  testicles  instead  of 
simply  expressing  their  irregular  situation. 

In  ordinary  language  a  cryptorchid  is  called  a  ridgeling.  In  scien- 
tific language  we  do  not  advocate  the  use  of  this  expression,  which 
originated  from  the  horseman,  but  which  is  not  confined  to  him,  if  we 
may  judge  from  the  favor  which  it  has  met  among  a  certain  class  of 
individuals. 

Whatever  terminology  may  be  used,  it  is  none  the  less  true  that 
that  cryptorchism  does  not  always  exist  on  both  sides  at  the  same  time. 
It  is  quite  common  to  find  it  unilateral,  but  it  is  an  error  to  believe 
it  affects  the  right  side  oftener  than  the  left.  Since  1847  we  have 
established  the  falsity  of  the  foundation  of  this  opinion ;  it  is  useless 
to  prolong  our  remarks  on  this  question. 

Cryptorchids  have  always  been  regarded,  with  good  reason,  as 
being  troublesome  and  dangerous  to  their  companions  as  well  as  to 
their  attendants.  They  often  interfere  with  the  manoeuvres  of  cavalry 
by  kicking  and  biting,  or  unfasten  themselves  in  the  stable  during  the 
night,  and  mount  the  mares  which  they  get  access  to.  They  are  very 
ardent,  and  perform  copulation  readily,  although  this  act  appears  to 
fatigue  them  extremely.  We  have  not  succeeded  in  getting  them  to 
repeat  it  on  the  same  day.  Finally,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
these  animals  are  sterile  whenever  the  two  testicles  remain  in  the 
abdominal  cavity  ;  their  semen  contains  no  spermatozoa.  This  secre- 
tion has  the  same  characters  in  those  animals  in  which  the  glands  are 
arrested  in  the  inguinal  canal,  as  we  have  several  times  proved ;  but 
we  will  not  assert  that  it  is  always  thus. 

The  importance  of  the  preceding  facts  is  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  two 
following  instances : 

One  of  them,  given  by  H.  Bouley,  Jr.,  has  reference  to  the  remarkable  Kivi£re- 


1  From  /cpvTTTw,  1  conceal,  and  6p\is,  testicle. 

2  From  ev,  in,  and  op^is,  testicle. 

8  From  <i,  taken  away,  and  6px<.?,  testicle. 


180  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Rouleau  lawsuit,  which  was  so  much  discussed  in  Parisian  veterinary  circles  more 
than  half  a  century  ago.1 

It  concerned  a  horse  sold  and  guaranteed  as  entire  by  Mr.  Riviere  to  Lady 
Rouleau,  in  which  the  two  testicles,  each  barely  as  large  as  a  small  hen's  egg,  were 
lodged  in  the  inguinal  canal.  Bouley,  Jr.,  in  his  report,  effected  an  annulment 
of  the  sale  by  specifying  : 

1st.  That  the  testicles  had  acquired  only  about  one-fifth  of  their  normal  size, 
and  that  they  were  atrophied,  and,  consequently,  able  to  fulfil  only  imperfectly 
their  functions. 

2d.  That,  in  this  respect,  Lady  Rouleau  had  been  deceived  into  buying  as  an 
entire  horse  one  that  was  imperfect,  having  a  defect  in  his  organization  which  she 
had  not  been  able  to  recognize,  and  which  diminished  his  value  and  rendered 
him  unable  to  perform  the  service  for  which  he  was  purchased. 

In  the  presence  of  these  conclusions,  and  upon  the  concordant  opinion  of 
three  other  experts  named  by  the  court,  Riviere  agreed  to  dissolve  the  bargain, 
took  back  his  horse,  and  the  affair  terminated. 

The  second  example  is  that  of  Cloture,  the  cryptorchid  horse,  of  remarkable 
form  and  qualities,  which  took  twice  in  succession  the  purse  in  the  races  at  the 
Champ  de  Mars.  Bought  some  time  afterwards  by  the  administration  of  the 
governmental  studs,  he  served,  at  Pompadour,  forty  mares,  without  succeeding  in 
impregnating  a  single  one ! 

In  order  to  prove  the  existence  of  cryptorchidism,  it  is  sufficient,  as 
Henry  and  Symphorien  Bouley  verified  in  1852  in  the  case  of  Cloture, 
to  determine  whether  the  inguinal  region  does  or  does  not  carry  the 
permanent  cicatrix  of  castration.  It  is  proper  to  say,  however,  that, 
by  fraudulent  means,  this  cicatrix  can  be  imitated,  thus  giving  to  such  a 
horse  the  appearance  of  one  that  has  been  castrated.  The  only  method 
which  can  then  be  employed  is  to  lead  the  animal  to  the  mare,  in  order 
to  produce  an  erection  of  the  penis,  and  to  permit  a  collection  of  the 
seminal  fluid,  which  should  be  subjected  to  a  microscopic  examination.2 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — When  the  testicles,  their  envelopes, 
and  the  cords  do  not  present  the  normal  characters  we  have  indicated 
above,  there  is  reason  to  consider  them  diseased,  and  the  prognosis  which 
should  be  given  is  in  most  instances  very  grave.  The  diseases  of  the 
testicular  region  are  numerous  and  varied  ;  we  will  only  review  them 
in  passing. 

They  are : 

1st.  (Edema,  simple  infiltration  of  the  connective  tissue  of  the  envelopes, 
a  condition  which  may  be  the  result  of  prolonged  and  complete  idleness  in  the 
stable,  or  it  may  be  the  manifestation  of  a  local  affection  or  of  a  grave  consti- 
tutional disease. 


1  Bouley,  Jr.,  Recueil  de  medecine  v6t£rinaire  pratique,  1832,  p.  487. 

2Goubaux  et  Follin,  Memoire  sur  la  cryptorchidie,  in  Recueil  de  medecine  veterinaire, 
annee  1856,  p.  820. 


GENITAL    ORGANS.  181 

2d.  Orchitis,  acute  inflammation  of  the  tissues  of  the  testicles,  whose  multi- 
ple causes  often  give  rise  to  serious  complications. 

3d.  Sarcocele,  which  is  usually  one  of  the  terminations  of  chronic  orchitis, 
and  consists  in  a  more  or  less  pronounced  induration  of  the  gland.  It  forms  a 
voluminous  tumor,  insensitive  to  pressure,  complicated  at  times  by  hydropsy  of 
the  vaginal  sheath,  and  accompanied  by  a  considerable  enlargement  of  the  cord. 
Sarcocele,  by  its  weight,  inconveniences  the  animal  considerably ;  but  this  would 
be  of  little  import  if  it  were  not  frequently  one  of  the  manifestations  of~glanders 
or  the  sign  of  a  cancerous  state.  As  the  differential  diagnosis  is  difficult,  and  as 
there  is  always  apprehension  of  the  presence  of  a  glanderous  diathesis,  it  will  be 
prudent  to  condemn  animals  which  are  thus  affected,  more  particularly  if  they 
are  intended  for  reproduction. 

False  sarcocele  is  a  similar  condition,  which  has  its  seat  in  the  testicular 
envelopes.  Its  prognosis  is  sometimes  as  serious  as  that  of  the  preceding. 

4th.  Hydrocele,  which  is  an  acute  or  a  chronic  dropsy  of  the  vaginal  sheath. 
The  latter  form  is  particularly  serious  in  that  it  predisposes  to  hernia,  occasions 
great  pain,  and  causes  atrophy  of  the  testicle.  It  is  quite  frequently  a  compli- 
cation of  sarcocele. 

5th.  Varicocele,  varicose  dilatation  of  the  veins  of  the  envelopes,  of  the  cord, 
and  of  the  gland  itself.  It  is  very  rare  in  the  horse. 

6th.  Carcinoma,  which  affects  the  substance  of  the  testicle  and  causes  a 
gradual  atrophy  of  the  latter.  This  tumor  is  one  of  the  forms  of  what  is  called 
sarcocele. 

7th.  Cysts,  distinguished  as  dermoid  or  as  serous,  according  to  their  nature ; 
they  are  rare,  and  are  located  in  the  testicles,  the  envelopes,  or  the  cord. 

8th.  Champignon,  scirrhous  cord,  an  indurated  tumor  of  the  extremity  of  the 
cord,  which  follows  castration  on  one  side  or  the  other,  and  has  no  tendency 
towards  cicatrization ;  it  presents  a  deep  fistula  leading  to  the  interior  of  the 
parts  and  discharging  an  abundance  of  pus.  It  is  a  common  diseased  state,  and 
is  grave  on  account  of  its  complications. 

9th.  Finally,  hernia,  called  inguinal  or  testicular,  due  to  a  displacement  of  a 
portion  of  the  intestine  into  the  vaginal  sheath.  It  is  acute  or  chronic,  according 
to  its  duration  and  symptoms.  The  violent  colics  which  accompany  the  acute 
form  will  always  prevent  the  animal  from  being  offered  for  sale.  It  is  not  the 
same  with  the  chronic  form,  examples  of  which  are  quite  frequently  met  in 
stallions. 

The  old  law  of  redhibitory  vices  comprised  chronic  intermittent  hernia  among 
the  diseases  capable  of  causing  the  annulment  of  the  sale ;  the  law  of  August  2, 
1884,  does  not  include  it. 

However,  a  horse  suffering  from  chronic  hernia  should  never  be  purchased  ; 
at  some  period  he  may  succumb  to  a  strangulation  of  the  hernial  intestine,  an  acci- 
dent always  to  be  feared,  because  there  is  always  a  possibility  of  its  occurrence. 


B.— The  Sheath  and  the  Penis. 

To  the  organs  charged  with  the  secretion  of  the  semen  is  annexed 
an  apparatus  of  excretion,  the  penis,  which  serves  at  the  same  time  for 
copulation  and  for  the  emission  of  the  urine.  This  organ  is  protected 


182  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

as  well  as  maintained  in  its  normal  situation  by  a  cutaneous  fold,  the 
sheath,  which  we  will  examine  first. 

1st.  The  Sheath. — The  sheath  is  to  the  penis  what  the  scrotum 
is  to  the  testicles. 

Constituted  by  the  skin,  which,  doubled  upon  itself  from  before  to  behind, 
forms  a  kind  of  pouch  open  in  front,  it  is  destined  to  contain  the  free  portion  of 
the  penis  in  a  state  of  non-erection.  Between  the  layers  of  the  integument  which 
forms  the  base  exists  a  fibre-elastic  expansion,  called  the  suspensory  ligament  of 
the  sheath,  a  dependency  of  the  abdominal  tunic,  to  which  it  is  attached  on  each 
side.  The  skin  in  its  interior  is  deprived  of  hair,  irregularly  folded  upon  itself, 
soft,  and  unctuous  from  the  numerous  sebaceous  glands,  called  the  preputial 
glands,  which  secrete  a  sebaceous  material  of  a  strong  and  disagreeable  odor, 
known  by  the  vulgar  and  improper  name  of  coom. 

The  sheath  is  entirely  effaced  at  the  moment  of  erection  of  the 
penis.  Its  development  varies  according  to  the  animal :  in  the  stallion 
it  is  ample  and  generally  little  soiled  by  its  secretion  ;  in  the  gelding 
it  is  smaller,  and  its  narrow  opening  sometimes  prevents  the  protrusion 
of  the  penis  during  micturition.  There  may  result,  in  such  a  case,  a& 
Lecoq  has  remarked,  hypersecretion  by  the  sebaceous  glands,  irritation 
from  the  urine,  and  even  ulcerations  difficult  to  heal,  which  may  extend 
to  the  penis.1 

Warts,  or  papillomata,  are  in  certain  cases  observed  on  the  sheath.  They 
are  regarded  as  contagious,  although  no  irrefutable  proof  of  this  has  as  yet  been 
given. 

(Edema  of  the  sheath  depends  upon  a  prolonged  retention  of  the  peni& 
within  it,  upon  the  contact  of  the  urine,  or  upon  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  the 
sebaceous  secretion.  It  disappears  readily  under  the  influence  of  exercise  and 
cleanliness. 

Finally,  melanotic  tumors  are  met  here,  which  by  their  volume  sometimes 
prevent  the  protrusion  of  the  penis  and  interfere  with  the  exit  of  the  urine. 

There  are  some  horses  which  produce  during  locomotion,  particularly  in  the 
trot  and  the  gallop,  a  sound,  always  disagreeable,  called  the  sound  of  the  frog.  It 
ceases  ordinarily  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time  during  the  exercise.  Some  persons 
have  incorrectly  attributed  it  to  the  churning  of  the  liquids  and  gases  con- 
fined in  the  caecum,  a  part  of  the  large  intestine  remarkably  developed  in  the  horse, 
We  long  ago  made  the  remark  that  it  is  never  heard  in  mares.  Franconi,  our 
classmate  and  friend,  informed  us  one  day  that  it  could  be  made  to  disappear  by 
packing  the  sheath  with  oakum.  We  have  since  verified  the  efficacy  of  this 
ingenious  means,  the  action  of  which  is  understood  without  difficulty,  knowing 
the  mechanism  by  which  this  sound  is  produced.  During  locomotion  the  sheath 
is  alternately  raised  and  lowered,  and  at  the  same  time  the  penis  executes  in  its 
cavity  more  or  less  extensive  to-and-fro  movements.  There  results  from  this  the 
formation  of  a  vacuum  and  the  entrance  of  external  air,  which  occasions  thia 

1  F.  Lecoq,  Ext6rieur  du  cheval,  p.  97. 


GENITAL    ORGANS.  183 

particular  sound.  Its  intensity  appears  to  depend  upon  the  flaccidity  and  the 
disproportion  of  volume  of  the  parts  concerned  in  the  mechanism  of  its  produc- 
tion ;  its  absence  is  due,  on  the  contrary,  to  a  more  complete  coaptation  of  these 
same  parts,  which  exists  in  those  animals  in  which  this  sound  is  not  produced. 

2cl.  The  Penis. — The  penis  is  the  male  organ  of  copulation. 
It  represents  an  erectile  shaft,  constituted  principally  by  the  corpus 
cavernosum,  and  supports  along  its  entire  length  the  urethml  -canal. 
In  the  study  of  the  exterior  of  the  horse,  however,  we  shall  occupy 
ourselves  only  with  the  free  portion  of  this  organ,  which  in  a  state  of 
relaxation  is  contained  within  the  sheath,  and  appears  externally  only  at 
the  moment  of  erection,  when  the  blood  distends  and  elongates  it. 

It  then  appears  covered  by  a  fine,  unctuous,  glistening  skin,  sometimes  rosy 
and  marbled  in  the  places  deprived  of  pigment.  Limited  at  its  base  by  a  sort  of 
circular  cul-de-sac,  it  has  an  almost  cylindrical  form,  excepting  at  its  free 
extremity,  where  it  suddenly  enlarges.  The  latter,  known  under  the  name  head 
of  the  penis,  and  notched  below  and  behind  (sub-urethral  notch),  is  hollowed  in  its 
middle  by  a  shallow  excavation  which  surmounts  a  round  eminence  formed  by  the 
extremity  of  the  corpus  cavernosum,  and  in  the  centre  of  which  opens  the 
urethral  tube,  projecting  about  one  or  two  centimetres.  Above  the  latter  is  the 
urethral  sinus,  a  spacious  bilocular  cavity,  often  filled  with  hardened  sebaceous 
matter  (the  bean},  which  may  compress  the  urethra  and  interfere  with  micturition. 

It  is  the  erectile  tissue  of  the  urethra,  altogether  independent  of  that  of  the 
corpus  cavernosum,  which  composes  the  head  of  the  penis.  At  the  beginning  of 
erection  the  latter  alone  is  dilated  so  as  to  give  the  necessary  rigidity  to  the 
organ  to  penetrate  the  genital  passages  of  the  female.  As  soon  as  the  penis  is 
inserted,  the  urethra  dilates  and  gives  to  the  free  extremity  of  the  organ  the 
aspect  of  a  mushroom  or  the  nose  of  a  watering-can,  as  is  seen  in  the  stallion 
immediately  after  the  ejaculation  of  the  semen. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  head  of  the  penis  is  not  visible  at 
the  entrance  of  the  sheath  :  it  is  concealed  by  the  folds  of  the  skin.  It 
is  incorrect  for  painters  and  sculptors  to  represent  this  part  almost  with 
the  same  disposition  as  that  which  it  aifects  in  man. 

The  penis  of  the  entire  horse  is  more  voluminous  and  more  firm 
than  .that  of  the  gelding  ;  but  in  this  respect  it  differs  much  in  different 
animals.  These  variations  have  not,  as  is  generally  believed,  any 
influence  upon  the  qualities  of  horses  which  are  destined  for  reproduc- 
tion ;  it  is  the  same  with  those  variations  which  concern  the  head  of 
the  penis,  which  is  often  very  different  in  different  stallions  of  the  same 
race,  the  same  form,  and  equal  ardor. 

It  is  more  important  to  assure  ourselves  that  the  penis  moves  with 
ease  in  the  interior  of  its  protecting  envelope.  The  stallion  has  quite 
frequent  erections ;  it  is  common  even  to  see  him  masturbate,  either  in 
the  stable  or  at  rest  when  he  is  harnessed.  When  these  erections  occur. 


184  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  penis  emerges  from  the  sheath  with  more  or  less  rapidity,  and 
increases  in  volume,  in  length,  and  in  tension. 

In  this  condition  it  is  easy  to  determine  the  state  of  the  parts  and 
to  judge  as  to  their  good  conformation.  This  cannot  be  done  during 
micturition,  for  the  penis  is  only  partly  protruded. 

Erection  in  the  gelding  is,  on  the  contrary,  rare  ;  the  copulative 
organ  is  confined  to  its  narrow  sheath.  If  it  be  not  protruded  at  the 
time  of  micturition,  the  animal  urinates  into  his  sheath,  an  injurious 
fault,  on  account  of  the  irritation  which  the  retention  of  the  essentially 
putrefactive  products  determines  there.  In  horses  carelessly  groomed 
the  desiccated  sebaceous  matter  after  a  time  occasions  an  inflammation 
of  the  skin  which  the  simplest  hygienic  measures  could  prevent. 

We  have  sometimes  observed  melanotic  tumors  upon  the  penis.  They  give 
rise,  by  their  softening,  to  ulcerations,  from  which  escapes  a  blackish,  disagreea- 
ble discharge ;  by  their  volume  they  also  produce  compression  of  the  urethra  and 
obstruct  the  free  passage  of  the  urine. 

At  other  times  blood-tumors  (hcematoma)  exist  in  the  corpus  cavernosum, 
resulting  from  blows  received  by  the  penis  during  erection,  or  produced  by  the 
efforts  of  the  stallion  in  mounting.  Veritable  wounds  are  occasioned  sometimes 
from  these  causes,  whose  prognosis  is  much  more  serious  because  there  is  always 
danger  from  hemorrhage  or  from  resultant  complications  of  gangrene  necessi- 
tating the  amputation  of  the  organ. 

Finally,  all  animals  having  ulcerations  at  some  point  of  the  penis*  should  be 
rejected.  These  are  sometimes  the  expression  of  the  most  serious  contagious 
disease,  maladie  du  colt,  or  dourine,  which  is  most  common  in  Oriental  horses.  The 
ulcerations  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  pustules  of  equine  variola,  which 
resemble  the  former  very  much,  and  upon  the  differential  diagnosis  of  which 
our  distinguished  associate,  Professor  Peuch,  has  especially  insisted.1 

Paralysis  of  the  penis  is  peculiar  to  jaded  stallions  degenerated  from  old  age. 
The  organ  is  then  not  contained  in  the  sheath ;  it  is  said  to  be  pendulous. 

Flabby,  infiltrated,  swollen,  purplish,  and  cold,  it  oscillates  in  every  direction 
during  locomotion,  and  is  continually  exposed  to  wounds  and  contusions.  It 
is  necessary  then  to  place  the  penis  in  a  leather  sheath,  acting  like  a  suspen- 
sory ligament;  which  is  maintained  in  situation  by  leather  straps  fastened  around 
the  loins. 

§  2.  GENITAL  ORGANS  OF  THE  FEMALE. 

A.— The  Vulva. 

The  vulva  is  the  only  part  of  the  genital  apparatus  of  the  female 
which  directly  concerns  us  in  this  connection  ;  most  authors  have  added 
a  description  of  the  mammce,  and  we  will  not  change  the  established 
custom. 

The  vulva  constitutes   the  external  orifice  of  the    genito-urinary 

1  F.  Peuch,  Note  sur  le  horse-pox  simulant  la  dourine,  in  Revue  veterinaire,  annee  1880,  p.  297. 


GENITAL    ORGANS.  185 

apparatus  in  the  female.  This  orifice,  situated  below  and  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  anus,  has  the  form  of  a  vertical  chink,  in  which  can  be 
recognized  two  lateral  lips  and  two  commissures,  the  one  inferior  and  the 
other  superior. 

The  lips  (labiai)  are  in  apposition,  the  one  against  the  other,  in 
ordinary  conditions.  The  skin  which  covers  them  is  fine,  unctuous, 
devoid  of  hairs,  usually  black,  and  very  adherent.  It  becomes  contin- 
uous, at  their  free  border,  with  the  internal  mucous  membrane. 

Of  the  commissures,  the  superior  is  acute ;  the  inferior  is  rounded, 
and  shows,  when  the  Iabia3  are  separated,  a  single  globular  organ,  the 
clitoris,  a  veritable  penis  in  miniature,  lodged  in  a  mucous  fold  which 
constitutes  a  sort  of  prepuce,  of  a  rosy  color,  sometimes  black  or 
marbled. 

During  the  period  of  heat  (menstruation)  the  vulva  is  slightly  open, 
swollen,  warmer,  more  sensitive,  and  all  the  parts  covered  by  mucous 
membrane  are  bright  red.  From  the  inferior  commissure  there  is  a 
moderate  discharge  of  liquid,  which  agglutinates  the  lips.  The  animal 
frequently  ejects  a  small  quantity  of  urine,  which  is  followed  by  several 
convulsive  protrusions  of  the  clitoris.  She  is  then  very  excitable,  diffi- 
cult to  approach,  inclined  to  kicking,  and  provoked  by  the  least  touch. 
She  is  called  pissy  when  this  condition  is  habitual ;  ovariotomy  (removal 
of  the  ovaries)  may  sometimes  remedy  this;  at  other  times  it  is 
without  effect. 

Mares  which  have  been  pregnant  generally  present  longitudinal 
folds  upon  the  external  face  and  inferior  part  of  the  lips  of  the  vulva. 
These  folds  increase  with  the  frequency  of  parturition.  In  old  and 
very  emaciated  mares  the  vulvo-anal  region  is  strongly  excavated,  a  fact 
which  may  render  the  introduction  of  the  penis  somewhat  uncertain. 

In  certain  cases  •  fillies  are  ringed  in  order  to  prevent  copulation 
when  they  run  in  pasture  with  males.  This  operation  consists  simply 
in  approximating  the  lips  of  the  vulva  by  means  of  metallic  threads 
inserted  transversely  from  side  to  side  and  disposed  in  superposed 
rings,  or  simply  in  protecting  the  vulvar  opening  by  means  of  a  wire 
netting. 

Although  this  practice  opposes  a  copulation  by  preventing  the 
introduction  of  the  penis,  it  fails  with  those  animals  that  are  inclined 
to  accomplish  this  act  to  satiate  their  imperative  desires,  and,  on  this 
account,  it  is  not  free  from  danger.  The  stallion  in  his  efforts  some- 
times wounds  the  lips  of  the  vulva,  lacerates  them  with  his  teeth,  or 
commits  an  error  of  place  nearly  always  fatal  to  the  female,  without 
considering  the  wounds  which  may  be  inflicted  upon  his  own  organs. 


186  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

There  are  neither  beauties  nor  defects  to  be  indicated  in  this  region.. 
It  should  especially  be  free  from  blemishes. 

Wound*,  lacerations,  bites  from  the  stallion,  pustules  of  horse-pox,  and  ulcera- 
tions  symptomatic  of  maladie  du  co'it  are  observable  in  this  region.  The  last  are 
of  a  very  grave  prognosis.  Ruptures  of  the  superior  commissure  are  nearly 
always  due  to  difficult  parturition.  According  to  J.  B.  Huzard,  the  presence  of 
ivarts,  or  papillomata,  on  account  of  their  hereditary  character,  should  exclude 
the  mare  from  the  stud.1 

B.— The  Mammae. 

The  mammae,  special  to  the  mare,  are  two  glands  endowed  with  the 
secretion  of  the  milk.  They  form  two  hemispherical  eminences  placed 
in  the  inguinal  region  and  separated  from  each  other  by  a  median 
groove.  Each  of  them  presents  in  its  central  part  a  small  protuber- 
ance, the  teat,  or  nipple,  whose  free  extremity  has  in  its  middle  a  shal- 
low depression,  at  the  bottom  of  which  open  two  excretory  ducts  which 
commence  in  the  interior  of  the  organ. 

But  little  developed  in  the  filly  and  in  the  mare  which  has  never 
been  pregnant,  they  acquire  a  considerable  volume  towards  the  end  of 
gestation ;  they  preserve  it  after  parturition  during  the  period  of 
suckling,  but  reassume  their  primitive  characters  afterwards. 

The  diseases  of  the  mammary  glands  are  few  ;  let  us  mention  more  especially 
melanotic  deposits,  of  which  they  are  sometimes  the  seat  in  gray  or  white  mares. 

Linear  cicatrices,  which  result  from  the  cuts  of  the  whip-lash,  frequently 
given  in  this  region,  are,  as  in  the  sheath  of  the  male,  quite  frequently  found  here.. 

Finally,  their  surface  often  shows  corded  lymphatics  from  farcy,  because  of 
the  abundance  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  which  emerge  from  them. 


PART   III. 

THE  MEMBERS. 


General  Considerations.— The  members,  limbs,  or  legs  are 
the  supports  and  the  natural  motors  of  the  trunk.  They  represent 
four  articulated  columns,  segmented,  piece  by  piece,  situated  upon  the 
lateral  faces  of  the  body,  in  front  and  behind  the  centre  of  gravity,, 
and  distinguished,  for  this  reason,  as  anterior  and  posterior. 

The  segments  which  compose  them  diminish  in  volume,  in  periph- 

i  Cl.  Bourgelat,  Exterieur  du  cheval,  5e  <§d.,  p.  162.    (Note  of  J.  B.  Huzard.) 


THE    MEMBERS. 


187 


eral  surface,  and,  in  general,  in  inclination  from  above  to  below,  but 
at  the  same  time  they  augment  gradually  in  number,  compactness,  and 
resistance.  Surrounded  in  their  superior  sections  by  voluminous  and 
powerful  muscles,  they  are,  as  it  were,  reduced  inferiorly  almost  to 
skin  and  bone.  These  are  fortunate  dispositions,  whose  eifect  is  to 
disseminate  and  attenuate  the  combined  actions  of  the  weight  and  the 
velocity,  and  to  furnish  an  adequate  surface  for  the  attachments  t)f  the 
muscles,  all  preserving  to  the  centre  of  gravity  all  the  elevation  com- 
patible with  the  extent  of  its  displacements,  and  conferring  upon  the 
trunk  gracefulness,  harmony,  and  elegance  of  support.  If  the  members 
were  covered  with  muscles  throughout  their  entire  length,  their  weight 
would  be  excessive,  and  the  step  heavy  and  slow  on  account  of  the  volume 
of  the  extremities  and  the  consequent  lowering  of  the  centre  of  gravity. 

During  locomotion  these  motor  columns  are  alternately  elevated 
from  the  ground  ;  they  receive  the  body- weight  which  falls  on  them, 
and  impress  it  with  the  needed  impulsive  force,  and  are  then  lifted, 
projected  in  advance,  and  again  touch  the  ground. 

Function. — The  function  of  the  anterior  limbs  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  posterior. 

The  Anterior  members,  situated  in  advance  of  and  close  to  the 
centre  of  gravity,  and  bearing  consequently  more  weight  than  the 
others,  have  a  secondary  office,  being  principally  endowed  with  the 


FIG.  50.— From  an  instantaneous  photograph  of  the  author's. 

function  of  support  and  dispersion  of  concussion.  Their  propulsive 
action  is  not  very  marked,  excepting  at  a  slow  pace  and  when  the  animal 
moves  a  heavy  load.  Under  these  circumstances  (Fig.  50)  the  body. 


188  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

strongly  inclined  forward,  gives  the  fore-legs  an  oblique  direction 
backward,  which  permits  them  to  push  against  the  collar,  to  which  the 
shoulders  are  energetically  applied.  It  is  by  the  extension  of  all  their 
articular  angles,  previously  semi-flexed,  that  the  fore-legs  accomplish 
this  result.  When  they  are  directed  obliquely  and  in  an  inverse  direc- 
tion, as  is  seen  sometimes  at  the  beginning  of  the  effort  of  traction,  the 
force  which  they  exercise  upon  the  trunk,  and  therefore  against  the 
collar,  is  at  its  minimum.  Traction  forward  can  be  favorably  executed 
only  when  the  foot,  directed  backward,  is  fixed  against  the  roughnesses 
of  the  ground.  This  is  observed  in  the  draught-horse  as  he  moves  his 
load ;  when  the  soil,  the  point  of  support,  gives  way,  the  feet  suddenly 
glide  backward. 

Aside  from  these  functions,  the  anterior  member  is,  as  all  admit, 
nothing  more  than  a  column  of  support  and  an  apparatus  of  dispersion 
and  compensation.  From  its  mode  of  attachment  to  the  trunk  and  the 
disposition  of  the  segments  composing  it,  the  fore-leg  is  adapted  in  a 
remarkable  manner  to  this  double  function.  Fixed  to  the  side  of  the 
thorax  by  means  of  muscles  and  aponeuroses,  it  has  all  the  articular 
angles  quite  open,  except  that  one  of  them,  the  radio-metacarpal,  is 
even  entirely  effaced.  It  opposes  to  the  body-weight  and  to  the  loco- 
motory  reactions  resistances,  more  particularly  mechanical,  whose  pas- 
siveness  eases  the  muscular  strain.  The  bones,  the  ligaments,  and  the 
tendons,  more  than  their  muscular  portions,  resist  the  pressure  and  con- 
cussion of  locomotion. 

The  posterior  members  are  widely  different  in  construction  and 
function.  Much  less  of  a  support  to  the  trunk,  and  well  situated  in 
relation  to  the  centre  of  gravity,  they  are  articulated  solidly  with  the 
coxae  without  endangering  their  integrity.  By  the  inclination  of  their 
different  segments,  they  push  against  the  trunk  at  a  given  moment 
when  the  former  are  straightened,  one  piece  upon  the  other ;  thus  the 
angles  are  obliterated,  and  the  hind-legs  communicate  to  the  body  the 
needed  force  or  velocity.  The  muscles,  being  obliged  to  contract  in 
order  to  oppose  the  tendency  towards  closing  of  the  angles  of  locomo- 
tion, are  more  voluminous  and  numerous  than  those  of  the  fore-leg ; 
they  are  therefore  able  to  sustain  without  fatigue  the  part  of  the  body- 
weight  which  the  osseous  framework  intrusts  to  them. 

They  are  therefore,  first  of  all,  the  agents  of  propulsion.  They 
act  with  the  greatest  efficacy  and  power  against  the  trunk,  to  which 
they  are  attached,  at  the  moment  when  their  line  of  direction  (a  line 
which  unites  the  superior  centre  of  movement  to  the  foot)  points  ob- 
liquely downward  and  backward.  Inclined  in  an  inverse  direction 


THE    MEMBERS.  189 

during  the  beginning  of  the  effort  of  traction,  they  can  only  support 
that  portion  of  the  body  and  take  a  position  to  prepare  themselves  for 
the  effort  which  they  are  to  execute  the  following  instant.     Besides, 
this  phase  is  of  a  very  short 
duration,  and  the  backward 
obliquity  soon  manifests  it- 
self.    The  latter  exists  al- 
ready at  the  end  of  a  certain 
period  when    the   canon   is 
still  inclined  forward.     The 
phase  cannot  be  expected  in 
the    draught-horse,    as    we 
shall  clearly  see  if  we  reflect 
upon  the  fact  that  the  body 
of  the   animal    is   continu- 
ally inclined  forward  during  FIG.  51. 
the  efforts  of  traction.     In- 
stantaneous photographs  place  this  matter  beyond  a  doubt  (Fig.  51).1 

Mechanism  of  Impulsion. — Whichever  of  the  members  we 
examine,  the  impulsive  force  which  they  develop  at  a  certain  period 
in  their  acting  as  a  support  results  invariably  from  a  more  or  less  forci- 
ble extension  of  the  bony  segments  at  the  moment  when  the  members 
are  supported  against  the  trunk  or  the  collar.  It  is  an  interesting  and 
important  fact  that  we  can  prove  scientifically  that  this  process  of  exten- 
sion is  the  conjoint  function  of  most  of  the  muscles  belonging  to  the 
limb  which  originates  the  impulse.  Many  of  the  flexors  are  capable  of 
contributing  to  this  end,  either  because  they  cross  over  several  articular 
angles  and  attach  to  the  convex  side  of  one  of  them,2  or  because  they 
originate  from  the  trunk  and  concur  to  straighten  the  inclined  levers  upon 
which  they  terminate.3  As  to  the  abductors  and  adductors,  they  can, 
by  acting  simultaneously,  perform  the  role  of  extensors.  The  other  mus- 
cles maintain  the  osseous  levers  in  their  proper  plane  as  compared  with 
the  median  plane  of  the  body,  and  prevent  their  outward  or  inward  dis- 
placement after  the  manner  of  the  ropes  which  fix  the  mast  of  a  ship. 


1  See,  for  further  details  and  interesting  discussions  by  modern  authors,  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau 
dictionnaire  de  me'deeine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v£t£rinaires,  tome  i.,  art.  "  Allures,"  p.  360, 
Paris.  1856;  G.  Colin,  Physiologic  comparee  des  animaux,  t,  i.,  p,  448,  3e  ed.,  Paris,  1886;   G. 
Neumann,  Du  tirage  du  cheval,  in  Rec.  de  m£m.  et  observ.  sur  1'hyg.  et  la  m6d.  6t.  milit.,  ann£e 
1876;  ibid.,  Sur  les  elements  de  rimpulsion,  in  Revue  v6te>inaire,  annee  1886,  p.  528;  G.  Chenier, 
contribution  a  1'etude  des  actes  locomoteurs,  in  Echo  des  soc.  et  assoc  v£tfir.,  Juin,  1866. 

2  Such  are :  the  flexors  of  the  metacarpus,  of  the  phalanges,  of  the  forearm,  of  the  metatarsus, 
the  ischio  t'bial  muscle5:,  etc. 

8  Such  are :  the  psoas,  the  superficial  gluteus.  the  great  dorsal,  etc. 


190  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

We  are  therefore  convinced  that  during  propulsion  there  is  no 
antagonism  of  forces,  but  solely  the  use  of  the  pOAvers  intended  to  pro- 
duce an  elongation  of  the  members  according  to  a  definite  plan.  To 
become  convinced  of  this,  it  will  be  necessary  only  to  examine  the 
muscles  of  one's  own  leg,  semi-flexed,  just  before  it  becomes  extended 
in  order  to  straighten  the  body;  all  the  structures  are  rigid  because 
they  all  appear  to  contract  in  unison,  so  as  to  overcome  the  antagonistic 
forces. 

On  the  other  hand,  mechanical  dispositions  of  great  power  and  the 
arrangements  of  the  muscles  and  tendons  in  the  hind  limbs  of  the 
horse  associate  the  articular  angles  in  such  a  manner  that  one  of  them 
oannot  be  extended  without  producing  a  simultaneous  opening  of  the 
others.  It  follows  from  this  that  all  the  forces  which  are  exerted  at 
one  point  are  transmitted  at  the  same  time  to  the  adjoining  parts  and 
<?ause  them  to  move  successively  one  upon  the  other.  This  process  of 
force-accumulation  gives  an  explanation  to  some  of  those  spasmodic 
movements, — string-halt, — so  sudden  and  so  energetic,  of  which  the 
posterior  members  are  the  seat. 

Articular  Movements ;  Orientation  or  Relative  Position 
of  the  Angles  of  Locomotion ;  Limited  Positions  of  the 
Osseous  Segments. — The  articular  movements,  being  closely 
subordinate  to  the  extent  of  the  oscillations  of  the  segments  which 
accomplish  them,  here  offer  us  an  opportunity  for  general  considera- 
tions concerning  which  we  should  say  a  few  words. 

It  must  be  admitted,  to  begin  with,  that  amplitude  of  joint-action 
must  increase  in  a  ratio  with  the  initial  displacement  of  the  bony  levers 
as  studied  in  their  condition  of  rest  when  compared  with  the  line  of 
their  regular  axis. 

But  the  effectiveness  of  this  play  depends  upon  another  considera- 
tion of  primary  importance.  It  is  indispensable  that  the  line  of  direc- 
tion of  the  segments  of  the  member  should  hold  certain  determinate 
relations  with  the  vertical  line  passing  through  their  centre  of  move- 
ment. In  other  words,  it  suffices  not  that  the  articular  angle  which 
they  form  be  well  opened,  but  it  is  also  necessary  that  the  angle  be 
well  located  for  progression.  This  condition  is  realized  whenever  the 
angular  displacement  of  the  branches  of  an  angle  of  locomotion  tends 
to  separate  the  two  extremities  of  the  member  to  which  it  belongs,  fol- 
lowing a  very  oblique  line  rather  than  the  vertical  or  some  analogous 
direction.  When  such  a  relation  does  not  exist,  the  locomotory 
columns  passing  over  too  little  surface  at  each  step,  are  not  properly 
extended  in  a  forward  movement,  but  are  merely  elevated,  and  the 


.    THE    MEMBERS.  191 

impulse  transmitted  to  the  trunk  is  no  longer  a  trajectory  approxi- 
mating the  horizontal,  but  becomes  a  short  curve. 

The  inclination  of  the  osseous  segments  should  therefore  supply 
this  double  purpose :    it  should  aug- 
ment the  effectiveness  of  the  articular 
play  without  diminishing  its  extent. 

Each  of  the  locomotory  segments, 
when  viewed  alone,  presents  for  study 
(Fig.  52)  a  limit  of  extension,  A,  and 
a  limit  of  flexion,  B ;  in  a  word,  the 
line  or  space  of  oscillation,  AB,  mark- 
ing the  limit  of  opening  and  of  closing 
the  angle,  beyond  which  it  cannot  ex- 
tend, by  reason  of  the  resistance 
offered  by  the  articular  surfaces  and 
the  tension  of  the  ligaments.  FlG>  52. 

Anatomy,  through  the  researches 

of  Vincent  and  Goiffon1  upon  the  cadaver,  has  determined  the  extent 
of  this  space,  AB,  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner ;  but  it  becomes  a 
difficult  problem  when  it  is  a  question  of  the  precise  location  of  the 
angle  A  OB  in  relation  with  the  vertical  line  OX,  or,  what  amounts  to 
the  same  thing,  to  fix  the  limited  positions  A  and  B,— points  which 
indicate  the  limit  of  the  oscillation  of  OC  in  the  living  animal. 

It  is  in  this  direction  that  investigations  should  now  be  pursued. 
It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  if  we  could  recognize  the  exact  position  of 
these  limits  in  horses  of  speed,  it  would  become  easy  to  determine  the 
most  desirable  inclination  of  the  bony  levers.  Evidently  this  inclina- 
tion should  assume  the  direction  OC,  bisecting  the  angle  AOB.  In 
this  case  alone  the  space  of  oscillation  will  reach  its  greatest  possible 
limits  •  for  the  extremity  C,  being  equivalent  from  A  and  B,  admits 
of  equal  flexion  and  extension,  the  greatest  of  each  that  is  possible. 
All  other  inclinations  diminish  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  movements. 

We  have  presented  the  only  accessible  observations  that  have  been 
made  on  this  subject,  excepting  only  the  incomparably  accurate  re- 
searches which  MM.  Marey  and  Pages2  have  undertaken  with  the  aid 
of  instantaneous  photographs  of  horses  in  locomotion. 


1  Vincent  et  Goiffon,  Memoire  artificielle  des  principes  relatifs  a  la  fidele  representation  des 
animaux,  t.  ii.,  Paris,  1779. 

2  Pages,  Analyse  cinthnatique  de  la  locomotion  du  cheval,  in  Comptes-Rendus  de  1'Acade- 
mie  des  sciences,  1885,  p.  702 ;  Marey  et  Pages,  Analyse  cinematique  des  allures  du  cheval,  in 
Comptes-Rendus,  1886 ;  ibid.,  Mouvements  du  membre  pelvien  chez  1'homme,  1'elephant  et  le 
cheval,  in  Comptes-Rendus,  1887. 


192  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE, 

Unfortunately,  these  experiments  have  only  determined  the  limited 
positions  in  the  walk,  the  trot,  and  the  slow  gallop,  and  leave  us  still 
ignorant  of  what  these  positions  are  in  extreme  speed.  Nevertheless, 
from  the  facts  already  acquired,  an  important  proposition  can  be 
deduced  :  that  the  limit  of  extension  of  the  locomotory  segments  occupies, 
in  horses  of  speedy  a  point.  A,  quite  close  to  a  vertical  line  passing  through 
their  centre  of  movement. 

According  to  the  angles  considered,  this  point  is  situated  either  in 
advance  of  the  vertical  line  mentioned  (angles  with  the  sine  posterior), 
or  behind  it  (angles  with  the  sine  anterior).  But  it  is  apparent  that  the 
farther  the  limit  of  extension  passes  beyond  the  vertical  line  of  the 
centre  of  movement  the  more  will  the  angle  of  these  segments,  when 
it  is  opened,  be  favorable  to  the  augmentation  of  the  obliquity  of  the 
member,  and  consequently  the  more  will  it  tend  to  increase  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  step  or  the  extent  of  the  movement. 

It  would  follow  from  this  that  the  most  favorable  inclination  of  an 
osseous  lever  is  that  which  removes  it  the  least  from  the  vertical  line 
OX  during  flexion,  and  consequently  that  which  tends  to  approach  it 
to  this  same  line  while  the  animal  is  standing  still.  In  this  case  the 
direction  of  the  segment  will  be  more  closely  related  to  the  bisecting 
line  0(7,  which  is  associated,  as  we  have  seen,  with  the  largest  space 
of  oscillation. 

In  the  preceding  statements  we  have  viewed  an  isolated  locomotory 
segment,  as  it  is  moved  freely  under  the  horizontal  line  MN,  without 
the  intervention  of  foreign  influences.  This  has  permitted  us  to  indi- 
cate to  the  best  advantage  the  direction  of  the  segment  associated  with 
a  large  and  effective  oscillation. 

In  natural  conditions,  however,  this  arrangement  is  not  so  simple, 
since  the  locomotory  angles  are  formed  by  bones  which  are  articulated  in 
twos  or  in  threes.  It  is  therefore  in  place  to  inquire  whether,  under  these 
circumstances,  the  extreme  limits  A  and  B  remain  always  the  same  with 
relation  to  the  vertical  line  OX  through  the  centre  movement. 

It  is  easy  to  assure  ourselves  of  the  contrary.  These  positions  de- 
pend upon  the  inclination  of  the  segment  with  which  the  one  under  con- 
sideration is  articulated.  The  maximum  value  of  the  articular  angle 
may  be  similar,  and,  for  the  sake  of  the  argument,  we  may  say  equal ; 
but  the  orientation  of  this  angle  being  different,  the  extreme  positions 
A  and  B  are  displaced  either  forward  or  backward  of  the  vertical  line, 
according  to  the  obliquity  of  the  adjacent  segment.  This  will  neces- 
sarily result  in  differences  in  the  utilization  of  the  articular  movements 
in  forward  locomotion. 


THE    MEMBERS. 


193 


FIG.  53. 


Let  us  suppose  the  two  segments  OC  and  OC/  to  have  different  obliquities 
when  compared  with  the  vertical  line  OX  (Fig.  53). 

Let,  on  the  other  hand,  COB'  be  the  maximum  extension  of  the  angle  COB. 

The  angles,  in  extension,  being 
equal,  for  anatomical  reasons,  to  the 
segment  OC',  the  limit  of  extension 
of  OB  will  be  B".  A  simple  in- 
spection, however,  shows  that  OB", 
being  less  inclined  upon  OX  than 
OB',  will  also  be  less  favorably  di- 
rected than  OB'  in  relation  with  the 
vertical  line  OX.  Therefore,  the 
orientation  01),  bisecting  the  angle 
COB,  is  more  favorable  than  the 
orientation  OD'  bisecting  the  angle 
C'OB. 

It  can  only  be  alleged  that  the 
angle  C'OB,  since  it  is  more  open 
while  the  horse  is  standing  still, 
should  be  the  same  in  action,  but  if 
it  were  thus  the  conditions  would  no 
more  be  equal,  and  consequently  no 
more  comparable.  The  condition  of 

the  maximum  opening  of  the  angle  C'OB  changing,  it  can  be  assumed  that  in 
the  same  manner  the  angle  COB  is  caused  to  vary.  Moreover,  anatomy  teaches 
that  there  exists  for  these  two  angles  a  maximum  separation,  practically  the 
same,  but  dependent  upon  the  disposition  of  the  articular  surfaces  and  the  liga- 
ments limiting  their  displacement.  The  sole  difference  which  distinguishes  them 
is  that  in  repose  their  branches  are  unequally  inclined. 

Mode  of  Evolution  of  the  Members  during  Progression. 
— The  mode  of  evolution  or  oscillation  of  the  members  during  progression 
involves  quite  a  complex  analysis,  but  we  must  be  able  to  explain  its 
general  features  in  order  to  understand  some  subsequent  phenomena. 

Let  us  examine  this  oscillation  in  the  walk,  a  mode  of  progress  in 
which  the  body  is  never  entirely  disconnected  from  the  ground. 

The  foot,  now  elevated  from  the  ground  and  now  in  contact  with 
it,  passes  through  two  principal  phases  :  one  of  elevation,1  during 
which  it  is  in  the  air,  and  one  of  contact,  during  which  it  supports 
a  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  During  this  evolution,  the  line 
of  direction  of  the  member  appears  to  oscillate  alternately  around 
two  points  situated  at  its  superior  and  its  inferior  extremities ;  the  foot, 
the  inferior  extremity,  is  the  point  of  the  phase  of  contact ;  the  supe- 
rior, the  centre  of  movement  of  the  shoulder  or  the  croup,  is  that  of 


1  The  reader  must  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  meaning  of  the  terms  elevation  and  contact, 
because  they  are  frequently  employed  in  the  following  chapters. 

13 


194  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  phase  of  elevation.  When  the  first  is  stationary  on  the  ground, 
the  second,  or  superior  point,  describes  an  arc  of  a  circle  and  is 
carried  forward  by  the  force  of  impulsion,  and  vice  versa. 

At  the  moment  when  the  foot,  D  (Fig.  54),  is  ready  to  leave  the 
ground,  the  line  of  direction,  H'D,  is  inclined  downward  and  back- 


FIG.  54.— Schemes  of  the  evolution  of  two  congeneric  members  during  the  phases  of  contact  and 

of  elevation. 

ward.  It  is  then  advanced,  describing  an  arc  of  a  circle,  and  when  it 
reaches  the  point  D' ',  where  it  again  touches  its  support,  the  line  of 
direction,  H"D,  is  reversed. 

In  the  same  half  of  the  body  (anterior  or  posterior)  the  phase, 
DDf,  of  elevation  of  one  member  coincides  always  exactly  with  the 
phase  of  contact,  UHJ"  of  the  other.  The  successive  positions  of  one 
member,  whatever  they  be,  are  therefore  directly  the  reverse  of  those 
of  its  congener.  As  to  the  relative  velocities  of  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  body  and  of  the  feet,  they  are  different,  but  always 
in  simple  relation.  The  foot,  in  the  same  space  of  time,  passes  over 
a  distance,  DD',  double  that  of  the  centre  movement  H'H".  Its 
velocity  is  therefore  twice  as  great. 

Many  years  ago  Captain  Raabe1  and  M.  Colin  schematically  rep- 
resented the  oscillations  of  the  extremities  in  the  following  manner : 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  examine  the  evolution  of  the  posterior  pair  of  limbs. 

The  centre  of  the  croup,  If,  during  the  phase  of  contact,  describes  a  uniform 
movement  in  advance  which  carries  it  from  H  to  H',  it  being  supported  by  the 
right  posterior  limb,  D.  At  this  instant  H',  the  right  leg,  is  elevated,  H'D,  and 

1  Raabe,  Examen  du  Trait6  de  1'exterieur  du  cheval,  de  Lecoq,  et  de  la  Physiologic,  comparee, 
de  M.  Colin,  Paris,  1857.  See,  besides,  the  plates  in  the  Traite  de  Physiologic,  de  M.  Colin,  t.  i. 
p.  445,  3e  ed.,  Paris,  1886. 


THE    MEMBERS.  195 

the  posterior  left,  G,  on  the  contrary,  goes  to  rest  on  the  ground,  H'G,  at  a  distance, 
DG,  equal  to  a  half-step. 

While  the  latter,  G,  passes  through  its  phase  of  contact,  the  centre  of  the 
croup  passes  through  the  space  from  H'  to  H"  and  describes  the  arc  H'H"  equal 
to  that  described  by  the  right,  because,  in  the  normal  gait,  the  steps  are  equal. 

Arrived  at  If",  the  left  member,  G,  becomes  elevated,  H"G ;  the  right,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  now  placed  on  the  ground,  H"D',  to  renew  its  phase  of  contact 
at  a  distance,  GD/,  equal  again  to  a  half-step. 

During  its  progression,  the  right  foot,  therefore,  proceeds  from  its  initial  po- 
sition D  to  attain  its  final  position  D/.  It  consequently  passes  through  the  arc 
Diy,  while  the  centre  of  the  croup  only  passes  over  the  space  H'H",  which  is 
exactly  one-half  of  the  distance  DD' '. 

H'H"  is  parallel  to  DD',  for  the  isosceles  triangles  GH'D  and  GH"D'  are 
equal,  since  GD  and  GD'  are  equal.  Again,  the  analogous  angles  GDH'  and 
D'GH"  being  equal,  the  lines  DH'  and  GH"  are  parallel. 

Therefore,  H'H"  =  DG  =  ^-> 

When  one  of  the  members  has  passed  successively  through  the  two 
phases  of  contact  and  of  elevation,  the  body  effects  what  is  called  a 
complete  step,  the  two  pairs  of  members  (anterior  and  posterior)  being 
jointly  concerned.  During  this  evolution  it  can  be  seen  that  the  centre 
of  movement,  H,  and  consequently  the  centre  of  gravity,  has  progressed 
from  Hto  H",  or,  what  is  equivalent,  through  a  space  which  is  equal  to 
the  line  DD',  equal  to  the  distance  passed  over  by  one  of  the  feet,  a 
distance  completed  in  two  attitudes,  HD,  H"D',  identical  and  successive. 

It  follows  from  these  statements  that  the  length  of  the  step  will  be 
measured  by  the  separation  of  DD',  comprised  between  the  successive 
imprints  left  upon  the  ground  surface  by  the  same  foot. 

But  for  an  accurate  analysis  (such  as  is  often  necessary)  the  division 
of  the  step  into  the  two  principal  phases  of  contact  and  elevation,  above 
mentioned,  is  insufficient.  It  is  necessary  to  subdivide  each  into  a  number 
of  equal  secondary  divisions  called  periods.  All  veterinary  writers, 
with  Captain  Raabe,  recognize  at  present  the  following  six  periods  (see 
Fig.  55) : 

f  1st  period,  from  0  to  1  ...  Commencement  of  the  contact. 
Phase  of  contact,    -j  2d  period,  from  1  to  2  ...  Middle  of  the  contact. 

(.  3d  period,  from  2  to  3  ...  Termination  of  the  contact. 
Phase  of  elevation  (  4th  peri°d'  fr°m  3  to  4  •  •  •  Liftin9  of  the  foot. 

or  of  extension.   ]  ^  peri°d'  fr°m  4  tO  5  '  '  '  Mddle  °f  elevation' 
V.  6th  period,  from  5  to  6  ...  Resting  of  the  foot. 

Systematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Members.— The 
general  scheme  of  the  evolution  of  the  members,  which  we  have 
given,  has  permitted  us  to  prove  a  certain  number  of  facts,  and  to 


196  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

formulate  these  into  intelligible  propositions.  As  a  whole,  the  conclu- 
sions which  have  been  deduced  are  exact ;  but  if  we  endeavor  to  make 
a  more  minute  analysis  of  these  phenomena  we  shall  find  that  they  are 
not  so  easily  worked  out. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  limb  of  a  horse  cannot  be  compared  to  a  long 
lever  which  alternates  by  turns  round  its  inferior  extremity  when  the 
latter  is  related  to  the  surface  of  support,  or  its  superior  when  it  is 
lifted.  In  other  words,  the  displacements  of  the  leg  are  not  assimilable 
to  those  of  an  oscillating  pendulum,  as  Captain  Raabe  and  his  disciples 
have  supposed.1  They  result  from  a  series  of  partial  movements  which 
influence  each  other  mutually  and  give  to  the  articular  centres  very 
complicated  trajectories.  The  recognition  of  these  secondary  actions 
offers  interest  from  a  point  of  view  of  the  particular  mechanical  role 
fulfilled  by  each  region.  It  is  necessary  to  make  some  remarks  con- 
cerning this  statement. 

MM.  Marey  and  Pages,2  in  their  recent  and  valuable  researches 
with  the  aid  of  chrono-photography  (see  Generalities  upon  the  Gaits), 
have  been  enabled  to  register  the  successive  positions  of  the  different 
bony  segments  of  locomotion  and  the  relative  duration  of  their  revo- 
lution during  the  execution  of  the  two  principal  phases  of  contact  and 
of  elevation  of  a  complete  step. 

Let  us  see  what  interpretations  can  be  given  to  the  phenomena 
indicated  by  these  original  investigations.  Take,  for  example,  the 
movements  of  the  members  in  the  ordinary  trot ;  like  MM.  Marey  and 
Pages,  we  will  choose,  among  the  numerous  positions  aifected  by  these 
apparatus,  a  certain  number  of  attitudes  well  characterized  by  the 
extension  and  flexion  of  some  segments,  or  by  important  modifications 
of  the  articular  trajectories. 

i.     Action  of  the  Anterior  Member  (Fig.  55). 

A.  Phase  of  Contact. — The  anterior  member  (which  during 
this  phase  arrives  at  a  state  of  rest  in  an  attitude  of  extension  wrhose 
degree  varies  with  the  extent  of  the  pace  and  the  nature  of  the  gait) 
should  successively  fulfil  two  very  distinct  roles,  of  which  the  purposes 
are,  first,  to  deaden  the  shock  of  concussion  against  the  soil,  and  next, 
to  extend  itself.  After  this  process  is  over,  it  again  prepares  to  elevate 
itself. 

1  These  views  have  been  demonstrated  in  a  recent  work  entitled  L'art  e"questre,  par  M. 
Barroil,  p.  21  et  suiv.,  Paris,  1887.  Chez  Rothschild. 

1  Marey  et  Pagds,  Analyse  cin«§matique  des  allures  du  cheval,  in  Comptes-Rendus  de  1'Acade- 
mie  des  sciences,  27  Septembre,  1886;  ibid.,  Mouvement  du  membre  pelvieu  chez  1'homme, 
1'elephant  et  le  cheval,  in  Comptes-Rendus,  18  Juillet,  1887. 


THE    MEMBERS. 


197 


1.  Attenuation  of  Concussion. — This  is  effected  during  the 
movement  from  0  to  2  by  the  diminution  of  the  two  extreme  angles 
(the  scapulo-humeral  and  metacarpo-phalangeal)  placed  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  rigid  radio-metacarpal  segment.  The  fetlock  is  strongly 


nip 


FIG.  55.— Action  of  the  anterior  member  in  the  trot. 
A.  Phase  of  contact.  |  S.  Phase  of  elevation. 

lowered  and  the  radio-metacarpal  segment  pivots  forward  upon  the 
pastern,  which  is  horizontal  and  immobile.  During  the  second  period, 
from  1  to  2,  the  closure  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle  is  most  marked. 

2.  Extension  of  the  Member. — Extension  takes  place  in  a 
progressive  manner  from  2  to  3  (Fig.  55).  The  line  of  direction  of  the 
member  becomes  vertical,  elongated,  and  at  the  termination  is  directed 
downward  and  backward.  The  angle  of  the  fetlock  and  that  of  the 
elbow  are  opened  :  the  first  by  the  gradual  straightening  of  the  pastern, 
which  pivots  on  the  coronet  and  becomes  vertical ;  the  second  by 
the  forward  rotation  of  the  radio-metacarpal  division,  which  pivots 
upon  the  first  phalanx.  As  to  the  angle  of  the  shoulder,  it  becomes 
slightly  augmented  by  the  forward  rotation  of  the  scapula.  It  is  now 
observed  that  during  this  period  the  member  can  fulfil  a  function  of 
impulsion,  particularly  when  the  resistance  to  progression  is  considera- 
ble, as  in  strong  traction,  for  example. 

Preparation  for  Elevation. — Elevation  is  manifested  during 
the  movement  from  3  to  4  (Fig.  55).  The  pastern  continues  to  rotate 
in  advance,  carrying  with  it  the  foot,  which  pivots  upon  its  toe.  The 
radio-metacarpal  angle  becomes  slightly  flex'ed,  while  that  of  the 
shoulder  continues  to  augment.  At  the  moment  of  elevation  nearly 
all  the  articular  angles  have  reached  their  maximum  extension. 

S.  Phase  of  Elevation. — During  this  phase  the  foot  leaves  the 


198  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

ground,  is  carried  forward,  and  finally  establishes  a  new  point  of 
contact.  Directed  obliquely  downward  and  backward  at  the  beginning, 
the  member  is  directed  in  an  inverse  sense  at  the  termination.  It 
therefore  successively  becomes  shortened,  elongated,  and  finally  assumes 
a  new  point  of  contact. 

1.  The  shortening  manifests  itself  more  particularly  during  the 
motion  from  0  to  2  (Fig.  55).     It  is  characterized  at  first  by  the  maxi- 
mum flexion  of  the  pastern  producing  a  closure  of  the  angle  of  the 
fetlock,  of  the  canon,  and  of   the  forearm,  resulting  in  a  diminution 
of  the  angle  of  the  carpus  and  of  the  elbow.     Arrived  at  the  point  2, 
the  angle  of  the  fetlock  already  begins  to  open  in  consequence  of  the 
straightening  of  the  pastern.     As  to  the  shoulder,  it  contributes,  by  its 
backward  rotation,  in  the  shortening  of  the  limb  and  in  closing  the 
scapulo-humeral  angle,  though  only  to  a  small  degree. 

The  diminution  of  the  length  of  the  member  is  therefore  progressive, 
and  passes  from  below  upward  by  a  greater  and  greater  flexion  of  the 
articular  angles. 

2.  The  elongation,  which  commences  at  2  (Fig.  55)  by  the  exten- 
sion of  the  fetlock,  is  continued  to  3  by  that  of  the  metacarpus,  by 
the  opening  of  the  angle  of  the  elbow,  and,  finally,  by  that  of  the 
shoulder.     These  phenomena  are  not  all  simultaneous.     They  are  due 
to  a  gradual  and  successive  extension  of  the  pastern,  the  canon,  and  the 
arm,  and   the  lengthening   of  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  member 
commences  before  the  shortening  of  its  superior  part  has  reached  its 
maximum. 

The  preparation  to  touch  the  surface  carries  the  anterior  mem- 
ber to  its  limit  of  extension.  The  radio-metacarpal  angle  is  effaced  ; 
those  of  the  elbow  and  the  shoulder  now  attain  their  maximum  sepa- 
ration. As  to  the  pastern,  it  extends  obliquely  downward  and  forward  ; 
the  foot  is  resting  in  the  same  axis. 

2.    Action  of  the  Posterior  Member  (Fig.  56). 

The  posterior  member,  being  an  agent  of  attenuation,  impulsion, 
and  ambulation,  offers  attitudes  analogous  to  those  of  the  anterior. 

A.  Phase  of  Contact. — Like  its  homologue,  this  member  arrives 
in  station  in  a  state  of  extension  whose  degree  varies  with  the  length 
of  the  pace  and  the  nature  of  the  gait.  During  this  phase  it  also 
deadens  the  concussion  against  the  ground  and  develops  the  force  of 
impulsion  ;  having  accomplished  these,  it  again  prepares  for  a  position 
of  station. 

1.  The  attenuation  of  the  concussion  is  effected  from  0  to  2  by 


THE    MEMBERS. 


199 


the  descent  of  the  fetlock  and  the  closing  of  the  coxo-femoral  and  the 
femoro-tibial  angles. 

These  articular  phenomena  are  due  :  to  a  sudden  horizontal  direction 
of  the  pastern,  which  pivots  upon  the  os  corona,  produces  a  lowering 


FIG.  56.— Action  of  the  posterior  member  in  the  trot. 
A.  Phase  of  contact.  |  S.  Phase  of  elevation. 

of  the  fetlock,  and  straightens  the  canon  ;  to  the  forward  rotation  of 
the  tibia  upon  the  tarsus,  which  lowers  the  femoro-tibial  articulation ; 
finally,  to  a  greater  obliquity  of  the  femur,  which  results  in  a  lowering 
of  the  coxo-femoral  angle. 

2.  The  development  of  the  impulsive  force  is  effected 
principally  from  2  to  4  (Fig.  56),  during  which  movement  the  foot  is 
on  the  ground.  In  this  space  the  line  of  direction  of  the  member 
becomes  directed  obliquely  downward  and  backward,  and  the  latter 
becomes  elongated  progressively  by  the  almost  simultaneous  opening 
of  all  its  angles.  This  takes  place  first  at  the  pastern,  which  rotates 
forward  upon  the  os  corona,  becomes  vertical,  and  opens  the  angle  of 
the  fetlock ;  the  canon  is  now  extended  and  opens  the  angle  of  the 
tarsus;  finally,  the  superior  extremity  of  the  tibia  is  directed  more 
obliquely  forward,  and  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  femur  is  carried 
backward,  thus  opening  the  angles  of  the  femoro-tibial  and  the  coxo- 
femoral  articulations. 

The  preparation  for  elevation  succeeds  the  period  of  impul- 
sion and  manifests  itself  at  4  (Fig.  56) ;  the  hoof  and  the  pastern 
pivot  in  advance  upon  the  toe,  whence  a  slight  flexion  of  the  fetlock : 
the  canon  is  now  rotated  backward  at  its  superior  extremity,  and  the 
movement  also  produces  a  feeble  closure  of  the  tibio-metatarsal  angle. 


200  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

S.  Phase  of  Elevation.— In  these  phenomena  the  foot  leaves 
the  soil,  oscillates  forward,  and  then  assumes  a  point  of  contact.  The 
line  of  direction  of  the  member  is  first  inclined  backward,  and  after- 
wards obliquely  forward.  The  posterior  column,  like  the  anterior, 
should  successively  become  shortened,  elongated,  and  prepare  itself  for 
station. 

1 .  Shortening. — This  process  presents  the  following  stages  :  a. 
Maximum  flexion  of  the  pastern  and  slight  flexion  of  the  canon  and 
the  thigh,  producing  a  marked  elevation  of  the  foot  and  a  maximum 
flexion  of  the  fetlock,  which,  however,  is  only  feeble  in  the  hock,  the 
stifle,  and  the  hip  (0  to  1).     b.  Very  marked  flexion  of  the  canon  and 
the  femur,  with  an  accentuated  closing  of  all  the  articular  angles  except 
that  of  the  fetlock,  which  commences  to  open  itself  by  the  extension 
of  the  phalanges  (1  to  2). 

2.  Elongation  of  the  Member. — The  elongation  commences  by 
the  extension  of  the  fetlock,  to  be  continued  by  that  of  the  hock  and  the 
stifle  from  the  sole  influence  of  the  extension  of  the  tibia  on  the  tarsus 
(2  to  4).     The  coxo-femoral  angle  has  now  reached  its  minimum  size. 

Before  the  foot  again  reaches  its  point  of  contact,  the  angles  of 
the  stifle,  the  hock,  and  the  fetlock  have  reached  their  limit  of  extension 
almost  entirely  under  the  influence  of  that  of  the  leg,  which  itself  has 
attained  this  limit  of  movement.  The  pastern,  which  now  tends  to 
become  horizontal  (4)  again,  thus  carries  the  hoof  far.  in  advance. 

All  these  are  conditions  of  structure  more  or  less  closely  allied  to 
the  production  of  force  or  speed,  and  these  we  shall  examine  in  the 
pages  that  follow.  We  shall  also  demonstrate  that  the  animal  motors 
can  be  submitted  with  the  greatest  accuracy  to  the  same  scientific  analy- 
ses, according  to  mechanical  principles,  as  the  inanimate  motors  which 
are  the  production  of  human  ingenuity. 


CHAPTER    I. 

ANTERIOR   MEMBER. 


THE  anterior  member  comprises  several  regions  which  we  describe 
in  the  following  order :  the  shoulder,  the  arm,  the  forearm,  the  elbow, 
the  knee,  the  canon,  the  fetlock,  the  footlock,  the  ergot,  the  pastern,  the 
coronet,  and  the  foot. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  201 

A.— The  Shoulder. 

Several  authors  have  intentionally  united  the  description  of  the 
shoulder  with  that  of  the  arm,  because  of  the  fact  that,  in  relation 
with  the  exterior,  there  exists  between  them  no  definite  line  of  separa- 
tion, and  that,  in  relation  with  their  functions,  they  are  intimately 
united.  There  is,  nevertheless,  no  more  reason  for  con  founding  these 
regions  than  there  is  for  uniting  the  croup  with  the  thigh,  the  back 
with  the  loins,  or  the  neck  with  the  head.  We  shall  therefore  study 
them  separately. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — Situated  between 
the  neck  and  the  sides  of  the  thorax,  the  withers  and  the  arm,  the 
shoulder  occupies,  without  any  precise  demarcation,  the  lateral  and 
anterior  region  of  the  chest. 

The  scapula  is  flat  and  triangular,  and  is  provided  with  a  strong  spine  on  its 
external  surface  and  a  wide  cartilage  of  prolongation  at  its  superior  border.  It 
thus  forms  the  osseous  base  of  the  shoulder,  and  gives  attachment  to  two  kinds 
of  muscles,  which,  with  respect  to  the  anterior  member,  can  be  distinguished  as 
extrinsic  and  intrinsic.  Besides,  this  bone  participates  by  its  inferior  extremity 
in  the  formation  of  an  articulation  very  mobile  and  at  the  centre  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  arm. 

The  extrinsic  muscles  originate  from  the  vertebrae,  the  ribs,  and  the  sternum. 
Viewed  only  as  to  their  action  upon  the  shoulder,  their  function  is  to  fix  the 
latter  to  the  trunk  and  regulate  its  displacements. 

The  intrinsic  muscles  embrace  and  sustain  the  scapulo-humeral  arthrodia, 
and  act  exclusively  upon  the  arm,  except  three  which  extend  to  the  forearm 
(the  long  and  short  flexors  and  the  great  extensor  of  the  forearm).  These 
intrinsic  muscles  determine  most  of  the  movements  of  the  humerus,  and  carry 
this  bone  into  extension,  flexion,  abduction,  and  adduction.  They  also  oppose 
the  closing  of  the  articular  angle  during  station,  and  maintain  in  proper  relation 
the  two  bones  which  form  it. 

Form. — It  is  difficult  to  assign  a  geometrical  form  to  the  shoulder 
on  account  of  its  intimate  connections  with  the  thorax,  the  neck,  the 
withers,  and  the  arm.  In  lean  subjects,  the  most  salient  parts  of  its 
conformation  are  very  markedly  delineated  underneath  the  skin  :  in 
front,  its  anterior  border  projects  from  the  base  of  the  neck ;  above,  its 
cartilage  is  indicated  by  a  curve  parallel  with  the  superior  line  of  the 
withers ;  on  its  external  face  a  longitudinal  crest,  formed  by  the  acro- 
mion  spine,  extends  from  above  to  below ;  behind,  a  less  marked 
furrow  separates  it  from  the  thorax  ;  in  front  and  below,  a  round, 
voluminous  eminence,  improperly  called  the  point  of  the  shoulder,1 


1  It  is  formed,  in  fact,  by  the  superior  extremity  of  the  humerus,  and  merits  much  more 
appropriately  the  name  point  of  the  arm,  under  which  Bourgelat  described  it. 


202  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

forms  the  summit  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle  and  indicates  externally 
the  origin  of  the  region  of  the  arm ;  finally,  immediately  behind  this 
angle,  and  upon  the  external  surface  of  the  great  extensor  of  the  fore- 
arm, is  found  what  is  termed  the  blemish  of  the  shoulder.  An  ordinance 
of  sanitary  police,  of  the  31st  of  August,  1842,  prescribed  that  all 
horses  suspected  of  suffering  from  contagious  diseases  should  be  marked 
in  this  region  by  a  square  brand. 

In  fat  and  well-muscled  horses  these  prominences  of  the  shoulder 
are  almost  completely  effaced ;  the  external  face,  the  anterior  border, 
and  the  articulation  become  rounded  and  insensibly  confounded  with 
the  adjoining  regions ;  the  form  of  the  shoulder  must  be  surmised 
rather  than  perceived,  unless  it  is  revealed  while  the  animal  is  exer- 
cised at  a  more  or  less  rapid  gait,  in  which  event  its  movements  will 
inform  us  as  to  its  general  form,  its  dimensions,  and  its  direction. 

Movements. — When,  during  the  walk,  the  anterior  member 
leaves  its  point  of  contact  with  the  ground,  it  becomes  shortened, 
directed  forward,  and  all  the  articular  angles  close  themselves  by  the 
flexion  of  the  segments  which  form  them,  and  the  foot  is  elevated  a 
certain  distance  above  the  soil.  But  if  the  shortening  were  manifested 
only  in  a  vertical  direction,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  foot 
would  arrive  at  precisely  the  same  point  which  it  previously  occupied 
without,  of  course,  communicating  any  propulsion  to  the  trunk. 

In  order  to  give  amplitude  *  to  the  step,  it  is  indispensable  there- 
fore that  the  bones  be  carried  forward,  and  that  the  displacements 
begin  at  the  superior  extremity  of  the  limb  (the  scapula)  and  terminate 
with  the  foot,  one  piece  being  moved  upon  the  other. 

The  shoulder  is  the  region  whence  proceed  the  initial  movements 
when  the  member  is  advanced. 

In  this  phenomenon  the  shoulder  is  slightly  elevated  by  means  of 
the  surrounding  muscles ;  its  humeral  angle  rotates  forward  while  its 
superior  border  is  carried  downward  and  backward,  and  the  extent  of 
this  movement  is  directly  proportional  to  the  length  of  the  muscles 
which  produce  it. 

The  elevation  of  the  humeral  angle  is  effected  principally,  through  its  con- 
nection with  the  humerus,  by  the  strong  mastoido-humeralis  muscle  which  ex- 
pands over  the  anterior  surface  of  the  articulation.  It  is  aided  in  this  action  by 

1  We  designate  under  this  name  the  linear  displacement  of  the  inferior  extremity  of  the 
member  in  advance  of  its  vertical  axis,  the  result  of  the  successive  movements  of  the  angles  and 
bones  which  compose  it.  This  displacement  is  equal  to  one-half  of  the  oscillation  of  the  motor 
column,  which  is,  metaphorically  speaking,  not  unlike  a  body  swinging  to  and  fro  in  the  man- 
ner of  an  articulated  pendulum,  but  with  this  difference,  that  here  the  muscular  contraction 
replaces  the  weight  which  alone  causes  the  latter  to  oscillate. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER**  203 

the  sterno-humeralis,  directed  obliquely  outward,  downward,  and  backward; 
finally  must  be  added  the  serratus  magnus,  which  draws  the  dorsal  angle  of  the 
scapula  downward  and  backward,  as  well  as  the  dorsal  trapezius. 

As  soon  as  the  member  has  completed  its  extension  the  elevation  of  its  supe- 
rior border,  and  consequently  the  lowering  of  the  articular  angle,  is  effected  by 
the  trapezius,  the  rhomboideus  (the  proper  elevator),  and  the  angularis  on  the 
one  part,  and  the  sterno-trochineus  and  the  sterno-prescapularis  on  the  other,  and 
the  member  is  again  brought  into  its  primitive  position.  These  two  movements, 
intimately  associated,  are  executed  actively  by  the  muscles  above  named,  and 
passively  by  the  weight  of  the  body. 

The  scapular  play,  it  is  needless  to  say,  should  be  as  easy,  supple, 
and  extensive  as  possible.  Nevertheless,  there  are  some  horses  whose 
shoulders,  though  regularly  constructed,  are  unable  to  rotate  with 
sufficient  freedom,  and  this  limitation  markedly  restricts  the  move- 
ments of  the  member.  Such  a  shoulder  is  vulgarly  called  pegged. 
(See  Defects  of  the  Gaits.) 

Length. — The  most  important  phenomenon  in  the  construction 
of  the  shoulder  is  its  length,  or,  in  other  words,  its  development 
from  the  summit  of  the  withers  to  its  point. 

Two  factors  enter  into  the  production  of  this  dimension :  the 
height  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  first  dorsal  vertebra  above  the 
scapular  cartilage,  and  the  length  of  the  shoulder  properly  so  called. 
But  as  the  variations  of  one  of  the  elements  of  this  region  are  not 
always  correlative  with  those  of  the  other,  it  follows  that  the  real 
length  of  the  shoulder  is  not  strictly  given  by  the  distance  from  the 
summit  of  the  withers  to  the  point  of  the  arm.  This  restriction  being 
established,  let  us  view  the  assigned  limits  of  this  length  and  the 
advantages  which  follow  its  marked  development. 

Bourgelat  was  the  first  one  to  mention  that  the  distance  comprised 
between  the  summit  of  the  head  and  the  commissure  of  the  lips 
equals  almost  exactly  the  measurement  of  the  shoulder  from  the 
withers  to  the  insertion  of  the  neck  on  the  breast.1  This  is  an  observa- 
tion which  is  quite  accurate,  as  has  been  testified  by  some  of  the  very 
best  authorities  on  such  subjects,  notwithstanding  the  active  opposition 
which  it  has  received  from  the  generality  of  hippotomists.  Those  who, 
like  ourselves,  have  taken  the  pains  to  verify  by  numerous  measure- 
ments the  exactness  of  this  fact,  Colonel  Duhousset  among  them, 
have  somewhat  modified  it  by  saying  that  the  entire  length  of  the 
head  equals  the  distance  from  the  summit  of  the  withers  to  the  point 
of  the"  shoulder.  It  is  thus,  at  least,  in  the  more  beautiful  and  perfect 


*  C.  Bourgelat,  loe.  cit.,  p.  204. 


204 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


horses,  whatever  may  be  the  service  to  which  their  conformation 
adapts  them.  The  exceptions  are  much  less  numerous  than  is  gen- 
erally believed.  Nevertheless,  such  variations,  although  not  very 

marked,  do  exist,  and  the  expe- 
rienced eye  will  recognize  a 
shoulder  that  is  long  or  one 
that  is  short  (Fig.  57). 

The  length  of  the  shoulder, 
in  order  to  appreciate  it  accu- 
rately, should  be  viewed :  (1) 
in  the  absolute;  (2)  in  relation 
to  the  arm. 

1.  Absolute  Length  of 
the  Shoulder. — It  is  neces- 
sary, for  various  reasons,  that 
the  shoulder  should  be  as  long 
as  possible. 

First,  its  length  necessi- 
tates a  correlative  development 
of  the  intrinsic  muscles,  the  ex- 
tent of  whose  contraction  is 
directly  proportional  to  the 
movements  effected  by  the  hu- 
merus. 

Secondly,  the  degree  of  am- 
plitude of  the  rotation  of  the 
scapula  in  relation  with  the 
movements  of  the  member  as 
a  whole,  and  the  arc  described 
by  each  extremity  of  this  bone 
and  taking  place  around  a  defi- 
nite centre,  are  more  extensive 
as  the  length  of  this  region  in- 
creases. The  value  of  high 


FIG.  57. 


withers  lies  in  the  length  of  its 

muscles,  for  long  shoulder-muscles  correspondingly  augment  this  scapu- 
lar movement. 

Thirdly,  besides  being  in  relation  with  the  vertical  diameter  of  the 
chest,  an  ample  length  of  the  muscles  has  a  disposition  to  render  the 
shoulder  more  oblique, — another  beauty  whose  value  in  horses  pos- 
sessed of  speed  we  will  presently  explain.  A  long  shoulder,  as  it  is 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  205 

applied  vertically  or  obliquely  upon  the  sides  of  the  thorax,  has  a 
tendency  of  itself  to  elevate  or  to  lower  the  centre  of  gravity  by 
augmenting  or  by  diminishing  the  total  length  of  the  member  in  this 
proportion,  at  those  times  when  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  body  is 
'being  displaced.  The  centre  of  gravity,  however,  in  order  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  equilibrium  and  of  speed,  should  have  a 
favorable  position  and  not  be  too  elevated.  Furthermore,  a  shoulder 
can  profit  by  its  length  only  when  it  is  correspondingly  inclined ; 
otherwise,  the  reactions  will  be  hard  and  the  animal  without  action  in 
consequence  of  the  defective  orientation  of  the  superior  angles  of  the 
member. 

There  is  an  idea,  very  generally  prevalent,  that,  in  the  draught- 
horse,  marked  length  of  the  shoulder  constitutes  a  defect  rather  than 
an  advantage.  This  is  an  error  which  the  partisans  of  such  a  theory 
could  very  easily  demonstrate  by  making  some  practical  measurements 
upon  the  very  best  specimens  of  draught-horses.  In  them,  also,  the 
head  is  the  measurement  of  the  shoulder.  The  great  length  of  this 
region  is  in  all  cases,  in  our  opinion,  the  first  and  most  important  ele- 
ment of  its  beauty  and  perfection.  There  are,  without  doubt,  draught- 
horses  with  short  shoulders  capable,  nevertheless,  of  very  effective 
service,  and  the  disadvantages  of  this  defect  in  them  do  not  have  the 
same  importance  which  they  would  have  in  the  race-horse.  In  the 
draught-horse,  amplitude  of  the  movements  is  secondary ;  the  essen- 
tial qualities  reside  in  the  resistance  which  can  be  overcome  by  the 
power  of  his  muscles  and  the  proper  incidence  of  their  insertions. 
To  say  that  the  length  of  the  scapula  and  its  muscles,  in  these  slow- 
moving  animals,  is  defective  and  incompatible  with  the  power  of  the 
muscles,  is  to  advance  a  principle  which  is  entirely  incorrect  and  with- 
out proof. 

2.  Length  of  the  Shoulder  in  Relation  with  the  Arm. — 
On  general  principles  the  shoulder  and  the  arm  should  be  long  abso- 
lutely, in  order  to  be  favorable  to  velocity ;  but,  with  the  same  total 
length  of  these  two  segments,  it  is  necessary  that  the  former  be  long 
and  the  latter  short.  This  becomes  apparent  from  the  following  dem- 
onstration : 

Let  us  represent  (Fig.  58)  the  two  shoulders,  AB,  AB/,  and  the  two  arms, 
CD,  CD',  having  the  same  reciprocal  inclination  and  giving  the  same  total  sum, 
AB+  CD  being  equal  to  AB'+  C'D'  by  hypothesis. 

AC  1 

From  our  estimations,  the  relation  - —  is  equal  to  - ;  we  have  preserved  the 

AD  o 

A  C/ 

same  relation  for  - — -,  the  conditions  in  both  cases  being  therefore  comparable. 
AD 


206 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Let  us  suppose  now  that  the  extensors  of  CD  and  those  of  C'D'  are 
shortened  through  the  same  space  (  CE  =  C'F\  a  phenomenon  which,  however,  in 

reality  does  not  occur,  since 
the  muscles  are  of  differ- 
ent lengths.  The  arm  CD 
will  be  carried  to  EG,  while 
C'D'  will  be  displaced  to 
FH.  Whence  it  follows 
that  the  point  D  will  reach 
a  situation  more  advanced, 
G,  in  relation  with  the 
limit  of  extension,  than  the 
point  D',  which  will  de- 
scribe the  arc  D' H always 
smaller  than  the  arc  DO 
under  the  special  proposi- 
tion with  which  we  started. 

(if  equalling^)- 

The  angular  dis- 
placement of  the  short 
arm,  CD,  is  therefore 
more  extensive  for  an 
equal  contraction  or 
shortening  of  the  mus- 
cles than  that  of  the 
long  arm,  C'D'. 

In  addition,  the  ex- 
tensors of  the  shoulder 
AB    are    longer    than 
FIG.  58.  those   of  the   shoulder 

AB'.  Consequently,  the 

muscles  of  the  latter  are  obliged  to  shorten  themselves  more  for  the 
production  of  the  displacement  DG,  which  the  extensors  of  AB  will 
effect  without  fatigue. 

Finally,  as  the  effort  of  a  muscle  varies  according  to  certain  condi- 
tions, among  others  with  the  resistance  to  be  displaced,  it  follows  that 
the  shoulder  AB  will  produce  the  extension  of  the  arm  CD  more 
easily  than  AB'  that  of  the  arm  C"D',  since  the  former  is  shorter  and 
consequently  less  heavy  than  the  latter. 

Thus  the  length  of  the  shoulder  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
arm  should  be  as  great  as  possible,  for  the  reason  that  it  effects  a 
greater  displacement  of  the^humerus  with  a  more  feeble  muscular  con- 
traction. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER. 


207 


Direction. — Another  element  in  the  beauty  of  the  shoulder  of  the 
race-horse  in  particular  resides  in  its  obliquity. 

This  direction  is  indicated  by  an  imaginary  line  which  passes  from 
the  summit  of  the  withers  through  the  centre  of  the  scapulo- 
humeral  articulation.  Observation  has  demonstrated  that  this  line 
passes  a  little  posterior  to  the  scapular  spine. 

Marked  obliquity  of  the  shoulder  has  always  been  considered  a 
beauty,  or  point  of  excellence,  in 
close  relation  with  the  production 
of  speed  ;  while  in  its  relation  with 
the  development  of  force  it  is  com- 
paratively indiiferent.  Nothing  is 
more  easy  of  comprehension. 


Let  us  represent  (Fig.  59)  OA  and 
OA/,  two  shoulders  of  unequal  obliq- 
uities, and  OS,  the  humerus  on  which 
they  operate.  Let  us  suppose,  also,  that 
A  OB'  be  the  maximum  opening  of  the 
angle  AOB. 

All  things  being  equal,  the  limit  of 
extension  of  the  humerus  on  the  shoul- 
der OA'  will  be  carried  to  B",  since, 
from  the  anatomical  union  of  the  two 
regions,  the  angle  A/  OB"  is  equal  to  the 
angle  A  OB'.  (See  Generalities  on  the  Mem- 
bers, p.  194.)  OB"  being  more  distant 
from  the  vertical  line  than  OB',  will  also  be 
relation  with  the  vertical  direction  OX. 


FIG.  59. 
favorably  directed  than  OB'  in 


The  orientation  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle  is  therefore  most 
favorable  to  progression  when  the  shoulder  is  oblique;  the  inferior 
segments  of  the  member  are  further  advanced,  and  such  a  shoulder — 
especially  if  it  be  long — will  be  capable  of  producing  a  much  more 
extensive  revolution  of  the  humerus  BBf. 

If,  instead  of  becoming  larger  from  the  straightening  of  the 
shoulder,  the  scapulo-humeral  angle  remains  the  same  (A'  OC=  AOB\ 
it  is  correct  to  assume  that,  from  an  equal  functional  shortening  of  the 
muscles,  the  humerus  O  C  will  be  carried  less  in  advance  than  the 
humerus  OB. 

Such  are  the  reasons  which  operate  in  favor  of  a  great  obliquity  in 
horses  of  speed  ;  but  this  is  not  all. 

If  we  study  the  movements  of  the  shoulder,  viewed  separately,  the 
fact  becomes  evident  that,  for  an  equal  elevation  of  its  extremity,  it  will 


208 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


be  carried  much  more  in  advance  when  it  is  inclined  than  when  it  is 
straight. 

Let  us  represent  by  AB  and  A/B/  (Fig.  60)  these  two  different  directions ;  by 
BM  and  £/M/  two  vertical  lines  drawn  from  the  superior  extremity  of  each 


FIG. 

shoulder;  finally,  by  ACandA'C',  equal  amplitudes  of  the  two  scapular  oscilla- 
tions. It  is  assumed,  by  hypothesis,  that  AM^>  A'M'.  Whence  it  follows  that 
A M  +  ACis>  A'M'  +  A/  C',  or,  in  other  words,  that  MC  is  > M'  C'. 

Therefore,  for  an  equal  arc  described  by  the  point  of  each  shoulder, 
the  more  inclined  will  carry  the  lower  or  distal  extremity  to  a  position 
the  more  anterior.  This  will  also  allow  a  greater  extension  of  the 

humerus,  and  the  forearm  will  reach  for- 
ward to  a  point  more  in  advance.  It  is 
certain,  a  priori,  that  a  straight  shoulder 
is  capable  of  a  greater  oscillation  forward, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  degree 
of  the  scapular  movements  is  the  result 
of  the  functional  shortening  of  the  ele- 
vator muscles  of  the  point  of  the  arm. 
This  shortening  alone  gives  the  measure 
of  rotation,  a  measure  which  we  know  is 
proportional  to  the  muscular  length.  We 
have  sufficiently  dwelt  on  this  particular 
point  cl  propos  to  the  neck  without  again 
making  reference  to  it  here. 

Another    advantage    of    an    oblique 

shoulder  lies  in  the  perpendicular  incidence  of  the  muscular  jnsertions 
(Fig.  61). 


FIG.  61. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  209 

The  line  AE,  which  indicates  the  direction  of  the  elevators  of  the 
shoulder  AB,  is  more  perpendicular  to  this  segment,  and  consequently 
more  powerful  than  is  its  homologue  CE,  which  is  attached  to  the 
shoulder  CD.  But  it  can  be  seen  that  the  mechanical  inconveniences 
resulting  from  the  latter  conformation  will  be  mitigated  to  a  certain 
degree  by  a  more  horizontal  direction  of  the  neck  EF.  It  is  also  ob- 
served that  horses  with  straight  shoulders,  and  which  have  to_employ 
great  force,  carry  their  necks  very  low,  so  as  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  muscles  by  giving  them  the  best  incidence,  and  to  enable  the  centre 
of  gravity  to  be  more  easily  displaced  forward. 

The  Scapulo-humeral  Angle. — The  obliquity  of  the  shoul- 
der, an  element  to  be  desired  for  velocity,  tends  to  effect  a  reduction 
of  the  dimension  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle.  This  circumstance 
would,  consequently,  restrain  the  extent  of  play  of  the  latter,  if  the 
humerus,  by  a  more  vertical  position,  did  not  preserve  a  normal  separa- 
tion of  these  two'  segments. 

Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  this  direction  of  the  humerus,  it 
never  attains  such  a  degree  as  to  give  to  this  angle  the  same  obtuseness 
which  the  other  angles  of  locomotion  have,  excepting  the  coxo-femoral. 
Normally,  in  running-  and  trotting-horses,  the  scapulo-humeral  angle 
is  much  more  acute  than  any  of  the  others.  The  consideration  of 
this  fact  alone  is,  however,  not  suffi- 
cient to  establish  our  position.  It  is 
necessary  that  the  arm  itself  have  good 
direction ;  in  a  word,  that  the  angle 
remain  well  situated  in  relation  to  the 
vertical  axis  of  the  member. 

Our  measurements  have  shown  us, 
in  fact  (Fig.  62),  the  angles  AOD  and 
AOCy  as  well  as  the  angles  BOD  and 
BOG. 

It  may  be  said  that  a  large  scapulo- 
humeral  angle  can  coexist  with  an 
oblique  shoulder,  and,  vice  versa,  a 
small  one  with  a  straight  shoulder. 

It  can  be  understood  by  this  time 
why  so  many  beautiful  or  ideally  per- 
fect shoulders  fail  to  fulfil  the  expec- 
tations which  are  based  upon  them,  and  how,  also,  the  inclination  of 
the  arm  constitutes,  to  a  certain  point,  a  compensation  for  a  straight 
shoulder.     In  the  latter  case,  the  animal  may  still  bo  capable  of  great 

14 


210  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

speed,  but  he  does  not  receive  the  benefits  which  should  result  from 
the  fixation  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle  in  advance.  Whenever  the 
anterior  member  is  advanced,  the  point  of  the  shoulder  is  not  suffi- 
ciently elevated  to  permit  the  other  segments  to  attain  their  maximum 
degree  of  movement.  As  a  natural  consequence  of  this,  the  gait  is 
deficient,  the  feet  are  but  little  elevated  from  the  ground,  the  steps  are 
short,  and  the  movements  rapid. 

The  scapulo-humeral  angle  in  horses  of  the  best  conformation  is 
not  90  degrees  (as  is  generally  but  incorrectly  supposed) ;  and,  a  fortiori, 
the  inclination  upon  the  horizon  of  the  two  segments  constituting  it 
is  more  than  45  degrees.  In  the  articular  angles,  the  axes  of  move- 
ment of  the  branches  should  meet  in  the  probable  centre  of  the  articu- 
lation. The  central  point  of  the  scapulo-humeral  union  is  not,  as  has 
been  commonly  believed,  the  point  of  the  arm  (the  summit  of  the 
trochiter  and  trochin).  Its  situation  is  more  posterior,  and  corresponds 
externally  to  the  convexity  of  the  great  trochanter  over  which  the 
tendon  of  the  sub-spinatus  muscle  glides.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the 
axes  of  the  scapula  and  the  humerus  meet,  and  the  angle  formed  by 
these  lines  can  be  measured  in  the  living  animal  when  the  bones  are 
placed  in  their  normal  position  in  relation  with  the  median  line. 

Our  measurements  have  given  us  55  degrees  as  a  mean  inclination 
of  the  scapula  in  horses  possessed  of  speed,  and  65  to  70  degrees  in 
those  used  for  slow  and  heavy  work.  The  beautiful  models  of  rapid 
draugh1>horses  do  not  differ  sensibly,  in  this  relation,  from  the  champion 
of  the  race-course,  and  we  do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  this  fact  in  opposi- 
tion to  those  obstinate  partisans  of  the  oblique  shoulder,  who  value  it 
only  in  the  race-horse,  and  declare  it  a  defect  in  the  draught-horse.  The 
unpublished  observations  on  this  topic  which  Professor  Laulani6  has 
kindly  communicated  to  us,  although  less  numerous  than  ours,  fully 
corroborate  our  own.  According  to  our  distinguished  colleague,  the 
mean  scapular  inclination  is  57  degrees,  the  extreme  measurements 
varying  from  50  to  66  degrees. 

The  scapulo-humeral  angle  has  been  determined  by  us  to  have  a 
mean  dimension  of  115  degrees,  and  we  have  seen  it  vary  from  110  to 
130  degrees  in  all  types  of  horses. 

Resume. — It  results  from  the  preceding  statements  that  the  direc- 
tion of  the  shoulder  is  in  intimate  relation  with  the  speed.  It  is 
desirable  to  have  it  as  much  inclined  as  possible,  because  its  obliquity 
will  admit  of  a  greater  extension  of  the  humerus ;  it  will  permit  the 
member  to  be  raised  higher  and  to  complete  the  extension  before  placing 
the  foot  on  the  soil ;  it  will  more  strongly  project  the  foot,  and  will  be 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  211 

compatible  with  a  favorable  orientation  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle ; 
finally,  it  will  give  suppleness,  style,  and  amplitude  to  the  gait,  and  at 
the  same  time  will  attenuate  those  reactions  whose  effects  are  as  injurious 
to  the  rider  as  to  the  horse  himself.  Scapular  obliquity  usually  accom- 
panies elevated  withers  and  great  depth  of  thorax.  It  gives  to  the 
horse  a  mark  of  distinction  which  denotes  the  nobleness  of  his  race. 

All  other  directions  of  the  shoulder  are  antagonistic  to  velocity 
from  the  fact  that  their  elements  are  diametrically  opposite  to  those  of 
the  conformation  we  have  described.  These  disadvantages,  however, 
disappear,  as  before  stated,  in  slow  and  heavy  work  for  which  force 
alone  is  required. 

To  conclude,  from  these  remarks,  that  the  shoulder  of  a  heavy  Per- 
cheron  is  defective  because  it  is  not  straight,  would  be  wrong;  and 
those  who  will  endeavor  to  prove  it  by  real  measurements  will  recog- 
nize that,  in  the  very  best  specimens  of  this  class,  this  region,  neverthe- 
less, will  show  a  marked  inclination.  Without  doubt,  in  such  cases, 
the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  shoulder  is  that  which  offers  the  greatest 
surface  for  the  adaptation  of  the  collar.  It  is  a  serious  mistake  to 
suppose  that  an  inclined  scapula  does  not  furnish  the  elements  of  this 
large  surface,  for  it  excludes  nothing  favorable  to  muscular  power. 

It  has  also  been  said  that,  in  the  presence  of  such  a  shoulder,  the 
application  of  the  collar  is  against  the  scapulo-humeral  articulation 
only  ;  whence  a  certain  amount  of  pain  during  the  efforts  of  extreme 
traction,  bruises  of  the  sensitive  parts,  wounds,  etc.  These  are  objec- 
tions which  have  value  only  when  the  shoulder  is  too  sharp,  emaciated, 
or  poorly  muscled,  and  consequently  leaves  the  articulation  too  much 
in  relief;  but  if  it  become  defective  for  this  reason  alone,  the  defects 
must  not  be  attributed  to  the  obliquity.  If  the  muscles  be  well 
developed  this  hinderance  will  disappear,  especially  if  the  precaution 
be  taken  to  elevate  the  attachment  of  the  traces.  It  seems  useless  to 
repeat  so  often  the  aphorism,  the  harness  is  made  for  the  horse,  and 
not  the  horse  for  the  harness.  Nevertheless,  how  few  harness-makers 
seem  to  appreciate  this  fact,  but  prefer  to  choose  the  collar  without 
taking  the  measurement  of  the  shoulders  ! 

The  inclination  of  the  scapular  segment  having  a  marked  influence 
only  upon  the  speed,  the  straight  shoulder  is  accepted  in  the  motor 
which  works  exclusively  from  the  weight  of  the  mass.  In  a  rapid 
motor,  these  defects  will  increase  whenever  the  height  over  the 
withers  is  low,  and,  particularly,  when  the  latter  conformation  is  due 
to  the  low  attachment  of  the  trunk  between  the  anterior  members. 
Their  free  movement  being  already  prevented  on  account  of  the 


212  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

defective  direction  of  the  shoulder,  these  members  will  be  advanced 
with  much  more  difficulty,  as  they  will  be  required  to  support  a  greater 
portion  of  the  body- weight.  Under  these  circumstances,  if  the  animal 
be  able  to  perform  good  service  at  the  gallop  or  the  trot  on  level 
roads,  he  becomes  dangerous  in  descending  hills  or  on  rough  roads, 
and  is  predisposed  to  stumbling  and  falling  when  he  increases  his 
[speed. 

Finally,  the  shoulder  merits  our  attention  from  a  point  of  view  of 
the  modifications  which  may  supervene  in  its  direction. 
According  to  the  mode  of  subsistence  or  the  employment  of  the 
region,  it  becomes  straight  or  inclined,  oblique  or  straight,  as  it  was  at 
first.  A  long  time  ago,  Ch.  de  Sourdeval,  in  the  Journal  des  Haras, 
had  already  recognized  the  influence  of  the  attitudes  which  animals 
assume  to  obtain  their  nourishment.  This  accurate  observer  has  proved 
that  the  shoulder  becomes  more  vertical  in  those  which  are  obliged  to 
eat  from  the  ground,  or  which  are  maintained  in  pasturage,  whilst  it 
becomes  more  oblique  in  those  which  are  fed  in  the  stable  and  receive 
their  food  from  a  high  manger.  Besides,  a  majority  of  horsemen  think 
that  a  proper  dressing  of  the  saddle-horse  in  the  riding-school  will  in- 
cline the  scapular  segment  to  a  notable  degree,  and  that  the  continuous 
pressure  of  the  collar  will  straighten  the  shoulder  of  the  draught-horse. 
This  is  also  our  opinion. 

Position. — It  suffices  not  that  the  shoulder  be  long  and  well 
directed,  it  should  also  be  properly  placed  against  the  vertebral  col- 
umn,— that  is  to  say,  so  situated  as  to  maintain  a  proper  separation 
between  itself  and  the  croup.  When  this  condition  is  not  fulfilled, 
the  vertebral  column  is  too  long,  lacks  force,  transmits  the  impulsive 
action  of  the  posterior  limbs  feebly,,  and  becomes  sway-backed  as  a 
consequence.  This  defect,  very  common  in  draught-horses,  is  nearly 
always  accompanied  and  complicated  by  a  vicious  direction  and  insuffi- 
cient length  of  the  scapula,  which  is  then  called  short,  straight,  or  for- 
ward. We  can  determine  that  it  is  not  so  by  measuring  the  distance 
between  the  dorsal  angle  of  the  scapula  and  the  angle  of  the  haunch. 
In  a  natural  conformation  this  distance  is  about  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  head,  while  in  disproportionate  subjects  it  may  measure  one- 
fourth  or  even  one-third  more.  (See  Proportions,  length  of  the  body.) 

Volume  or  Muscular  Development. — The  volume  of  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder  is  an  indispensable  element  of  its  beauty, 
whatever  may  be  its  relative  function.  This  qualification  has  different 
degrees,  dependent  upon  the  race,  the  temperament,  and  the  mode  of 
rearing  and  subsistence.  The  muscles  of  the  English  thoroughbred  are 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  213 

more  remarkable  for  the  density,  fineness,  and  cleanness  of  their  fibres 
than  those  of  the  heavy  Percheron,  in  which  they  are  voluminous,  short, 
and  separated  by  an  abundance  of  connective  tissue.  In  the  one  case, 
the  muscles  communicate  to  the  region  a  long,  slender,  and  graceful 
appearance ;  in  the  other,  it  is  the  mass,  the  volume,  the  power.  We 
should  never  demand  a  muscular  development  which  changes  all  in  all 
the  conditions  of  its  intended  utilization. 

When  the  osseous  eminences  of  the  shoulder,  especially  its  scapular 
spine,  its  point,  its  tuberosity,  its  dorsal  angle,  and  its  cartilage  of  pro- 
longation, form  a  prominence  somewhat  marked,  which  allows  us  to 
surmise  the  situation  of  these  parts,  it  is  called  well  outlined.  This  is 
the  form  which  it  presents  in  all  horses  belonging  to  the  finer  breeds. 

When,  on  the  contrary,  the  same  reliefs  are  very  apparent  under- 
neath the  skin,  from  the  effect  of  a  commencing  emaciation  or  muscular 
atrophy,  as  is  observed  in  horses  exhausted  by  fatigue  or  privations,  it 
is  called  meagre  or  lean,  and  expresses  a  certain  feebleness  of  the  loco- 
motory  apparatus.  When,  finally,  this  emaciation  is  such  that  the 
scapula  can  be  almost  completely  outlined  under  the  integument  by  its 
reliefs  and  its  general  configuration ;  when  the  situation  of  the  super- 
and  sub-spinati  muscles  is  manifested  by  a  deep  depression ;  when  the 
scapular  cartilage  is  delimited  above  by  a  prominent  curve  from  before 
to  behind ;  when,  in  a  word,  the  region  as  a  whole  overhangs,  so  to 
speak,  the  adjacent  parts  of  surrounding  regions,  as  the  neck,  ribs, 
withers,  back,  it  is  called  atrophied. 

Conversely,  if  the  muscles,  instead  of  being  deficient  in  bulk,  ex- 
ceed a  yolume  compatible  with  their  special  service,  a  volume  demanded, 
besides,  for  general  harmony ;  if,  for  example,  they  affect,  in  the  saddle- 
horse,  a  volume  which  would  be  sought  for  in  the  draught-horse,  they 
will  render  the  movements  clumsy  by  surcharging  the  anterior  part 
of  the  body,  oppose  themselves  to  the  complete  extension  of  the  ante- 
rior member,  and  diminish  the  force  of  propulsion  engendered  by  the 
hind  limbs  in  rapid  locomotion.  In  these  conditions  the  shoulder 
receives  the  appellations  of  massive,  fleshy,  thick,  charged  with  too  much 
muscle,  etc. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — These  are  denudations  and  excoriations,  due  to 
a  mal-fitting  collar,  which  may  terminate  in  smooth  or  radiating  cicatrices 
formed  by  a  portion  of  the  skin  which  is  deprived  of  its  hair,  thinner,  irritable, 
and  much  less  resisting  to  friction.  The  seat  of  these  wounds  is  at  the  level  of 
the  anterior  borders  of  the  shoulders,  where  they  appear  flat  and  circumscribe 
the  base  of  the  neck.  Horse-dealers  never  fail  to  point  to  these  as  a  proof  that 
the  horse  is  free  in  the  collar.  Of  but  little  gravity  in  themselves,  they  consti- 
tute, nevertheless,  a  cause  of  depreciation  in  view  of  the  increased  sensitiveness 


214  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

which  they  give  to  the  parts  and  the  difficulties  which  are  afterwards  experienced 
in  the  application  of  the  collar. 

At  other  times,  this  region  may  be  the  seat  of  cold  abscesses,  disabling  the 
horse  for  a  variable  period  during  their  formation.  These  are  sometimes  true 
fibromata,  from  the  induration  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue.  Of  a 
chronic  character  at  first,  they  soon  become  so  sensitive  to  the  pressure  of  the 
collar  as  to  render  the  most  docile  horse  intractable. 

The  most  serious  of  these  tumors  are  those  at  the  point  of  the  shoulder, 
from  the  fact  of  the  enormous  volume  which  they  may  acquire,  the  dangers 
which  their  extirpation  presents,  and  the  difficulties  experienced  in  healing  the 
consecutive  wounds,  which  are  always  more  or  less  deep.  They  are  caused  by 
the  pressure  of  a  collar  badly  adjusted,  insufficiently  padded,  or  too  heavy. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  confound  these  tumors  with  diffuse  enlargements  of  the 
scapulo-humeral  articulation,  as,  for  instance,  with  the  particular  affection  known 
under  the  clinical  but  improper  names  sprained  shoulder,  shoulder-slip,  which 
is  accompanied  by  a  lameness  in  which  the  anterior  member  is  markedly 
abducted  when  it  is  extended,  instead  of  moving  in  a  direction  parallel  to  that 
of  the  body.  This  movement,  which  is  called  mowing,  is  due  to  the  immobiliza- 
tion of  the  arm  upon  the  shoulder  or  the  sides  of  the  thorax,  and  is  a  symptom 
of  diverse  lesions  of  the  ligaments,  the  muscles,  the  bones,  the  blood-vessels,  or 
the  nerves.  Although  this  phenomenon  may  be  quite  rare,  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  none  the  less  often  carries  the  evidence  of  the  treatment  employed  to 
combat  it.  Such  are  the  marks  of  cauterization,  setons,  rowels,  and  blisters,  which 
occasion  decortications,  accidental  white  spots,  or  cicatrices  of  a  particular  form 
upon  a  more  or  less  extensive  area  of  this  region.  The  gravest  blemishes, 
above  all,  are  traces  of  the  actual  cautery,  except  in  the  Barb  horses,  in  which 
this  therapeutic  agent  is  always  applied  as  a  means  of  prevention  against  diseases  of 
the  articulation.  It  is  important,  in  such  cases,  to  examine  carefully  the  inferior 
portion  of  the  corresponding  member,  for  the  scapular  lesion  may  be  a  feint  for 
another  disease,  or,  what  is  more  frequent,  an  indication  of  an  error  of  diagnosis. 

Let  us  mention,  also,  paralysis  of  the  shoulder  and  atrophy  of  the  super-  and 
sub-spinati  muscles,  which  are  sometimes  observed,  but  which  produce  no  lame- 


B. — The  Arm. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base;  Form.— The  arm, 
slightly  detached  from  the  trunk,  is  situated  between  the  shoulder,  with 
which  it  is  confounded,  and  the/orearm,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
an  oblique  furrow  in  front. 

Limited  in  front  by  the  breast  and  the  axilla,  behind  by  the  sides  of  the 
thorax,  and  lower  down  by  the  elbow,  it  contains  for  its  osseous  base  a  long  and 
voluminous  bone,  the  humerus,  surrounded  by  two  sets  of  muscles :  the  first, 
coming  from  the  shoulder,  the  neck,  the  side  of  the  thorax,  and  the  sternum, 
moves  this  region  in  every  direction ;  the  second,  extending  to  the  forearm  and 
the  foot,  regulates  the  movements  of  the  inferior  segments  of  the  member. 

Movements. — When  the  thoracic  member  is  carried  forward,  as 
in  walking,  the  humerus  is  first  flexed,  then  its  inferior  extremity 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  215 

describes  an  arc  of  a  circle  forward  to  increase  the  opening  of  the 
scapulo-humeral  angle.  It  is  not,  as  our  distinguished  colleague,  M. 
Chenier,1  has  said,  that  the  humeral  extension  is  terminated  at  the  end 
of  the  phase  of  contact,  but  it  is  at  the  end  of  the  elevation,  when  the 
foot  is  being  placed  on  the  ground,  that  the  two  bones  (humerus  and 
scapula)  attain  their  maximum  separation.  The  same  phenomena  are 
true  of  the  member  of  the  opposite  side;  the  angle  is  closed  by  the, 
approaching  of  its  branches  until  the  step  is  about  to  be  terminated, 
when  the  arm  is  extended. 

Length. — We  will  not  consider  the  details  of  this  particular  ele- 
ment as  we  did  in  the  case  of  the  shoulder.  The  arm  should  be  as 
long  as  possible,  relatively,  in  order  to  give  greater  length  to  its 
muscles  which  attach  to  the  radius,  and  to  permit  its  inferior  extremity 
to  describe  an  arc  of  a  larger  circle.  But  its  length  will  be  defective 
when  it  becomes  excessive, — that  is  to  say,  disproportionate  relative 
to  that  of  the  shoulder.  In  this  instance,  as  we  have  seen  (see  Fig.  58), 
the  arc  which  it  describes  is  not  augmented.  The  foot  will  pass  over 
a  smaller  space  of  the  ground  surface ;  the  movements  are  not  executed 
with  freedom ;  the  animal  is  disposed  to  stumble  and  fall,  at  least,  if 
the  shoulder  be  not  long  and  oblique.  It  is  therefore  apparent  that, 
in  relation  with  the  latter  region,  the  arm  should  be  short  to  give  the 
necessary  extent  and  rapidity  to  its  oscillations.  According  to  our 
measurements,  confirmed  by  those  of  MM.  Colin  and  Duhousset,  the 
distance  between  the  point  of  the  shoulder  and  the  centre  of  the 
humero-radial  articulation  should  be  equal  to  one-half  of  the  length 
of  the  head  in  draught-horses.  In  rapid  motors,  like  the  trotter  or  the 
running-horse,  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  nearly  always  longer. 

It  is  important  to  recognize  this  dimension  from  a  point  of  view 
purely  artistic,  because  sculptors  and  painters,  says  Colonel  Duhous- 
set,2 have  committed  grave  errors  from  antiquity  even  to  the  present 
time.  Nearly  all  represent  the  humerus  too  long,  placing  much  too 
high  the  point  of  the  arm,  which  should  not  extend  beyond  the  level 
of  the  extremity  of  the  sternum. 

While  an  exaggerated  length  of  the  arm  constitutes  a  defect  which 
is  not  always  compensated,  its  shortness  also  produces  deficiencies  of  an 
inverse  order,  and  both  are  hinderances  in  that  which  concerns  the  rapid 
gaits.  If  too  short,  it  accomplishes  an  insufficient  extension  ;  its  mus- 
cles contract  feebly,  and  restrain  the  movements  of  the  forearm ;  the 

1  G.  Chenier,  Analyse  de  la  premiere  Edition  du  present  ouvrage,  in  Echo  des  soci6t6s  et  asso- 
ciation^ veterinaires,  annee  1882. 

2  E.  Duhousset,  Lecheval,  Paris,  1881,  p.  67. 


216 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


elevation  of  the  anterior 'members,  when  the  animal  is  in  locomotion, 
becomes  exaggerated, — an  elevation  which  is  executed  at  the  expense  of 
the  length  of  the  step.  Whence  a  loss  of  time  which,  insignificant  as 
it  may  be  at  each  step,  eventually  determines  a  marked  diminution  in 
the  total  quantity  of  speed. 

Direction. — The  direction  of  the  arm  is  indicated  by  an  imagi- 
nary line  which  joins  the  convexity  of  the  great  trochanter  to  the 
centre  of  the  external  lateral  ligament  of  the  elbow. 

It  should  fulfil  the  principal  elements,  as  follows :  to  allow  to  the 
scapulo-humeral  angle,  already  reduced  by  the  obliquity  of  the  scapula, 
a  sufficient  magnitude,  and  not  to  alter  the  direction  of  the  vertical 
line  in  relation  with  the  radius. 

We  estimate,  from  our  researches,  that  a  mean  inclination  of  60 
degrees  is  favorable  to  the  development  of  velocity.  When  the  inclina- 
tion passes  beyond  these  figures,  it  must  be  compensated  by  an  aug- 
mentation of  the  scapular  obliquity.  In  the  draught-horse,  whose 
scapula  is  more  straight,  the  humerus  does  not  suffer  by  becoming  more 
oblique.  In  the  more  active  draught-horse  it  is  intermediary  between 
the  two  preceding  types. 

The  data  furnished  by  instantaneous  photographs  of  animals  in 
locomotion1  show  that  the  limit  of  extension  of  the  humerus  is  very 

close  to  the  vertical  line  passing 
through  the  scapulo-humeral 
centre. 

Theoretically,  therefore, 
the  arm  should  not  be  too 
straight  at  repose, — that  is  to 
say,  in  such  a  position  that  the 
line  of  direction  of  the  mem- 
ber is  too  close  to  the  verti- 
cal line  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  suspension  of 
this  member  to  the  trunk. 
When  the  conformation  is 
thus,  the  extension  of  the 
humerus  is  necessarily  limited, 
and  such  an  arm  cannot  profit 

by  the  advantages  of  a  long  shoulder.  It  is  true  (Fig.  63)  that  the 
segment  OB',  for  example,  must  pass  through  much  less  space  to 


FIG.  63. 


1  See  the  figures  of  MM.  Marey  and  Pages,  reproducing  the  details  of  the  oscillation  of  the 
members  in  the  gaits. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  217 


reach  the  vertical  axis  OX  than  the  segment  OjB,  supposed  to  be  well 
directed.  With  the  latter,  however,  the  forward  oscillation  will  be 
greater,  and  it  will  correspond  better  with  a  long  shoulder,  which,  as 
we  know,  determines  the  degree  of  its  displacements. 

If  it  be  too  oblique,  on  the  contrary,  as  OB"  ,  it  does  not  bring  the 
humero-radial  articulation  sufficiently  in  advance  to  permit  the  forearm 


FIG.  64. — Scheme  of  the  muscular  incidences  in  the  straight  arm,  A,  and  in  the 

oblique  arm,  B. 
1,  Extensors  of  the  humerus ;  2,  flexors;  3,  flexors  of  the  forearm  ;  4,  extensors. 

and  the  canon  to  evolve  themselves  completely.  It  obliges  the  horse 
to  multiply  his  movements  and  elevate  the  members  excessively, 
instead  of  being  advanced  without  describing  too  great  a  curvature, — a 
loss  of  both  time  and  energy. 

But  a  very  oblique  arm  gives  a  better  insertion  for  the  muscles 
than  a  straight  one,  as  can  be  demonstrated  by  an  examination  of  the 
two  diagrams  (A  and  B)  of  Fig.  64,  upon  which  are  indicated  the 
flexors  and  the  extensors  of  the  humerus  and  the  radius ;  its  muscles, 
however,  are  shorter.  It  is  also  not  disadvantageous  in  horses  from 
which  great  force  is  exacted. 

The  degree  of  brachial  inclination,  on  the  other  hand,  having  an 


218 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  65. 


influence  on  the  value  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle,  it  may  be  asked 
if,  for  velocity  or  speed,  a  straight  shoulder  will  not  in  a  measure  be 
compensated  by  an  excess  of  obliquity  of  the  arm.  In  other  words,  is 
it  rational  to  prefer  (Fig.  65)  an  angle  AOB  to  an  angle  COD,  both 

having  the  same  dimension?  Evi- 
dently it  is :  to  a  straight  arm  an 
oblique  shoulder;  this  is  the  law, 
and  for  several  reasons  already  known. 
We  will  recall  them :  An  oblique 
shoulder  will  augment  the  elevation 
and  extension  of  its  point,  from  the 
same  quantity  of  muscular  contrac- 
tion ;  whence  it  follows  that  the  in- 
ferior extremity  of  the  member  will 
be  carried  more  in  advance  of  its 
primitive  position.  As  the  straight- 
ening of  the  humerus  also  tends  to 
the  same  result,  the  two  acting  in  uni- 
son will  increase  the  total  amplitude 
of  the  movement. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  conditions  be  the  reverse,  if  the  arm  be 
very  oblique  and  the  shoulder  straight,  the  scapulo-humeral  angle, 
although  equal  to  the  preceding,  will  be  restrained  to  a  less  separation 
of  its  branches,  because  the  extremity  of  the  shoulder  and  the  humero- 
radial  articulation  will  remain  too  far  backward  in  order  to  give  to  the 
forearm  and  the  canon  the  ease  and  the  time  to  be  carried  sufficiently 
far  in  advance. 

To  recapitulate,  the  inclination  of  the  humerus  should  not  be  exces- 
sive in  rapid  motors,  and  the  conditions  of  a  good  orientation  of  the 
scapulo-humeral  angle  must  be  found  in  the  obliquity  of  the  shoulder. 
This  explains  why  certain  subjects,  well  marked  in  appearance  in 
relation  with  their  articular  angles,  do  not  confirm  the  conclusions 
which  are  based  upon  them.  It  suffices  not  (as  we  have  seen  on  page 
191)  that  the  angles  may  have  freedom  of  action,  but  it  is  also  neces- 
sary that  this  action  may  be  effected  in  the  direction  of  the  movement. 
If  their  orientation  in  relation  with  the  vertical  line  of  the  centre  of 
movement  is  defective,  all  the  mechanical  advantages  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  our  aim,  speed,  are  lost. 

These  considerations,  upon  which  we  have  purposely  insisted,  are 
not  applicable  to  services  which  only  exact  strength.  We  will  except,, 
however,  the  rapid  draught-horse,  in  which  the  elements  of  force  seem 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  219 

to  be  dependent  on  the  phenomenon  of  speed.  The  inclination  and  the 
disposition  of  the  articular  angles  will  also  very  often  enable  us  to 
judge  the  amount  of  thoroughbred  blood  in  such  animals.  It  is,  by 
no  means,  not  the  same  in  slow  draught-horses.  We  frequently 
meet  in  them  a  straight  shoulder  supported  on  an  oblique  arm.  The 
obliquity  of  the  humerus  in  such  cases  is  not  a  defect,  for  it  favors  the 
power  of  the  muscles  by  rendering  their  insertions  more  perpendicular. 
The  shortness  of  the  step,  the  inevitable  consequence  of  such  a  con- 
formation, offers  nothing  of  special  interest,  since,  in  motors  of  this 
nature,  the  ultimate  purpose  does  not  consist  in  the  extent  but  in  the 
power  of  the  eifort  produced. 

Direction  of  the  Arm  in  Relation  with  the  Median  Plane 
of  the  Body. — The  long  axis  of  the  arm,  in  order  that  its  displace- 
ments may  be  effected  properly,  should  be  almost  parallel  to  the  median 
plane  of  the  body.  If  its  inferior  extremity  is  directed  too  much  out- 
ward, the  whole  member  is  deviated  in  the  same  degree,  the  relation 
of  the  vertical  lines  is  disturbed,  and  the  foot  is  turned  inward.  This 
is  called  cross-footed.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  elbow  be  deviated 
inward,  the  inferior  part  of  the  limb  is  turned  outward  (see  crooked- 
legged  horse).  We  will  again  refer  to  these  a  propos  of  the  axes. 

Muscularity. — The  development  of  the  muscles  is  an  absolute 
beauty.  It  is  preferredly  appreciated  by  the  prominence  and  width, 
of  the  olecranon  muscles  (extensors  of  the  forearm),  wnich  occupy  the 
triangular  space  between  the  scapula  and  the  humerus,  and  by  the 
relief  formed  by  the  humeral  biceps  in  front  of  this  region. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes.— The  region  of  the  arm  is,  in  most  instances, 
exempt  from  these  lesions.  Contusions  and,  more  rarely,  fractures,  the  result  of 
kicks  received  from  other  horses,  when  they  are  worked  in  file,  running  in  pas- 
ture, in  public  exhibitions,  or  during  transportation  on  railroads,  are  the  principal 
alterations  of  this  nature  which  are  observed  in  this  region.  Rupture  of  the 
fibres  of  the  coraco-radialis  muscle  is  sometimes  a  cause  of  lameness. 

C.— The  Elbow. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  elbow,  situated 
between  the  arm  and  the  forearm,  and  in  front  of  the  xiphoid  region, 
has  for  its  base  the  superior  extremity  of  the  cubitus,  a  voluminous 
apophysis  called  the  olecranon.  It  gives  attachment  principally  to  the 
extensors  of  the  forearm. 

The  elbow  offers  for  consideration  three  elements :  its  length,  a 
good  direction,  and  its  freedom  from  blemishes. 

Length. — The  osseous  process  which  forms  the  olecranon  repre- 


220 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  66.— Reproduction  from  an  instantaneous 
photograph. 


sents  the  arm  of  a  long  lever  for  the  muscles  to  which  it  gives  attach- 
ment.    Charged  to  maintain,  during  station,  the  summit  of  the  humero- 

radial  angle  continually  tend- 
ing to  become  closed  from 
the  pressure  of  the  body- 
weight,  and  to  produce  ex- 
tension of  the  same  angle  in 
the  propulsion  of  the  trunk 
(Fig.  66),  and,  finally,  to 
bring  the  antibrachial  re- 
gion into  its  primitive  posi- 
tion, during  locomotion, 
these  muscles  act  so  much 
the  more  favorably  as  the 
arm  of  the  lever  in  ques- 
tion is  longer  and  more 
curved  backward.  Prefer- 
ence should  therefore  be  given  to  an  elongated  and  prominent  elbow, 
rather  than  to  one  which,  in  a  word,  encroaches  much  upon  the  arm. 

Direction. — The  direction  of  the  elbow  is  related  to  that  of  the 
arm.  It  is  considered  fine  or  beautiful  when  it  occupies  a  plane  par- 
allel to  the  axis  of  the  body,  and  when,  besides,  this  plane  is  suffi- 
ciently separated  from  the  lateral  faces  of  the  thorax.  The  elbows  are 
then  said  to  be  well  separated  and  well  directed. 

If,  from  the  feeble  development  of  the  muscles  which  separate  the 
anterior  limb  from  the  ribs,  the  region  in  question,  although  always 
parallel  to  the  median  plane,  is  too  close  to  the  thoracic  walls,  the 
horse  has  the  elbows  on  the  body.  It  then  lacks  vigor,  energy,  and 
amplitude  of  the  breast. 

When  the  elbow  is  turned  outward,  the  inferior  extremity  of  the 
member  is  deviated  inward,  which  characterizes  the  animal  as  being 
pigeon-toed ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  elbow  is  turned  obliquely  inward, 
the  foot  is  directed  outward,  and  the  animal  is  said  to  be  outbow-footed. 
Each  one  of  these  directions  is  vicious,  because  it  renders  the 
movements  of  locomotion  ungraceful,  disturbs  the  vertical  axis  of  the 
members,  predisposes  them  to  premature  ruin,  even  including  the 
effects  from  speedy  cut  and  interfering. 

Freedom  from  Blemishes. — Wounds  of  the  region  of  the  elbow  may  be 
the  consequence  of  the  improper  application  of  the  belly-band,  when  the  horse 
is  worked  in  the  shafts,  particularly  of  two-wheeled  vehicles  or  the  cart. 

Most  frequently  they  are  due  to  the  mode  in  which  the  decubitus  is  effected. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  221 

Certain  horses  have  the  habit  of  lying  down  like  a  cow, — that  is  to  say,  of  main- 
taining the  anterior  members  flexed  under  the  chest.  It  results  from  this  that 
the  heels  of  the  shoe  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  point  of  the  elbow,  irri- 
tate and  bruise  the  skin,  and  cause  the  formation  of  a  more  or  less  voluminous 
tumor  called  shoe-boil,  so  named  from  the  agent  which  acts  as  the  exciting  cause. 
A  turner  of  this  kind  is  sometimes  sensitive  to  the  touch,  and  necessitates  suspen- 
sion from  work.  At  other  times  shoe-boils  are  not  harmful,  except  as  being  ugly 
blemishes.  We  have  had  under  our  observation  for  several  years  a  horse  which 
performed  very  active  service  and  carried  on  each  elbow  a  shoe-boil  of  the  volume 
of  a  man's  head. 

As  soon  as  any  excoriation  of  the  skin  of  this  region  is  perceived,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  observe  the  position  of  the  animal  in  the  decubitus,  and,  if  require'd,  to 
shorten  the  heels  of  the  shoe,  or  simply  the  one  on  the  internal  side,  which  alone 
is  most  usually  the  cause  of  the  "  boil ;"  or,  again,  we  may  protect  the  foot  with 
a  leather  boot. 

We  may  here  mention  fractures  of  the  olecranon ;  these  are  followed  by  a 
permanent  deformity  of  the  elbow,  the  extremity  of  the  bone  being  displaced 
upward  by  the  contraction  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  forearm.  Even  after 
the  fracture  is  repaired,  this  injury  causes  a  lameness  the  nature  of  which  can 
always  be  detected  by  careful  observation. 


D. — The  Forearm. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  forearm,  situ- 
ated between  the  arm  and  the  knee,  is  related,  above  and  behind,  to  the 
elbow. 

Two  bones  constitute  its  base :  the  radius  and  the  greater  portion  of  the 
cubitus.  These  bones  are  surrounded  by  two  sets  of  muscles,  which  all  act  upon 
the  metacarpus  or  the  phalanges ;  the  one,  the  anterior,  compressing  the  extensors 
of  these  regions,  and  the  other,  the  posterior,  forming  the  flexors  of  the  same. 
Indirectly,  through  the  ligaments,  they  can  also  move  the  forearm,  and  carry  it 
into  extension  or  flexion,  according  to  the  muscles  which  act.  They  operate  for 
the  most  part  upon  levers  of  the  third  class,  and  hence  play  their  principal  role 
in  the  production  of  velocity ;  rarely  do  they  concur  in  an  active  manner  in  the 
support  .of  the  body,  a  function  provided  for  by  the  special  mechanical  conforma- 
tion of  the  parts. 

Form. — The  forearm,  as  a  whole,  has  the  form  of  a  cone,  depressed  from 
side  to  side  towards  its  base  or  superior  extremity,  whose  volume  is  in  relation 
with  that  of  the  muscles  just  named. 

Its  external  face  is  separated  from  the  arm  and  the  elbow  by  a  furrow,  with 
an  inferior  convexity,  due  to  the  prominence  of  the  extensors  of  the  forearm 
upon  the  superior  extremity  of  the  antibrachial  muscles,  extensors  of  the  meta- 
carpus, and  phalanges.  A  gutter,  extending  along  the  external  border  of  the 
radius,  and  in  its  lower  part,  separates  the  anterior  from  the  posterior  muscles. 

The  internal  face  is  devoid  of  muscles  over  the  greater  portion  of  its  extent, 
and  the  skin  is  applied  almost  directly  against  the  radius.  The  internal  subcu- 
taneous vein  of  the  forearm,  on  which  phlebotomy  is  sometimes  practised,  crosses 
this  face  a  little  obliquely  from  below  to  above.  Finally,  in  the  lower  third  of 


222  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

this  region,  we  meet  a  horny  excrescence  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  chest- 
nut.    It  is  small  in  animals  of  fine  breeding. 

The  anterior  and  posterior  faces,  convex  from  side  to  side,  are  covered  by 
muscles ;  their  thickness  is  proportional  to  the  volume  of  the  latter. 

Movements. — The  forearm,  from  the  mode  of  union  of  its  two 
bones  with  themselves  and  with  the  humerus,  can  execute  only  two 
principal  movements  :  extension  and  flexion. 

The  first,  whose  extent  is  directly  proportional  to  the  length  of  the 
bones  concerned  and  the  degree  of  openness  of  the  humero-radial 
angle,  carries  the  knee  forward  and  upward,  and  enables  the  anatomical 
foot  to  be  moved  in  advance.  This  is  accomplished  just  before  the 
foot  touches  the  ground. 

The  second  takes  place  principally  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
phase  of  contact,  as  is  shown  by  instantaneous  photographs.  It  con- 
tributes, therefore,  in  a  certain  measure  to  the  impulsive  forces,  since  in 
this  period  the  member,  as  a  whole,  is  directed  obliquely  downward 
and  backward. 

Beauties. — In  order  to  be  in  the  most  favorable  conditions  for 
the  production  of  velocity,  the  forearm  should  be  long,  wide,  thick,  and 
well  directed. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  antibrachial  lever  should  be  con- 
sidered from  two  different  points  of  view  :  the  one  considers  the  absolute 
length ;  the  other,  its  length  as  compared  with  that  of  the  canon. 

a.  Absolute  Length. — The  absolute  length  of  the  forearm 
should  be  as  great  as  possible,  for  the  reason  that  the  arc  which  this 
segment  describes  by  its  extremity  is  proportional  to  its  length ;  also, 
because  this  length  implies  a  corresponding  length  of  the  muscles 
which  cover  it.  It  is  upon  these  two  factors  that  the  velocity,  in  so 
far  as  it  is  produced  by  the  structures  of  this  region,  principally 
depends. 

If  the  forearm  be  short,  its  oscillation,  it  is  true,  will  be  more 
rapid,  but  the  distance  passed  at  each  step  will  be  less.  It  can  only 
preserve  the  velocity  by  a  greater  frequency  of  the  movements,  at  the 
expense  of  a  loss  of  time  and  more  fatigue.  Again,  the  knee  being 
more  elevated,  the  whole  limb  will  be  raised  rather  than  projected  for- 
ward ;  the  animal  will  trot  upon  place,  but  with  a  short  forearm  the 
movements  will  be  more  brilliant,  easy,  and  harmonious,  and  the  horse 
is  said  to  have  high  knee-action.  In  the  cavalry  horse,  or  in  those 
used  in  riding-schools  and  parades,  this  is,  without  doubt,  a  matter  of 
beauty,  but  perfection  in  this  respect  makes  the  horse  more  manageable, 
and  is  therefore  a  useful  qualification.  A  horse  with  a  high  knee- 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  223 

action  will  be  less  disposed  to  stumble,  will  more  easily  overcome 
obstacles  in  his  way,  and  will  be  fitted  for  special  varieties  of  work, 
but  will  never  be  possessed  of  great  speed. 

Horses  provided  with  long  forearms  move  their  members  closely 
along  the  ground,  and  thus  offer  less  safety  to  the  rider  on  uneven 
roads.  An  intelligent  handling  and  a  rational  training  will  nearly 
always  cause  a  disappearance,  or  at  least  an  attenuation,  of  most  of 
these  disadvantages  of  a  long  forearm. 

b.  Length  in  Relation  with  the  Canon. — Nearly  all  authors 
agree  that  the  radio-metacarpal  segment  should  owe  its  length  to  the 
forearm  or  its  superior  section,  and  not  to  that  of  the  canon.  In 
other  words,  from  a  point  of  view  of  speed,  the  conformation  should 
be  such  as  to  present  a  long  forearm  and  a  short  canon. 

The  relative  length  of  these  regions  varies  in  a  small  proportion 
when  they  are  measured  in  a  large  number  of  horses  of  the  same 
height  at  the  withers.  But  the  few  centimetres  by  which  these  figures 
differ  are  sufficient  to  produce  a  very  marked  effect  on  the  value  of  the 
movements  at  the  extremity  of  the  member. 

Professor  Neumann l  was  the  first  one  to  remark  that  if  the  metacarpus  be 
considered  just  before  the  foot  is  raised,  when  the  region  is  inclined  downward 
and  backward,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  latter  plays  the  role  of  a  lever,  upon  the 
superior  extremity  of  which  the  weight  of  the  body  is  decomposed  into  two 
secondary  forces :  the  one,  perpendicular  to  the  canon,  tends  to  carry  the  knee 
forward ;  the  other,  parallel  to  this  segment,  indicates  the  intensity  with  which 
the  foot  presses  against  its  point  of  support,  the  ground.  The  latter  force, 
antagonized  by  the  resistance  of  the  soil,  offers  but  little  of  interest  to  us  in 
the  present  discussion.  The  former  force  acts  behind  on  the  arm  of  a  lever,  the 
metacarpus,  antagonized  in  front  by  the  extensor  muscles  of  this  region.  It 
follows,  then,  that  the  shorter  this  arm  the  less  will  be  the  eifect  of  the  force  in 
question  and  the  less  the  fatigue  of  these  muscles  in  combating  the  tendency  to 
flexion. 

A  member  with  a  long  forearm  will  support  the  body  more  easily 
during  contact  for  a  longer  time  without  a  greater  expenditure  of 
force,  and  will  incline  itself  more  before  being  raised  from  the  ground, 
a  condition  which  will  enable  the  foot  to  describe  a  larger  arc  and 
increase  the  length  of  the  step. 

If  the  inferior  extremity  of  such  a  forearm,  having  reached  its 
limit  of  inclination,  be  now  flexed,  it  will  describe,  for  an  equal  angu- 
lar displacement,  a  greater  quantity  of  movement,  and  the  latter  is 
always  proportional  to  the  speed  acquired,  which  is  itself  in  direct 

1  G.  Neumann,  De  1'avant-bras  du  cheval  et  de  1'influence  de  sa  longueur  sur  la  rapidity  des 
allures,  in  Journal  de  me'decine  veterinaire  militaire,  t.  xi.,  annee  1873,  1874,  p.  157. 


224  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

ratio  with  the  distance  passed  over  in  a  unit  of  time ;  but  the  exten- 
sion of  the  canon  taking  place  after  the  flexion  of  the  forearm,  the 
quantity  of  movement  of  the  latter  will  tend  to  augment  that  which 
the  antibrachial  muscles  will  communicate  to  the  canon,  in  order  to 
favor  the  rapid  and  extensive  projection  of  the  inferior  part  of  the 
member. 

It  is,  therefore,  also  necessary  to  seek  for  a  great  development  of  the 
forearm  in  the  parts  where  the  muscles  are  situated,  since  the  degree 
of  muscular  shortening  gives  the  measure  of  the  angular  displacements 
of  the  bones.  For  this  reason  it  is  preferable  to  have  a  short  canon 
in  relation  with  the  forearm.  From  a  point  of  view  of  locomotion,  it 
is  just  to  say  that,  of  these  two  segments,  the  one  is  active  and  the 
other  passive ;  the  first,  by  its  mobility,  overcomes  the  inertia  of  the 
second. 

Finally,  with  a  short  forearm,  the  displacement  of  the  knee  is 
effected  upward  instead  of  its  being  projected  forward  in  the  direction 
of  movement.  The  arm  of  the  lever  (radius)  of  the  resistance  (weight 
of  canon)  diminishes,  whilst  the  intensity  of  the  power  (flexors  of  the 
radius)  remains  the  same,  which  favors  so  much  the  latter  and  gives  to 
it  more  facility  to  elevate  the  knee.  With  a  long  radius,  the  arm  of 
the  lever  (radius)  of  the  resistance  (weight  of  the  canon)  augments, 
and  the  power  (extensors  of  the  metacarpus)  remains  invariable,  a  con- 
dition which  favors  this  bone  again  and  disposes  it  more  favorably  for 
the  extension  of  the  canon.  This  is  the  reason  wrhy,  in  the  first  case, 
the  knee-action  is  exaggerated,  the  members  badly  employed  and  not 
properly  advanced  ;  also  why,  in  the  second  case,  the  knee  is  not  unduly 
elevated,  the  segments  being  at  the  same  time  well  projected  forward. 
The  animal  thus  acquires  more  speed  without  increasing  the  rapidity 
of  his  efforts  and  without  compromising  the  integrity  of  the  locomotory 
apparatus. 

Width. — It  suffices  not  that  the  forearm  should  merely  be  long, 
but  it  should  also  be  wide,  this  wideness  being  an  indicator  of  the 
volume  of  the  muscles. 

This  width  is  measured  from  before  to  behind  below  the  elbow, 
viewing  the  horse  in  profile,  at  a  point  always  a  little  superior  to  the 
widest  part  of  the  tibial  region,xand  at  the  level  of  the  most  prominent 
portion  of  its  anterior  muscles ;  it  is,  finally,  on  the  same  level  as  that 
of  the  tibial  region  at  the  point  where  the  latter  receives  the  insertion 
of  the  fold  of  the  buttock. 

The  forearm  has  such  a  conformation  in  well-formed  horses,  which 
qualifies  it  imdey  muscular,  well  muscled. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  225 

The  tendons  which  terminate,  under  such  conditions,  the  posterior 
radial  muscles  are  short  and  thick ;  they  are  well  separated  from  the 
canon  and  favorably  disposed  to  fulfil  their  function  of  support  in 
relation  to  the  fetlock.  The  antero-posterior  diameter  of  this  region 
should  be  considerable, — in  the  draught-horse  more  than  in  any  others, 
since  it  is  in  relation  with  the  contractile  force  of  these  muscles,'  pro- 
vided they  are  dense,  firm,  and  poor  in  adipose  and  connectiveJissues. 

When  the  forearm  offers  dimensions  opposed  to  the  preceding,  it  is 
defective  by  reason  of  its  small  volume,  and  is  called  slender.  The 
slender  forearm  characterizes  ordinarily  a  horse  without  energy,  with 
long,  disproportionate  limbs,  vulgarly  called  weedy ;  he  lacks  strength 
and  firmness,  and,  in  general,  is  defective  in  most  instances  in  the  other 
regions. 

Thickness. — The  thickness,  in  close  relation  with  the  width,  is 
measured  from  side  to  side,  viewing  the  region  from  in  front.  It  is 
recognizable  by  the  prominence  which  the  anterior  antibrachial  muscles 
form  externally.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  thickness  as  extensive  as 
possible,  for  the  reasons  which  we  have  previously  indicated.  It  may 
be  remarked,  nevertheless,  that  the  forearm  does  not  have  the  same 
muscular  development  in  the  thoroughbred  horse  as  in  the  draught- 
horse  ;  the  region  appears  flat  in  the  former,  whilst  it  seems  rounded 
in  the  latter. 

Direction. — The  direction  of  the  forearm  is  as  important  a 
characteristic  of  its  beauty  as  its  length  and  its  breadth.  It  should  be 
vertical  when  the  horse  is  examined  in  profile,  and  parallel  with  the 
median  plane  of  the  body  when  he  is  viewed  in  front.  The  vertical 
axis  in  this  case  is  not  altered,  and  the  members  are  well  placed  to 
support  the  weight  of  the  body. 

If  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  region  be  directed  forward  or 
backward,  outward  or  inward  from  the  vertical  line,  the  direction  is 
vicious ;  certain  parts  of  the  limbs  become  exhausted  and  prematurely 
ruined,  to  which  we  will  again  refer  in  speaking  of  the  knee  and  the 
vertical  axes,  because  any  deviation  of  this  nature,  altering  the  vertical 
position  of  the  segment,  demands  an  increase  of  function  of  the  muscles 
equivalent  to  the  part  of  the  weight  which  is  no  more  supported  by 
the  bones  themselves. 

It  is  not  without  interest  to  present  here  the  details  of  the  rdle 
which  the  direction  of  the  arm  plays  in  the  effective  utilization  of  the 
antibrachial  movements.  The  angle  formed  by  the  two  segments 
depends  upon  the  more  or  less  marked  degree  of  inclination  of  the 
humerus.  When  the  latter  approaches  the  horizontal,  this  angle  is  so 

15 


226  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

much  more  closed  than  when  the  bone  in  question  is  more  vertical.  In 
order  that  the  horse  may  have  speed  it  is  necessary  that  the  forearm  be 
not  only  long  but  that  it  be  also  enabled  to  become  flexed  to  a  large 
degree,  so  as  to  give  the  greatest  possible  amplitude  to  the  step.  The 
more  vertical  the  arm  the  better  will  this  condition  be  fulfilled. 
Such  a  disposition  will,  besides,  favor  the  opening  of  the  humero-radial 
angle  during  the  propulsion  of  the  trunk,  another  qualification  which 
all  the  articular  angles  of  rapid  motors  possess.  Here  observation  con- 
firms the  theoretical  data  presented  in  discussing  the  arm.  In  race- 
horses the  latter  region  is  not  inclined,  a  disposition  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  not  incompatible  with  an  extensive  closing  of  the  scapulo- 
humeral  angle,  since  the  obliquity  of  the  scapulum  counteracts  the 
disadvantages  which  result  from  a  vertical  humerus. 

These  slight  variations  in  the  direction  of  the  bones  and  the  mode 
of  opening  of  the  superior  articular  angles  of  the  members  contribute 
to  explain  the  contradictory  results  which  are  observed  in  race-horses 
of  the  best  appearance  as  to  conformation.  Very  difficult  to  appreci- 
ate, these  variations  often  pass  unperceived  and  lead  the  observer  into 
error  as  to  the  importance  of  their  effects. 

These,  nevertheless,  may  sometimes  be  quite  considerable,  as  we  shall 
presently  see. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  an  instant,  that  a  horse  be  able,  at  each  step,  to  open  the 
scapulo-humeral  angle  and  close  the  humero-radial,  each  to  a  greater  degree  than 
in  another  horse.  Let  us  assume,  also,  to  make  use  of  round  numbers,  that  this 
feeble  amplitude  of  two  degrees  is  manifested  upon  a  lever  only  one  metre  in 
length.  We  know  that  the  distance  passed  over  by  the  extremity  of  this  lever 
for  each  degree  will  be  : 

2irE      2  X  3.1416 

- 


This  will  signify  that  each  step  of  this  horse  will  be  34  millimetres  longer 
than  that  of  the  second  horse.  These  34  millimetres  will  give  him  an  increase 
of  22  metres  and  644  millimetres  over  a  distance  of  4000  metres  travelled  at  a 
fast  gallop  (the  step  measuring  6  metres)  ;  at  a  fast  trot  (the  step  being  3  metres), 
an  increase  of  68  metres. 

Thus,  the  influence  of  the  articular  angles  merits  to  be  taken  into 
consideration,  in  that  they  can  determine  the  amount  of  speed  which  a 
given  animal  is  able  to  employ.  As  it  has  been  well  remarked,  we 
must  take  cognizance  of  only  a  very  feeble  augmentation  for  a  very 
short  lever,  as  in  the  example  which  we  have  chosen.  What  might 
have  been  the  results  if,  instead  of  calculating  them  upon  two  degrees, 
we  had  estimated  them  upon  four,  six,  or  eight,  as  it  frequently 
exists  ? 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  227 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — These  are  wounds,  the  result  of  kicks  upon 
this  region  from  other  horses,  but  which  are  only  grave  when  they  interest  the 
internal  face  of  the  region,  where  the  bone,  as  we  know,  is  directly  subcutaneous 
and  not  covered  with  muscles.  In  this  situation  they  are  often  complicated  by 
fractures  of  the  bone. 

At  other  times,  synovial  dilatations,  which  proceed  from  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  region  of  the  knee,  may  exist  here,  but  these  appear  upon  the  forearm 
only  when  they  have  reached  a  large  development.  Those  of  the  humefo-r-adio- 
cubital  articulation  are  extremely  rare,  and,  in  our  experience,  we  have  seen  only 
two  examples.  They  manifest  themselves  posterior  to  the  external  lateral  liga- 
ment of  this  joint,  and  can  be  clearly  seen  when  the  member  is  placed  upon  the 
ground.  They  then  acquire  a  volume  equal  to  one-half  of  that  of  a  hen's  egg, 
and  disappear  altogether  when  the  limb  is  raised. 

Finally,  let  us  mention  the  wounds  which  are  located  upon  the  external 
lateral  ligament  of  the  humero-radial  articulation.  The  external  side  of  the 
joint  forms  a  prominence,  projecting  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  surface, 
which  is  continually  being  bruised,  and  receives  most  of  the  pressure  when  the 
animal  assumes  the  decubitus  for  a  long  time  upon  a  bed  with  insufficient  litter. 
These  wounds  are  very  grave,  for  they  may  be  complicated  by  an  opening  of  the 
articulation  and  terminate  in  the  death  of  the  animal. 

The  defects  of  direction,  true  blemishes,  we  will  study  with  the  vertical  axes 
of  the  members. 

E.— The  Chestnuts. 

The  name  chestnut  is  given  to  a  horny  production,  more  or  less 
voluminous,  according  to  the  race,  situated  upon  the  middle  part  or 
the  inferior  third  of  the  internal  face  of  the  forearm. 

But  little  developed  in  the  finer  races,  it  is  large  in  common 
horses,  in  which  it  is  habitually  cut  or  peeled  off  in  arranging  the 
animal's  toilet  before  presenting  him  for  sale. 

The  absence  of  the  chestnuts  in  the  -anterior  members  has  been 
observed,  but  it  is  a  very  rare  fact.  (The  chestnuts  are  the  rudiment 
of  the  nail  or  hoof  of  the  internal  digit  or  thumb.) 


F.— The  Knee. 

Situation. — The  knee,  corresponding  to  the  wrist  of  man,  com- 
prises all  the  radio-carpo-metacarpal  articulations.  It  is  at  this  region 
that  the  anatomical  foot  commences.  It  is  also  the  region  where  the 
anterior  member  is  almost  completely  divested  of  its  muscles,  and  is 
constituted  by  nothing  but  the  bones,  the  tendons,  and  the  ligaments. 

Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — Limited  above  by  the  forearm  and  below 
by  the  canon,  this  region  has  for  its  osseous  base  the  seven  carpal  bones  arranged 
in  two  superposed  layers.  One  of  these  bones,  the  first  and  the  most  external 
of  the  four  of  the  superior  row,  also  called  the  supra-carpal,  is  situated  somewhat 


228  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

without  the  region,  and  forms  behind  a  more  or  less  pronounced  elevation  under 
the  skin. 

Several  special  ligaments,  short,  strong,  and  numerous,  unite  the  bones  of  the 
same  row  to  one  another ;  others  maintain  the  two  rows  in  contiguity,  or  concur 
to  fix  the  one  or  the  other  to  the  forearm  or  the  canon ;  finally,  the  common  liga- 
ments, which  are  much  longer  and  more  resisting,  and  common  to  all  the  carpal 
articulations,  appear  to  assume  the  role  of  insuring  general  solidity  of  the  whole 
region. 

Among  the  last,  two  are  lateral,  funicular,  which  circumscribe  the  carpus 
within  and  without,  and  extend  from  the  tuberosities  of  the  radius  to  termi- 
nate on  the  head  of  the  rudimentary  metacarpals ;  the  other  two  are  capsular : 
the  one,  the  anterior,  is  thin,  more  particularly  charged  to  sustain  the  synovial 
membrane  of  the  joint  and  to  furnish  gliding  surfaces  for  the  tendons  which 
pass  over  the  anterior  surface  of  the  knee ;  the  other,  the  posterior,  much  more 
fibrous,  extremely  thick  and  resisting,  fills  up  all  the  irregularities  on  the  pos- 
terior face  of  the  carpal  bones  and  transforms  this  face  into  a  veritable  sheath, 
the  carpal  sheath,  which  is  completed  posteriorly  by  the  supra-carpal  bone  and 
an  arch  of  fibrous  tisssue,  in  which  are  lodged  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  pha- 
langes. This  ligament,  one  of  the  most  powerful  in  the  organism,  is  prolonged 
at  its  inferior  extremity  by  a  strong  band  to  constitute  the  check  tendon,  Avhich  is 
inserted  into  one  of  these  tendons  (that  of  the  deep  flexor),  and  plays  a  mechan- 
ical but  important  role  in  supporting  the  fetlock  and  maintaining  its  angle. 

Three  synovial  membranes  lubricate  the  articular  surfaces  and  facilitate  their 
movements.  They  are  everywhere  firmly  surrounded  by  the  ligaments  as  well  as 
the  extensor  tendons  of  the  foot,  excepting  at  certain  places  where  they  are  more 
feebly  supported,  and  become  the  seat  of  abnormal  dilatations.  We  will  refer  to 
these  in  discussing  the  blemishes. 

The  anterior  face  of  the  carpus  is  traversed  from  above  to  below  by  two 
principal  tendons,  which  are  maintained  there  by  means  of  special  synovial 
sheaths  :  one  of  them  is  that  of  the  anterior  extensor  of  the  metacarpus,  the  other 
that  of  the  anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges. 

The  external  face  is  traversed  by  the  tendon  of  the  lateral  extensor  of  the 
phalanges ;  the  internal  face  by  that  of  the  internal  flexor  of  the  metacarpus. 

Finally,  upon  the  posterior  face  of  the  region  is  located  the  vast  carpal 
sheath,  whose  synovial  membrane  covering  its  walls  and  reflected  upon  the  two 
tendons  of  the  flexors  of  the  phalanges,  ascends  on  the  posterior  face  of  the 
radius  to  about  its  inferior  fourth,  and  descends  against  the  metacarpus  to  the 
lower  limit  of  its  superior  third.  Although  strongly  surrounded  above  by  the 
muscular  cone  of  the  flexors  of  the  metacarpus  and  the  antibrachial  aponeurosis, 
below  and  in  its  middle  portion  by  the  carpal  arch,  it  nevertheless  becomes 
apparent,  when  it  is  the  seat  of  abnormal  distentions  in  the  form  of  tumors,  whose 
exact  characteristics  and  situation  we  will  indicate  farther  on. 

The  movements  of  the  canon  on  the  forearm  mechanically  excite  those 
of  the  knee  ;  they  consist  of  flexion  and  extension. 

The  first  is  produced  when  the  foot  is  elevated  from  the  ground  and  before 
it  is  advanced  to  complete  the  step.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  inferior 
extremity  of  the  member,  instead  of  moving  in  its  own  plane,  is  deviated  out- 
ward in  consequence  of  the  obliquity  of  all  the  articular  surfaces,  and  is  not  thus 
exposed  to  come  in  contact  with  the  posterior  face  of  the  forearm. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER. 


229 


The  second  only  takes  place  when  the  member,  sufficiently  relieved  from  the 
weight  it  supports,  is  projected  forward  to  complete  the  step  and  assume  its  con- 
tact. It  has  attained  its  extreme  limit  as  soon  as  the  two  segments  are  placed  in 
a  straight  line,  as  they  were  during  station. 

As  to  the  displacements  which  the  carpal  bones  undergo,  the  one  upon  the 
other  their  importance  is  considerable  in  relation  with  the  distribution  of  the 
quantity  of  force  upon  the  metacarpal  surfaces.  Their  multiple  facets,  indeed, 
represent  so  many  inclined  planes  which  deaden  the  concussion  and  disseminate 
it  upon  the  powerful  ligaments  which  unite  these  bones. 

Form.— The  anatomical  details  which  we  have  summarily  reviewed  are 
indispensable  in  order  to  conceive  an  exact  idea  of  the  external  aspect  of  a  well- 
constituted  knee. 

The  skin,  in  horses  of  the  finer  and  more  nervous  races,  is  thin,  covers  all 
irregularities  of  the  region,  and  shows  its  contour  with  the  most  perfect  details. 
Also  it  is  in  these  that  the  characters  of  a  beautiful  conformation  can  be  best 
studied. 

Viewed  on  the  anterior  face  (Fig.  67,  A),  the  knee  appears  slightly  rounded 
from  side  to  side,  and  a  little  wider  above  than  below.  It  offers  on  its  middle  an 


B 


FIG.  67. 


elongated  eminence,  the  termination  of  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor  of  the 
metacarpus.  Two  curved  lines  circumscribe  it  on  the  sides :  the  internal,  very 
marked,  commences  at  the  tuberosity  of  the  radius ;  the  external  begins  almost 
on  the  same  level,  but  makes  a  less  salient  angle  ;  both  terminate  quite  abruptly 
at  the  canon  below  the  head  of  the  rudimentary  metacarpal  bones. 

Examined  in  profile  from  the  external  side  (Fig.  67,  B),  its  anterior  line, 
almost  straight,  continues  that  of  the  forearm ;  two  eminences,  scarcely  marked, 
modify  it  slightly  and  indicate  the  relief  of  the  two  rows  of  carpal  bones.  Its 
posterior  line,  on  the  contrary,  presents  a  very  pronounced  angle,  formed  by  the 
supra-carpal  bone,  below,  which  it  curves  obliquely  forward  upon  the  tendons. 
Between  these  two  lines  there  are  two  prominences  which  indicate  the  external 
tuberosity  of  the  radius,  above,  and  the  head  of  the  corresponding  splint  bone, 
below.  The  branch  from  the  tendon  of  the  lateral  extensor  of  the  phalanges 
joining  that  of  the  anterior  extensor  is  detached  below  the  latter. 


230  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  profile  of  the  knee  from  the  inner  side  (Fig.  67,  C)  is  very  much  similar 
to  that  which  is  seen  from  the  outer  side.  It  presents  the  internal  radial  tube- 
rosity,  well  outlined,  the  internal  metacarpal  vein,  and  the  head  of  the  internal 
splint  bone. 

Finally,  viewed  from  behind  (Fig.  67,  Z>),  the  lines  which  circumscribe  it 
on  the  side  are  similar  to  those  which  we  have  described  in  connection  with  the 
anterior  face,  while  in  its  middle  it  is  traversed  by  a  voluminous  conical  emi- 
nence formed  by  the  insertion  of  the  flexors  of  the  metacarpus  upon  the  supra- 
carpal  bone.  This  relief,  slightly  depressed  below  the  latter  at  a  point  called  the 
fold  of  the  knee,  is  continuous  inferiorly,  without  any  sharp  demarcation,  with 
the  flexor  tendons  of  the  phalanges. 

Beauties. — The  knee,  in  order  to  be  beautiful,  must  be  fine,  thick, 
wide,  well  situated,  well  directed,  and  free  from  blemishes. 

Fineness. — This  quality  is  one  that,  in  a  general  manner,  is 
desirable  in  all  the  articulations.  It  denotes  that  they  are  formed  only 
of  those  parts  which  should  constitute  them.  It  resides  in  the  appar- 
ent prominence  of  all  the  normal  osseous  reliefs,  the  ligaments  and  the 
tendons,  which  implies  a  thin  and  delicate  skin,  a  small  abundance  and 
great  density  of  the  connective  tissue  which  covers  these  structures. 
All  horses  belonging  to  the  more  distinguished  races  are  noted  for  this 
peculiarity ;  those  of  the  common  races  present  it  in  a  small  degree, 
and  in  nerveless  and  lymphatic  animals  it  is  absolutely  defective ;  the 
articulations  in  the  last  are  always  more  or  less  poorly  defined. 

Thickness. — The  thickness  of  the  knee  is  its  diameter  from  side 
to  side.  It  is  particularly  desirable,  because  the  lateral  diameter  is  in 
relation  with  the  transverse  development  of  the  articular  surfaces,  with 
the  volume  of  the  carpal  bones,  and,  consequently,  with  the  firmness 
of  the  step  and  safety  of  the  gait.  When  this  region  is  narrow,  the 
animal  is  liable  to  stumble  and  to  a  premature  ruin  of  his  limbs,  which 
are  too  feeble  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body  beyond  a  certain  rate 
of  speed. 

Width. — The  width  is  measured  from  before  to  behind,  for  the 
extent  of  the  knee  measures  more  in  this  sense  than  from  one  side 
to  the  other.  A  large  width  always  indicates  the  antero-posterior  de- 
velopment of  the  articular  surfaces  and  a  decided  prominence  of  the 
supra-carpal  bone. 

The  effect  of  the  first  of  these  factors  is  to  render  the  carpal  bones 
more  resisting,  to  augment  the  movements  of  flexion  and  extension,  at 
the  same  time  that  it  makes  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  radius  appear 
larger,  a  disposition  which  separates  the  muscles  from  their  parallelism 
with  the  bones  and  favors  their  action.  The  second  only  implies  a 
longer  arm  of  the  lever  for  the  flexors  of  the  metacarpus. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER. 


231 


The  knee  is  called  calf's  knee  when  it  is  defective  in  its  width,  its 
thickness,  and  in  the  eifacement  of  all  the  bony  prominences ;  it  denotes 
a  general  feebleness  of  the  member,  the  volume  of  an  articulation 
being  correlative  also  to  that  of  the  regions  which  confine  it. 

Height. — The  height  of  the  knee  above  the  ground  depends  on 
the  relative  length  of  the  forearm  and  the  canon.  We  have  seen  that 
a  long  forearm  gives  a  great  advantage  in  the  function  of  kmg  anti- 
brachial  muscles,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  preference  should  be 
given  to  a  knee  well  descended  and  situated  very  low.  In  this  con- 
nection, all  other  things  being  equal,  saddle-  and  carriage-horses  have 
the  knee  higher  than  draught-horses,  a  fact  which  can  be  easily  ascer- 
tained by  actual  measurement.  Their  canons  are  longer,  their  body  is 
less  close  to  the  ground.  Nevertheless,  tnis  does  not  change  the  prin- 
ciple which  has  just  been  laid  down.  The  latter  applies  only  to  those 
subjects  whose  conformation  is  comparable,  and  to  no  others. 

Direction. — The  vertical  direction  of  the  forearm  and  of  the 
canon  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  principal  conditions  of  the  strength 
and  endurance  of  the  anterior  members.  So  true  is  this 
that  everything  in  the  carpal  articulations  is  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  determine  this  mode  of  superposition  of 
the  osseous  segments.  Such  is,  however,  not  always  the 
direction  of  the  knee :  sometimes  it  is  deviated  forward 
or  backward  from  the  vertical  line;  sometimes  it  is 
within  or  without  this  axis.  Hence  grave  defects  of  the 
axis  of  the  member,  to  which  are  given  particular  names. 

Thus,  the  horse  is  called  over  in  the  knees,  knee- 
sprung,  when  this  region  is  curved  forward  (Fig.  68). 

This  condition  is  also  distinguished  as  acquired  and 
congenital:  acquired  or  accidental  when  it  is  the  result 
of  fatigue  and  excessive  wear  and  tear  of  the  parts; 
congenital,  on  the  contrary,  when  it  exists  from  the  time 
of  the  animal's  birth. 

The  first  case  is  a  serious  condition,  indicative  of  the         FIG.  68. 
muscular  weakness  of  the  part,  of  its  worn-out  state,  or 
of  the  contraction  of  the  posterior  tendons ;  such  a  horse  is  utterly  un- 
steady on  his  feet,  is  positively  unsafe  to  ride,  and  may  fall  on  his 
knees  at  any  moment,  as  is  shown  by  the  indelible  scars  with  which 
they  are  usually  disfigured. 

In  the  second  case  the  defect  is  only  apparent,  and  in  no  way  inter- 
feres with  a  firm  and  steady  grip  of  the  ground  or  with  the  freedom 
of  movements. 


232 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


"  In  this  class/7  says  H.  Bouley,1  "  we  even  find  horses  whose 
knees  arch  forward  to  such  an  extent,  when  they  are  standing  still, 
that  we  wonder  how  they  manage  to  hold  themselves  up ;  and  never- 
theless, even  laboring  under  such  an  exaggerated  form  of  this  defect, 
they  never  stumble  when  once  they  have  been  started.  The  reason  of 
it  is  that  the  remarkable  attitude  of  these  animals  does  not  bespeak 
any  weakening  in  the  powers  of  their  extensor  muscles,  as  it  does  in 
the  horse  that  has  become  knee-sprung  through  hard  work  and  old  age." 
Custom  alone  enables  us  to  distinguish  true  or  acquired  sprung 
knees ;  let  us  add  that  it  is  also  revealed  by  the  trembling  of  the  knees 
when  the  horse  is  in  a  resting  posture,  as  well  as  by  the  habitual  pres- 
ence of  hard  or  soft  blemishes  upon  the  inferior  regions  of  the  members. 
If,  contrary  to  what  we  have  seen,  the  knee  deviates  towards  the 
back  of  the  vertical  axis  (Fig.  69),  it  is  termed  effaced, 
sunken,  hollow,  or  sheep-knee. 

This  defect,  characterized  by  a  concavity  of  its  ante- 
rior face  and  a  more  distinct  prominence  of  the  supra- 
carpal  bone,  has  not,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  importance, 
as  regards   speed,  which  some  would  attach  to  it.     It 
necessitates,  without  doubt,  a  somewhat  more  extensive 
contraction  of  the  flexors   of  the  metacarpus,  to  bring 
that i  region  into  the  attitude  required  by  normal  flexion, 
whence  a  loss  of  time  in  the  execution  of  the  move- 
ments.    This  loss  of  time  and  of  muscular  force,  which 
result  from  it,  are  insignificant  and  can  hardly  be  appre- 
ciated.    Such  a  conformation  is  vicious,  rather  in  so  far 
as  it  causes  a  continual  tension  of  the  posterior  ligamentous 
apparatus  of   the  carpus  and  the  check  tendon  of  the 
FIG.  69.        perforans,  a  tension  which  tells  likewise  upon  the  lateral 
ligaments  and  becomes  further  increased  at  every  instant 
of  contact  with  the  ground,  when  the  animal  is  moving  at  great  speed. 
These  excessive  tractions,  injuring  the  articular  ligaments,  will  eventu- 
ally bring  about  the  formation  of  osseous  deposits  at  the  points  of 
their  insertion  upon  the  bones,  or  else  a  permanent  induration  of  the 
check  tendon  and  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock. 

Considerations  of  a  similar  nature  are  applicable  to  a  knee  which 
deviates  to  the  inner  side  of  the  vertical  axis,  and  which  is  styled 
ox-knee,  from  its  analogy  to  that  of  the  animal  whose  name  it  bears 
(Fig.  70).  Very  convex  upon  its  internal  face  and  concave  externally, 


r 

si 


1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictioiinaire  pratique  de  medecine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v^teri- 
naires,  t.  viii.  p.  201. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER. 


233 


FIG.  70. 


it  is  no  longer  compatible  here  with  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  body- 
weight  upon  the  metacarpal  region,  because  the  articular  surfaces  in  the 
horse's  carpus  have  a  slant  different  from  that  of 
the  carpal  bones  in  the  ox.  The  inward  deviation 
has  a  tendency  to  increase  in  the  state  of  rest  and 
at  the  time  of  contact  with  the  ground  during  loco- 
motion ;  the  outer  half  of  the  bones  is  overloaded, 
while  the  internal  lateral  ligament  is  stretched  to 
its  utmost.  Hence,  for  this  reason,  first  and  fore- 
most, do  we  look  upon  this  anatomical  conforma- 
tion as  a  vice  of  the  greatest  importance  in  car- 
riage- or  in  saddle-horses,  the  latter  in  particular. 

Moreover,  during  the  act  of  flexion,  it  exag- 
gerates the  movement  of  abduction  of  the  meta- 
carpus, which,  on    the   contrary,  under   ordinary 
normal    conditions,    is    always   very   slight.      At 
every  step  the  animal  throws  the  canon  outside  of 
the  vertical  axis,  wastes  a  certain  amount  of  time 
in  bringing  it  back  to  its  normal  attitude,  and  uses 
his  limb  in  a  most  ungraceful  style,  described  by  H.  Bouley  as  "  a 
kind  of  all-over-the-shop  gait,  displeasing  to  the  eye  of  the  true  con- 
noisseur."    Finally,  the  necessary  consequence  of 
this  form  of  the  knee  is  the  outward  deviation  of 
the  inferior  part  of  the  member,  notably  the  hoof. 
\¥e  will  return  to  this  in  speaking  of  the  outboiv- 
footed  horse.     (See  Axes.) 

When  the  region  of  the  carpus  deviates  to  the 
external  side  of  the  vertical  axis  it  is  the  seat  of  a 
grave  defect,  which  is  denoted  by  the  limb  being  con- 
vex on  the  external  side  and  concave  inwardly,  as 
well  as  by  a  convergence  of  the  two  hoofs  (Fig.  71). 
This  conformation  is  not  common,  but,  like  the  pre- 
ceding, it  causes  unsteadiness  in  the  "  grip"  of  the 
ground  and  a  straining  of  the  ligaments.     In  this 
case  it  is  the  internal  surface  of  the  articulations 
which  is  overloaded,  and  the  external  lateral  liga- 
ments that  are  subjected  to  the  abnormal  tension ; 
and  for  this  reason  blemishes  are  the  speedy  result  of  this  form  of  the 
knee.     Besides,  as  the  toe  of  the  hoof  is  turned  inward,  the  horse  is 
pigeon-toed  and  exposed,  consequently,  to  all  the  evils  of  this  defect, 
particularly  interfering. 


FIG.  7L 


234  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Clearness  of  Outline. — It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  knee  be 
"dry/'  wide,  thick,  Avell  located,  and  set  in  the  right  direction,  but  it 
is  absolutely  indispensable  that  the  outline  be  perfectly  clear, — that  is 
to  say,  neatly  denned  in  its  external  lines,  whether  viewed  from  the 
front  or  from  the  side.  Any  deformity,  even  a  slight  one,  should  be 
considered  grave,  for  it  is  a  sign  of  the  weakness  and  the  ultimate  ruin 
of  the  limb  in  which  it  is  noticed. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — H.  Bouley1  has  described  the  dis- 
eases and  the  blemishes  of  the  knee  in  his  usual  happy  style.  We  will 
therefore  limit  ourselves  to  condensing  here  what  he  has  written  on 
this  subject. 

1.  Recent  Lesions  and  Diseases. — First  among  these  are  denudations, 
excoriations,  and  more  or  less  deep  wounds  of  the  skin  of  the  anterior  surface  of 
this  region,  the  result  of  falls,  and  the  gravity  of  which  varies  with  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  velocity  of  the  gait,  and  the  weight  of  the  burden  which  the  ani- 
mal carried  at  the  time.     These  lesions,  as  well  as  the  scars  they  leave  behind, 
are,  as  a  rule,  somewhat  circular  in  shape,  on  which  account  the  horse  thus  disfig- 
ured is  said  to  be  crowned.     The  cicatrices  which  succeed  them  usually  have  quite 
a  regularly  circular  form,  and  designate  the  animal  that  presents  them  crowned. 
It  is  important  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  the  result  of  a  lack  of  steadiness  in 
the  anterior  limbs  or  due  to  accidental  falls.     It  is  likewise  necessary  to  find  out 
if  the  lesion  of  the  knee  has  affected  only  the  skin  and  the  subcutaneous  con- 
nective tissue,  or  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  synovial  bursse  have  been  involved,  for 
the  gravity  under  these  diverse  circumstances  is  not  the  same.     In  general,  super- 
ficial wounds  are  not  accompanied  by  any  great  difficulty  in  walking,  while  the 
deep  ones,  those  which  have  brought  about  the  opening  of  the  articulations,  are 
extremely  painful,  and  make  it  impossible  for  the  animal  to  press  his  hoof  on 
the  ground. 

Sometimes  injuries  or  falls  have  determined  no  other  consequences  than  a 
simple  excoriation  of  the  epidermis  and  the  hairs  thereon,  which  latter  will  grow 
again  with  their  natural  change  of  color.  At  other  times  the  region  is  more  or 
less  contused,  without  a  loss  of  substance,  and  the  extravasation  of  blood  or 
serum  underneath  the  skin  will  occasion  the  formation  of  abscesses  capable  of 
rendering  the  subjects  incapable  of  service  for  some  time. 

2.  Chronic  Lesions  and    Diseases. — In    this    category  are  arranged 
numerous  lesions  and  affections,  which,  in  most  instances,  are  tantamount  to 
true  blemishes.    They  involve  the  skin,  subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  the  artic- 
ular and  tendinous  synovial   bursas,  and  the  bones.     Let  us  examine  them 
rapidly. 

a.  Skin. — We  have  seen  that  the  horse  styled  crowned  may  receive  upon  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  knees  injuries  of  greater  or  less  importance;  but  the  skin 
only  preserves  permanent  traces  when  it  has  been  affected  in  its  essential  parts. 
The  most  trifling  of  these  after-results  are  those  which  proceed  merely  from 
a  modification  of  the  hair-follicles.  Where  these  follicles  are  the  new  hair 
grows  white,  and  thus  bears  witness  of  the  fall  which  has  taken  place.  In  other 

i  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit. 


ANTERIOR    MEMBER.  235 

cases  the  integument  has  been  injured  more  deeply  or  even  partly  destroyed,  and 
then  no  new  hairs  grow  when  the  cicatrization  has  been  completed.  In  the  eyes 
of  the  connoisseur  the  horse  is  no  less  blemished  in  the  one  case  than  the  other, 
whether  he  has  an  abnormal  white  spot  upon  the  knee  or  an  indelible  cicatrix 
deprived  of  hairs ;  he  is  considered  weak  upon  his  limbs,  predisposed  to  repeated 
falls,  and,  consequently,  much  depreciated  from  a  commercial  point  of  view, 
although,  at  times,  the  blemish  may  be  altogether  accidental.  We  should,  there- 
fore, beware  of  the  so-called  recipes  which  horse-merchants  never  fail  to~  recom- 
mend for  the  reproduction  of  the  hairs.  More  especially  should  we  be  on  our 
guard  against  the  fraudulent  means  used  by  certain  individuals  for  the  purpose 
of  concealing  from  the  eyes  of  too  credulous  buyers  a  blemish  which  baffles  all 
such  attempts.  Some  have  been  known  to  go  so  far  as  to  blacken  the  denuded 
spot  with  a  particular  blacking;  others  cover  it  rather  skilfully  with  false  hairs, 
which  they  temporarily  keep  in  due  position  by  means  of  a  thin  coating  of 
dextrine !  As  may  be  readily  imagined,  all  these  expedients  are  of  such  a  nature 
as  not  to  deceive  the  attentive  and  experienced  observer. 

Fissures  known  under  the  name  of  malanders  are  met  in  the  region  of  the 
fold  of  the  knee.  They  are  grave  in  so  far  as  they  cause  much  pain,  and  are  often 
very  tedious  to  heal. 

b.  Subcutaneous  Connective  Tissue. — It  is  not  rare  to  observe  more  or 
less  abundant  effusions  into  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue  as  the  result  of 
contusions  of  the  knee.     The  anterior  face  of  this  region  is  then  seen  to  present 
a  voluminous,  fluctuating,  and  non-inflammatory  tumor,  whose  walls,  at  first  thin, 
soon  become  indurated  and  irregularly  thickened  ;  this  constitutes  the  hy grama, 
or  cyst,  of  the  knee.     It  sometimes  becomes  inflamed  and  very  painful.     As  a 
general  rule,  it  interferes  with  locomotion  only  in  a  mechanical  manner,  and  is 
nothing  more  than  an  eyesore. 

Indurated  tumors  of  the  connective  tissue  have  the  same  origin ;  they  differ 
from  hygromata  in  the  fact  that  they  are  not  fluctuating  and  that  they  can  be 
much  more  easily  dissolved. 

c.  Tendinous  and  Articular  Bursse. — A  complex  articulation  like  the 
knee,  endowed  as  it  is  with  such  extensive  movements,  is  sure  to  give  signs  of 
fatigue  in  the  long  run,  by  synovial  dilatations  at  the  level  of  the  most  mobile 
parts, — that  is  to  say,  at  the  points  where  the  gliding  apparatus  must  needs  have 
displayed  an  excessive  and  almost  incessant  functional  activity.     Indeed,  that  is 
what  is  observed  in  the  radio-carpal  and  intercarpal  articulations,  in  spite  of  the 
powerful  union  which  protects  them. 

Hydropsy  or  hydrarthrosis  of  the  first  manifests  itself  by  the  presence  of 
two  tumors,  soft  and  fluctuating  when  the  limb  is  semiflexed,  and  tense  and  con- 
vex when  it  is  in  extension.  The  one  is  situated  immediately  above  the  supra- 
carpal  bone  and  against  the  radius ;  the  other  forms  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  knee.  They  correspond  evidently,  therefore,  to  the  por- 
tions of  the  synovial  membrane  which  are  feebly  supported ;  pressure  applied 
upon  the  lateral  tumor  is  distinctly  transmitted  to  the  anterior,  a  fact  which 
indicates  the  close  relation  which  they  bear  to  each  other. 

Hydrarthrosis  of  the  intercarpal  joint  is  shown,  when  the  foot  is  in  contact 
with  the  ground,  by  the  appearance  of  two  or  three  nodosities  of  the  size  of  a 
hazel-nut  or  a  walnut,  between  the  extensor  tendons  of  the  phalanges  and  of  the 
metacarpus,  almost  over  the  middle  of  the  anterior  surface  of  this  region. 


236  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

When  the  articular  dilatations  of  the  knee  are  very  old,  their  wall  becomes 
indurated  and  even  ossified.  This  constitutes,  in  the  latter  case,  one  of  the 
varieties  of  hooped  knee,  of  which  we  will  speak  farther  on. 

The  dilatations  of  the  tendinous  synovial  bursce  are  of  two  varieties:  they 
appear  either  along  the  course  of  the  flexor  tendons  or  along  that  of  the  exten- 
sors. Larger  than  the  preceding,  they  may  acquire  very  great  dimensions.  It 
sometimes  happens,  at  least  with  the  second  variety,  that  they  communicate 
between  themselves  or  with  the  articular  capsules,1  an  important  peculiarity, 
which  should  warn  us  against  the  danger  of  opening  them. 

Hydropsy  of  the  carpal  sheath,  better  known  under  the  name  of  carpal 
or  tendinous  thorough-pin  of  the  knee,  is  manifested  by  the  formation  of  two  tumors 
posterior  to  the  carpus,  between  the  radius  and  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  meta- 
carpus. Each  one  of  these  is  ovoid  in  shape ;  the  internal  is  ordinarily  smaller 
than  the  external,  and  both  extend  higher  up  than  the  articular  dilatation. 
Inferiorly,  the  tendinous  dilatation  is  prolonged  below  the  knee  by  a  soft, 
elongated,  and  irregularly- lobulated  swelling,  which  follows  the  course  of  the 
flexor  tendons,  and  transmits  its  fluctuation  and  palpation  to  the  two  superior 
culs-de-sac,  thus  giving  evidence  of  its  communication  with  them.  This  is  a  cir- 
cumstance which  is  never  noticed  in  the  articular  synovial  dilatation. 

The  synovial  dilatations  of  the  tendinous  biirsse  situated  upon  the  anterior 
capsular  ligament  of  the  carpus  present  analogous  characteristics.  They  con- 
sist of  elongated  tumors,  from  one  to  three  in  number,  located  under  each  of  the 
extensor  tendons,  and  always  perfectly  distinct  at  the  beginning  of  their  forma- 
tion. In  advanced  stages  they  become  diffused  over  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
knee,  and  may  communicate  among  themselves  and  with  the  articular  synovial 
membranes;  their  parietes  become  indurated  and,  in  some  places,  ossified. 
They  might  be  easily  confounded  with  the  cysts,  which  are  always  more  super- 
ficial, were  it  not  for  their  relative  situation  with  the  tendinous  cords. 

d.  Osseous  Apparatus. — Xot  even  the  osseous  apparatus  is  exempt  from 
the  traces  of  the  wear  and  tear  resulting  from  age  or  from  excessive  work.  Ex- 
ostoses  appear,  in  time,  upon  the  anterior  surface  of  the  carpal  bones  and  upon 
their  articular  edges,  at  the  points  which  correspond  to  the  insertions  of  the  lig- 
aments. These  osseous  tumors  of  the  knee  have  received  the  generic  name  of 
osselets.  Their  formation  begins  at  the  head  of  the  rudimentary  metacarpal, 
preferably  on  the  internal  side,  and  then  they  gradually  extend,  little  by  little, 
to  the  pieces  of  the  two  rows.  When  they  are  thus  generalized,  it  has  been  the 
custom  to  say  that  the  knee  is  hooped,  a  very  appropriate  expression,  which  con- 
veys to  the  mind  the  idea  of  the  alterations  of  which  the  region  is  the  seat 
These  osselets,  like  the  tendinous  and  articular  dilatations,  are  grave  blemishes  ; 
they  disfigure  the  animal,  produce  a  deviation  of  the  forearm  and  of  the  canon, 
and,  finally,  often  give  rise  to  a  rebellious  and,  very  often,  persistent  lameness 
of  variable  intensity. 

As  the  regions  situated  below  the  knee  and  the  hock  offer  but  few 
differences  in  their  anatomy  and  their  external  appearance,  we  will 
study  them  with  the  posterior  members. 

1 1  have  examined  a  large  number  of  articulations  and  have  not  once  verified  such  a  condi- 
tion. (Harger.) 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  237 

CHAPTER    II. 

POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 

WE  have  already  stated  the  reasons  for  uniting  the  description  of 
the  croup  with  that  of  the  trunk,  and  need  not  return  to  them  itere. 

The  regions  of  the  posterior  members  correspond  to  those  of  the 
anterior,  with  some  unimportant  variations  consequent  upon  the  par- 
ticular mode  in  which  these  parts  execute  their  movements. 

Thus,  the  thigh  is  the  counterpart  of  the  arm;  the  stifle,  of  the 
elbow ;  the  leg,  of  the  forearm ;  the  hock,  of  the  knee.  Such  are  the 
diverse  regions  which  it  remains  for  us  to  examine. 

A.— The  Thigh  and  the  Buttock. 

Situation ;  Limits  ;  Anatomical  Base. — We  deem  it  advis- 
able to  combine  the  thigh  and  the  buttock  in  one  description,  since  there 
is  so  close  a  relation  between  them. 

We  will  merely  consider  the  latter  as  that  part  of  the  former  which 
is  charged  with  the  flexion  of  the  tibia,  the  extension  of  the  femur,  and 
the  rotation  of  the  coxa. 

The  thigh  is  the  region  where  the  posterior  member  becomes  sepa- 
rated from  the  trunk.  It  is  limited  above  by  the  croup  and  the 
haunch;  below,  by  the  leg  and  the  stifle;  in  front,  by  the  flank; 
inwardly,  by  the  groin  (in  both  sexes),  the  sheath  and  the  scrotum  in 
the  male  and  the  mammary  glands  in  the  female ;  behind,  finally,  it  is 
altogether  free,  and  is  simply  in  relation  with  the  trunk  and  the  hairs 
of  the  tail. 

Its  anatomical  base  consists  of  the  femur  and  of  numerous  muscles 
which,  originating  in  adjoining  regions,  terminate  here,  or,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  detached  here  to  terminate  011  the  sections  immediately  below 
it, — viz.,  the  leg  and  the  foot. 

Form. — The  thigh  offers  for  study  two  surfaces  and  two  borders. 

The  external  surface  is  slightly  rounded,  according  to  its  length  and  its 
width,  in  a  horse  in  good  condition.  It  forms,  in  such  cases,  below  the  croup,  an 
almost  vertical  plane,  which  blends  off  below  with  the  corresponding  surface  of 
the  leg,  and,  in  front,  with  the  side  of  the  flank.  But  hard  work  and  insufficient 
food  render  the  muscular  interstices  and  the  natural  prominences  of  the  skeleton 
very  apparent :  the  femur  is  indicated  by  a  thick  longitudinal  elevation,  in  front 
of  which  the  muscles  appear  hollow,  in  consequence  of  the  contraction  of  the 
flank  ;  the  ischiatic  tuberosity  and  the  trochanter  become  very  salient,  and  leave 
between  them  a  deep  furrow  which  separates  the  superficial  gluteus  muscle 


238  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

from  the  posterior  ischio-tibial  muscles,  and  which  is  known  under  the  pictu- 
resque name  of  furrow  of  misery. 

The  internal  surface,  called  the/o^  of  the  thigh,  is  also  more  or  less  convex. 
It  is  traversed  above  in  its  direction  and  from  back  to  front  by  a  large  vein,  the 
saphena,  on  which  phlebotomy  is  sometimes  practised.  This  vein  is  accompanied 
by  a  small  artery  bearing  the  same  name  and  covered  over  with  a  net-work  of 
nerve-branches  and  of  lymphatic  vessels,  whose  situation  it  is  important  to  re- 
member from  a  surgical  point  of  view. 

The  anterior  border  of  the  thigh  is  constituted  by  a  voluminous  muscular 
mass,  the  crural  triceps,  whose  function  it  is  to  extend  the  leg.  Over  the  middle 
and  inferior  portion  of  this  border  attaches  a  musculo-cutaneous  fold,  .which  is 
called  the  fold  of  the  stifle,  and  spreads  over  from  the  side  of  the  flank  to  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  stifle-joint. 

As  to  the  posterior  border,  it  represents  by  itself  the  sub-region  of  the 
buttock  or  the  breeching,  and  has  for  its  base  the  ischio-tibial  muscles.  It 
describes,  beginning  at  the  base  of  the  tail  where  it  becomes  continuous  with  the 
croup,  a  regularly-curved  line,  which  becomes  concave  inferiorly  and  disappears 
at  the  posterior  border  of  the  leg.  The  most  salient  point  of  this  graceful  curve 
has  received  the  name  of  point  or  angle  of  the  buttock  ;  it  is  due  to  the  prominence 
of  the  ischiatic  tuberosity  of  the  coxa.  On  the  other  hand,  the/o/rf  of  the  buttock 
is  the  most  concave  portion  of  this  line,  and  corresponds  about  to  the  centre  of 
flexion  of  the  tibia  on  the  femur.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  in  very  emaciated 
subjects  the  point  and  the  fold  of  the  buttock  are  always  strongly  marked,  while 
they  are  scarcely  indicated  in  those  that  are  in  good  condition,  particularly  in 
the  heavy  draught-horse,  whose  muscular  system  is  voluminous. 

Viewed  from  behind,  the  thigh  is  thicker  as  its  muscular  masses  are  more 
developed  and  as  the  animal  belongs  to  a  race  of  a  more  lymphatic  and  less 
nervous  temperament. 

Movements. — This  region,  in  relation  with  the  movements 
which  it  executes,  is  most  interesting  to  study.  It  describes  two  prin- 
cipal movements,  whose  centre  is  the  coxo-femoral  articulation :  these 
are  extension  and  flexion.  Their  maximum  amplitude  is  about  30 
degrees. 

During  flexion,  the  femur  is  displaced  angularly  to  begin  the  step. 
It  reaches  its  limit  of  flexion  a  little  before  the  foot  arrives  on  the 
ground,  so  as  to  allow  the  full  extension  of  the  tibia,  which  has  not  yet 
been  completed  at  the  moment  that  the  femoral  flexion  is  accomplished. 

During  extension,  the  phenomena  have  an  inverse  order :  the  femur 
moves  backward,  thus  strongly  opening  the  coxo-femoral  angle ;  its 
obliquity  is  changed  in  direction  ;  it  becomes  vertical  or  even  inclined 
backward  and  downward  when  the  limb  is  about  to  rise.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  thigh  takes  place  during  the  last  phase  of  contact  and 
ceases  as  soon  as  the  foot  has  left  the  ground  to  accomplish  a  new  step. 
The  muscles  which  execute  it  are  more  numerous  and  stronger  than 
those  which  produce  flexion ;  a  fact  not  to  be  wondered  at,  since  these 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  239 

muscles  have  to  displace  the  body-weight  as  well  as  to  overcome  the 
inertia,  while,  in  the  second  case,  they  only  raise  the  member  and  pro- 
ject it  forward.  The  energy  and  the  extent  of  their  contraction  will 
determine  the  intensity  and  amplitude  of  the  femoral  force  which,  in 
concert  with  the  stifle  and  the  hock,  communicates  to  the  trunk  the 
initial  impulsion,  the  action,  as  it  is  customary  to  say. 

Direction. — The  direction  of  the  thigh  cannot  be  suitably-  de- 
scribed unless  we  understand  well  the  signification  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  accord  to  this  word. 

In  animal  mechanics,  osseous  segments  have  an  axis  of  form  which  is  not 
always  their  axis  of  movement.  The  latter  being  defined  as  the  imaginary  line 
which  connects  the  two  probable  centres  of  movement,  it  is  clear  that  it  will 
differ  from  the  axis  of  form  whenever  the  articular  surfaces  are  situated  in  front, 
behind,  without,  or  within  the  axis  of  the  latter.  This  has  already  been  noticed 
in  the  case  of  the  humerus,  and  is  evident  here  again  in  the  consideration  of  the 
femur.  The  axis  of  form  of  this  bone  follows  almost  exactly  the  direction  of 
a  line  connecting  the  trochanter  with  the  fossa  which  exists  between  the  trochlea 
and  the  external  condyle ;  the  axis  of  movement,  on  the  contrary,  joins  the 
centre  of  the  coxo-femoral  to  the  centre  of  the  femoro-tibial  articulation,  and 
crosses  the  first  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  head  of  the  femur  occupies  the 
internal  side  of  this  bone  instead  of  being  situated  directly  at  its  superior 
extremity. 

In  spite  of  the  difficulties  which,  in  the  living  animal,  hinder  the  determina- 
tion of  this  fact,  we  may  obtain  the  result  in  an  approximate  manner  by  seeking 
the  two  points  indicative  of  the  two  aforesaid  articular  centres  ;  these  are,  on  the 
one  part,  the  concavity  of  the  trochanter,  and,  on  the  other,  the  middle  of  the 
length  of  the  external  femoro-tibial  ligament.  The  line  joining  these  two 
points  will  constitute  the  axis  of  movement  of  the  femur.  In  many  subjects,  the 
horse  being  supposed  to  be  in  equilibrium,  it  is  almost  vertical ;  in  others,  it  falls 
to  a  slight  extent  obliquely  forward  and  downward ;  finally,  there  are  some  in 
which  it  is  oblique  in  an  inverse  sense, — that  is  to  say,  downward  and  backward. 

The  direction  of  the  thigh  should  satisfy  the  four  principal  require- 
ments which  follow  : 

1st.  Give  to  the  coxo-femoral  angle,  already  reduced  by  the  hori- 
zontal direction  of  the  croup,  a  sufficiently  wide  opening. 

2d.  Permit  of  an  extensive  separation  of  the  branches  of  the 
femoro-tibial  angle,  while  allowing,  at  the  same  time,  a  feeble  obliquity 
of  the  leg. 

3d.  Not  alter  the  vertical  axis,  which  implies  the  tangency  of  the 
hock  to  the  vertical  line  falling  from  the  point  of  the  buttock. 

4th.  Finally,  maintain  the  stifle  in  a  certain  state  of  separation 
from  the  median  plane. 

We  estimate,  from  our  researches,  that  a  mean  inclination  of  80 
degrees  fulfils  all  these  desiderata  in  rapid  motors.  The  obliquity  in 


240  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  slow  draught-horse  may  be  more  accentuated,  since  the  coxa  is 
less  horizontal,  but  this  modification  is  rarely  observed.  Ordinarily,  in 
these  horses,  the  femur  is  straighter  at  the  same  time  that  the  croup  is 
slanting,  which  thus  increases  this  angle  instead  of  diminishing  it,  so 
as  to  place  the  inferior  parts  of  the  member  in  a  less  defective  position 
in  relation  with  the  vertical  axis. 

Examinations  of  instantaneous  photographs  teach  us  that  the 
limit  of  extension  of  the  crural  segment  is  situated  but  slightly  pos- 
terior to  the  vertical  line  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  coxo-femoral 
articulation. 

In  principle,  therefore,  the  thigh  should  not  be  too  straight  when 
the  animal  is  normally  at  rest, — that  is  to  say,  when  the  line  of  direc- 
tion of  the  femur  becomes  confounded  with  the  vertical  line  which 
extends  from  the  centre  of  suspension  of  the  limb  upon  the  trunk. 
(See  Vertical  Axes.) 

When  it  is  thus  (Fig.  72,  AB),  the  degree  of  extension  of  the 
femur  is  necessarily  limited,  the  animal  lacks  action,  and  is  incapable 
of  utilizing  the  advantages  of  a  long  croup.  Besides,  his  vertical  axis 
becomes  vicious,  and  the  hock  and  the  foot  carried  too  far  backward, 
render  him  camped  behind.  As  to  the  muscles,  the  gluteals,  HA,  the 
extensors  of  the  leg,  mn,  and  the  ischio-tibial  muscles,  Go,  are  short ; 
the  flexors,  iH,  alone  are  long. 

When  the  femur,  on  the  contrary,  is  too  oblique,  as  CD,  it  is  the 
flexion  that  is  unduly  limited.  The  arc  which  the  foot  describes  at 
each  step  is  too  short ;  the  member,  stationed  too  much  under  the  trunk, 
works  upward,  and  loses  a  part  of  its  extension  power  in  raising  the 
body  instead  of  projecting  it  forward,  whatever  may  be  the  greater 
length  of  the  gluteal  muscles,  HC,  of  the  ischio-tibials,  Go",  and  the 
extensors  of  the  leg,  win" '. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  degree  of  inclination  of  the  thigh  being 
capable  of  modifying  the  value  of  the  coxo-femoral  angle,  it  may  be 
questioned  whether,  for  velocity,  the  obliquity  of  the  croup  would  not 
be  capable  of  compensating  the  excess  of  obliquity  of  the  crural  seg- 
ment in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  to  this  angle  the  same  opening  and, 
consequently,  the  .same  degree  of  play. 

This  compensation,  as  we  have  seen  above,  is  possible,  but  only 
within  very  narrow  limits,  because  the  orientation  of  the  articular 
angle  soon  becomes  defective ;  its  bisecting  plane  assumes  too  horizontal 
a  direction.  Here,  as  in  the  arm,  the  principle  is :  to  a  horizontal 
croup  should  correspond  a  straight  thigh. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  it  be  necessary  that  the  femur  should  pre- 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


241 


serve  a  suitable  and  efficacious  opening  of  the  coxo-femoral  joint,  it  is 
no  less  obligatory  that  it  should  give  a  proper  direction,  as  well  as  a 


FIG.  72. 


wide  opening,  to  the  angle  which  it  forms  with  the  leg.  Observation 
demonstrates,  in  fact,  that  the  femoro-tibial  angle  always  has  a  wider 
opening  in  rapid  motors ;  this  is  the  factor  which  prevents  the  tibia 
from  assuming  an  excessive  inclination  which  would  place  it  in  a  posi- 
tion disadvantageous  to  its  movements  of  extension  and  flexion  and 
its  effectiveness  in  progression. 

We  therefore  believe  that  a  somewhat  oblique  thigh  fulfils  all  these 
diverse  requirements.  It  is  the  kind  of  thigh  which  is  best  for  long 
strides,  extensive  and  effective  propulsive  movements,  and  a  normal 

16 


242 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


relation  with  the  vertical  axis.  This  is  very  different  from  the  classical 
teachings  of  a  certain  school,  that  all  the  superior  segments  of  the 
members  should  incline  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  horizon  ! 

Finally,  one  more  point  of  excellence  in  the  thigh  consists  in  its 
being  well  away  from  the  median  plane  towards  its  inferior  extremity. 
The  region  of  the  stifle,  of  which  we  will  soon  speak,  will  not,  in  this 
case,  be  exposed,  in  rapid  locomotion,  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
abdominal  parietes.  If  this  separation,  however,  be  too  marked,  it 
will  cause  an  outward  deviation  of  the  inferior  parts  of  the  limb. 
Many  horses,  close  behind  and  outbow-footed,  owe  the  faulty  direction 
of  their  posterior  extremities  to  this  cause.  (See  Vertical  Axes.) 

Length. — The  length  of  the  thigh,  it  can  be  plainly  seen,  must 
be  in  close  relation  with  the  amplitude  of  the  oscillations  of  which  it 
is  capable ;  besides,  it  governs  the  degree  of  the  displacements  of  the 
tibia.  In  our  opinion,  it  should  be  computed  from  the  coxo-femoral 
articulation  to  the  inferior  part  of  the  stifle.  But  its  variations  mani- 
fest themselves  principally  at  the  level  of  its  posterior  border.  They 
are  usually  characterized  by  different  expressions.  Thus,  such  a  buttock 
is  said  to  be  long  or  well  descended  (Fig.  73),  which  constitutes  for  this 


FIG.  73. 


FIG.  74. 


region  a  beauty  of  the  first  order,  and  of  which  the  English  thorough- 
bred, especially,  offers  a  remarkable  example. 

When  the  thigh  is  deficient  in  length,  it  renders  the  buttock  round 
and  short  (Fig.  74),  a  defect  which  may  also  be  due  to  too  small  a 
femoro-tibial  an^le.  The  buttock  is  also  named  salient  when  its  point 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  243 

is  prominent  in  a  horse  in  good  condition,  which  signifies  an  easy 
rotation  of  the  coxae  on  the  posterior  members. 

Width  and  Thickness. — The  width  of  the  thigh  is  measured 
by  a  horizontal  line  which  crosses  it  underneath  the  coxo-femoral  artic- 
ulation. Its  thickness,  on  the  contrary,  is  appreciated,  from  side  to 
side,  either  by  viewing  the  animal  from  behind  or  obliquely  from  in 
front. 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  dwell  upon  the  importance  of  these  two 
dimensions,  which  show  the  muscular  development  of  the  region  and, 
consequently,  the  impulsive  force  of  the  hind  extremities.  A  thigh 
lacking  sufficient  thickness  is  designated  as  sharp  ;  when  this  deficiency 
affects  the  whole  tlxigh,  and  is  accompanied,  moreover,  by  a  lack  of 
width,  the  thigh  is  styled  flat,  lean,  or  is  called  a  frog's  thigh;  among 
horsemen  the  animal  himself  is  known  by  the  name  froggy,  by  reason 
of  the  striking  weakness  of  his  hind  quarters. 

The  beautiful  muscularity  of  the  thigh  can  be  summarized  in  a 
word  :  the  animal  is  well  rumped  and  strong-limbed ;  his  buttock  is 
well  furnished  ;  his  muscles  are  firm,  dense,  and  elastic. 

Peculiar  Markings. — The  external  surface  of  the  thighs  often 
presents  cauterization  brands,  practised  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinguishing subjects,  of  recognizing  their  breed,  and  of  testifying  of 
their  purchase,  or  of  any  prizes  they  may  have  obtained. 

Up  to  a  recent  date,  horses  in  the  French  arrny  were  marked  upon  the  left 
thigh  as  follows :  with  a  grenade,  if  used  by  riflemen ;  a  C,  by  the  cuirassiers ;  a 
D,  by  the  dragoons ;  an  H,  by  the  hussars ;  an  A,  by  the  artillery ;  a  hunting- 
horn,  by  the  chasseurs ;  a  cross,  by  the  lancers  ;  a  T  and  an  E,  for  the  transpor- 
tation horses,  etc.  This  practice  having  sometimes  occasioned  extensive  slough- 
ing of  the  integument  and  disfigured  the  animals,  these  marks  were  subsequently 
made  upon  the  side  of  the  neck,  where  they  were  more  or  less  concealed  by  the 
mane.  Ultimately  the  accidents  to  the  operators,  the  pain  occasioned  by  the 
branding,  and  the  complications  and  the  blemishes  resulting  therefrom  led  to 
the  adoption  of  a  much  wiser  method,  the  marking  of  the  hoof,  which  is  alone 
practised  nowadays.  \ 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  disadvantages  of  the  hot- 
iron  brand,  some  large  corporations  have  thought  it  advisable  to  pre- 
serve it.  The  Paris  General  Omnibus  Company's  horses  are  all  marked 
with  a  number  upon  the  left  side  of  the  neck ;  those  of  the  Paris 
"  Petites  Voitures"  (or  light-stage)  Company,  on  the  contrary,  are 
marked  on  the  hoof.  There  are  cases  in  which  one  of  the  thighs 
bears  likewise  peculiar  markings.  Sometimes  we  find  a  number, 
sometimes  a  date,  and  at  other  times  various  letters,  very  often  a  P  on 
horses  that  have  won  prizes ;  again,  figures  of  a  special  form,  as  in 


244  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  case  of  many  Russian,  Hungarian,  and  Andalusian  horses,  or  those 
of  certain  studs. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  diseases  of  the  thigh  and  the  buttock 
consist  in  general  of  wounds,  abscesses,  and  blood  tumors,  which  are  the  result  of 
blows,  knocks,  falls,  or  other  purely  accidental  causes.  There  is,  nevertheless,  an 
important  one  for  which  we  should  keep  a  sharp  w*atch ;  this  is  an  inflammation 
of  the  lymphatic  vessels  on  the  flat  of  the  thigh.  An  examination  of  the  course 
of  these  vessels  reveals  a  hard,  cylindrical,  sometimes  bosselated,  cord,  painful  or 
painless  to  the  touch,  and  of  variable  volume,  which  goes  right  up  to  the  inguinal 
lymphatic  glands  in  the  groin.  This  elongated  tumor,  known  under  the  name 
of  corded  lymphatics,  is  very  often  the  symptom  of  glanders-farcy,  and,  for  this 
reason,  its  existence  is  an  ugly  symptom.  In  other  cases  this  condition  is  the 
consequence  of  diseases  of  the  foot  or  of  the  inferior  regions  of  the  member. 
Whatever  its  cause  may  be,  its  presence  always  demands  a  most  searching 
examination  of  the  part  by  those  who  propose  purchasing  the  animal. 

Let  us  also  indicate  the  varix  and  thrombosis  of  the  superior  part  of  .the 
saphena  vein,  comparatively  insignificant  though  they  be,  and,  finally,  the  more  or 
less  numerous  wounds  and  cicatrices  which  are  the  result  of  the  cuts  of  the  whip 
applied  to  this  region. 

The  thigh  is  a  favorite  spot,  even  as  the  breast,  the  axilla,  the  ribs,  the  sides 
of  the  neck,  etc.,  for  the  application  of  setons.  Traces  of  these  indicate  that  the 
horse  has  been  affected  with  chronic  diseases  of  the  foot,  such  as  grease,  canker, 
etc.,  or  that  these  issues  have  been  employed  as  counter-irritants  against  grave 
alterations  of  the  encephalon  or  the  spinal  cord.  Not  infrequently,  either,  the 
external  surface  of  the  thigh  shows  marks  of  cautery  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coxo- 
femoral  articulation.  These  reveal  former  cases  of  lameness  where  the  seat  of 
the  malady  has  remained  unascertained  and  all  other  methods  of  treatment  have 
proved  ineffectual.  Their  presence  demands  a  minute  examination  of  all  the 
inferior  regions  of  the  member,  even  of  the  hoof.  Many  are  the  chances  of 
locating  the  true  cause  of  the  lameness  in  those  parts. 

B.— The  Stifle. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base.— The  stifle  corre- 
sponds to  the  femoro-patellar  articulation,  and  is  comprised  between 
the  inferior  extremity  of  the  thigh  and  the  superior  part  of  the  leg. 

Externally,  its  outline  represents  two  rounded,  unequal  eminences,  one  above 

the  other.    The  upper,  more  voluminous,  and  due  to  the  anterior  crural  muscles, 

overhangs  the  lower,  which  is  smaller,  and  is  caused  by  the  patella.     Below  the 

I  latter  there  exists  a  slight  depression  corresponding  to  the  patellar  ligaments  and 

1  the  patellar  adipose  cushion.     Finally,  the  cutaneous  fold,  known  under  the  name 

of  fold  of  the  stifle,  extends  from  the  superior  prominence  of  which  we  have 

spoken  to  the  surface  of  the  flank  in  the  direction  of  the  hypochondriac  region. 

The  stifle,  in  relation  to  its  conformation,  offers  neither  special 
points  nor  defects  for  consideration.  It  is  important,  above  all,  that 
its  essential  parts  can  be  distinctly  outlined.  Its  distance  from  the 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  245 

ground  is  ordinarily  equal  to  that  of  the  elbow,  in  swift  horses  as  well 
as  in  others,  whatever  may  have  been  said  to  the  contrary. 

Whilst  the  neatness  of  outline  of  this  region  is  a  quality  to  be 
desired,  its  direction  should  not  escape  a  careful  examination.  With 
good  reason,  a  stifle  which  lies  close  to  the  abdomen,  and  is  slightly 
deviated  outward,  is  preferred  to  one  that  is  low,  deviated  inward,  or 
even  parallel  to  the, median  plane.  The  first  direction,  indeed;~rndi- 
cates  great  length  and  a  beautiful  obliquity  of  the  thigh  and  great  ease 
in  executing  the  movement  of  flexion  of  this  segment.  In  the  second 
case,  the  stifle  is  liable  to  strike  the  abdominal  parietes,  a  drawback 
which  must  needs  have  a  certain  importance  in  the  modification  of  the 
rapidity  of  the  gait,  confining  as  it  does  the  forward  displacement  of  the 
thigh,  the  more  so  as  it  often  coincides  with  a  femur  which  is  short  and 
not  sufficiently  oblique. 

Nevertheless,  too  great  a  separation  of  the  stifles  will  be  defective, 
in  so  far  that  it  will  surely  superinduce  an  outward  deviation  of  the 
inferior  part  of  the  members  and  render  the  animal  outbow-footcd. 
We  will  return  to  this  point  a  propos  of  the  axes. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  stifle  presents  various  affections 
which  deserve  our  attention.  They  are  : 

1st.  Synovial  dilatations,  a  kind  of  thorough-pins,  which  appear  in  the 
form  of  a  soft  tunior,  more  developed  internally  than  externally,  at  the  level  of  the 
patellar  ligaments.  They  manifest  themselves  by  a  round,  sometimes  lobulated, 
fluctuating  enlargement  of  a  variable  volume.  When  the  distention  is  of  large 
dimensions,  the  synovial  membrane  is  bulged  out  above  the  patella  underneath 
the  extremity  of  the  crural  triceps  muscle,  where  it  forms  a  more  or  less  accentu- 
ated swelling.  Its  prognosis  is  then  rather  serious  on  account  both  of  the  diffi- 
culty which  is  experienced  in  obtaining  its  resolution  and  of  the  lameness  of 
the  horse. 

2d.  Exostoses,  located  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  patella,  and  resulting 
most  frequently  from  external  violence. 

3d.  Superficial  or  else  deep  wounds,  inflicted  by  knocks  or  blows.  They 
have  no  gravity  so  long  as  the  skin  alone  is  involved ;  but  the  immediate  conse- 
quence of  such  causes  maybe/rac^re  of  the  patella, — a  rare  accident,  fortunately, 
for  it  incapacitates  the  animal  for  work  for  a  long  time  and  induces  nearly  always 
a  permanent  lameness. 

4th.  Displacements,  called  luxations  of  the  patella,  common  in  young 
horses,  and  vulgarly  designated  under  the  name  of  foal's  cramp.  This  bone, 
according  to  some,  is  supposed  to  be  thrown  out  of  its  cavity  of  reception, — that 
is  to  say,  altogether  dislocated  towards  the  outer  side  of  its  trochlea ;  according 
to  others,  it  is  supported,  or  rather  held,  by  the  very  salient  eminence  which  is 
formed  by  the  superior  extremity  of  the  internal  lip  of  the  femoral  trochlea.1 


1  See,  for  more  details,  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  centrale  de  medecine  veterinaire,  seances  du 
11  Aout  et  du  27  Octobre,  1881.    (MM.  Bouley,  Chuchu,  Cagny,  Nocard,  Trasbot,  Weber.) 


246  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  latter  opinion  is  nowadays  most  generally  accepted.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
accident  occurs  but  once,  or  again  its  reproduction  may  be  intermittent  and 
frequent,  the  bone  becoming  alternately  dislocated  and  reduced  spontaneously  at 
the  end  of  a  variable  period.  In  either  case  a  very  intense  lameness  supervenes, 
the  chief  diagnostic  character  of  which  consists  in  the  attitude  of  the  member, 
which  remains  in  a  state  of  forced  extension,  and  can  only  be  carried  forward  by 
a  very  marked  abductive  movement.  A  horse  in  such  a  state  is,  of  course,  not  in 
a  condition  to  be  sold,  unless,  however,  the  sale  should  be  made  during  the 
interval  of  two  displacements  of  the  patella,  as  we  have  had  occasion  to  observe 
several  times. 

5th.  Traces  of  blisters  and  cauterization  denote  that  the  region  has 
been  treated  for  one  of  the  diseases  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  principally 
synovial  dilatations. 

C.— The  Leg. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base.— The  leg  is  the  in- 
termediate region  between  the  thigh  and  the  hock ;  the  stifle  and  the 
buttock  are  also  its  upper  boundaries. 

Two  bones  form  its  resisting,  osseous  base  :  the  tibia  and  the  peroneus.  The 
latter  is  so  rudimentary  in  the  horse  that  it  is  hardly  of  any  account  so  far  aa 
animal  mechanics  are  concerned.  The  tibia,  on  the  contrary,  strong  and  pris- 
matic, is  situated  obliquely  from  above  downward  and  from  before  backward 
under  the  femur,  to  which  it  is  joined  by  a  very  movable  articulation. 

Two  groups  of  powerful  muscles  cover  it  in  front,  on  the  back,  and  on  the 
outside.  Its  internal  face  alone  is  subcutaneous,  and  therefore  more  exposed  to- 
traumatisms.  The  function  of  the  anterior  tibial  muscles  is  the  flexion  of  the 
canon  and  the  extension  of  the  phalanges  upon  each  other  and  upon  the  meta- 
carpus. The  role  of  the  posterior  tibial  muscles  is  precisely  the  reverse :  with  the 
exception  of  one,  the  popliteus,  they  are  all  extensors  of  the  metacarpus  or 
flexors  of  the  digital  region.  They  are,  in  a  great  measure,  concealed  externally 
by  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  ischio-tibial  muscles  which  cover  them.  Lastly, 
most  of  them  become  inflected  over  the  back  part  of  the  hock, — that  is  to  say, 
the  summit  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle, — and  by  this  very  fact  help  to  prevent  the 
closing  of  this  angle  when  the  member  is  standing  still. 

External  Form. — The  tibial  muscles,  like  those  of  the  antibrachial  region, 
have  this  peculiarity,  that  above  they  are  constituted  by  a  fleshy  body,  and  below 
they  are  continued  by  a  shorter  or  a  longer  tendon,  destined  to  transmit  their  action 
to  the  canon  or  to  the  phalanges.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the  region,  considered 
as  a  whole,  presents  a  somewhat  pyramidal  or  conical  form,  wider  above  than 
below,  and  compressed  from  one  side  to  the  other.  Four  faces  may  be  recognized 
on  this  region,  two  of  which,  the  external  and  the  internal,  especially  merit  our 
attention. 

The  external  face,  almost  plane  superiorly,  and  confounded  with  the 
most  declivitous  part  of  the  thigh  and  the  buttock,  shows  quite  distinctly  the 
outlines  of  the  muscles  that  we  have  mentioned  above.  Inferiorly,  there  is  a 
change  in  its  appearance  near  the  hock :  the  external  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  may 
be  discerned  in  front,  the  anterior  border  of  the  calcanetis  behind,  and  between 
these  two  eminences  a  depression  which  is  called  the  hollow  of  (he  hock.  It  is 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  247 

limited  in  front  by  the  tibial  crest  and  behind  by  the  tendon  of  the  gastrocnemius 
and  perforatus  muscles  (cord  of  the  hock,  incorrectly  called  the  hamstring  tendon), 
which  is  inserted  on  the  summit  of  the  calcaneus. 

The  internal  face,  almost  plane  and  subcutaneous,  is  traversed  by  the 
saphena  vein,  which  is  accompanied  by  the  artery  of  the  same  name  and  several 
lymphatic  vessels,  voluminous  but  not  visible  in  the  normal  state.  The  very  lowest 
extremity  of  this  face  displays  in  relief  the  internal  tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  as 
well  as  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  tendo  Achillis,  and,  between  these  two, 
the  concavity  already  indicated  under  the  name  hollow  of  the  hock. 

Movements. — The  leg,  owing  to  its  mode  of  articulation  with  the 
thigh,  is  the  seat  of  two  principal  movements,  flexion  and  extension. 

During  the  former,  the  leg  is  carried  upward  and  backward  ;  the 
femoro-tibial  angle  is  closed  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  flexor 
muscles.  Flexion  commences  in  the  latter  part  of  the  phase  of  con- 
tact, and  is  completed  a  little  after  the  raising  up  of  the  foot.  It  does 
not  entail  much  fatigue  on  the  agents  which  execute  it,  as  they  have 
only  to  overcome  the  weight  of  the  member  to  be  raised. 

As  soon  as  the  thigh  has  effected  its  forward  movement,  the  leg 
rapidly  completes  its  own,  and  the  amplitude  of  the  arc  of  a  circle 
thus  described  by  its  inferior  extremity  depends  always  (apart  from  the 
-length  of  the  tibia  itself)  upon  the  degree  of  flexion  which  it  effects 
and  the  distance  at  which  the  foot  was  raised  above  the  ground.  If 
the  foot  is  not  raised  high  enough  at  the  moment  when  it  is  to  come 
down  on  the  ground,  the  hoof  will  be  in  contact  again  before  the  leg 
has  had  sufficient  time  to  attain  the  maximum  degree  of  extension  of 
which  it  is  capable.  Indeed,  it  is  evident  that  the  length  of  the  step  is 
in  direct  ratio  with  that  of  the  tibial  extension. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  leg  is  measured  from  the  inferior 
part  of  the  stifle  to  the  fold  of  the  hock.  It  is  always  equal  to  that 
of  the  forearm,  and  should  be  as  extensively  developed  as  possible  in 
rapid  motors.  Upon  it  depends,  indeed,  the  extent  of  the  movements 
undergone  by  its  inferior  extremity,  at  the  same  time  that  it  implies  a 
proportional  length  of  the  muscles  which  belong  to  this  region ;  more- 
over, as  these  muscles  are  destined  to  move  the  canon,  it  follows  that, 
for  these  two  reasons,  a  long  leg  is  indispensable  to  the  velocity  of  the 
gait. 

If  it  be  too  short,  the  foot  passes  over  less  surface  at  each  step ;  the 
animal  can  only  preserve  his  speed  by  dint  of  multiplying  his  move- 
ments and  increasing  his  fatigue.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  con- 
formation offers  nothing  objectionable  in  slow  motors,  from  which 
nothing  more  is  expected  than  great  muscular  power. 

The  length  of  the  leg  deserves,  likewise,  to  be  studied  in  relation 


248  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

with  that  of  the  canon.  In  this  connection,  all  authors  are  agreed  that 
a  short  canon  at  the  extremity  of  a  long  leg  constitutes  a  great  point. 
But  why  ?  No  one  has  explained  it.  Still,  it  is  easy  to  account  for  it. 
The  reasons  are  of  the  same  nature  as  those  which  have  been  explained 
in  connection  with  the  forearm. 

Here,  also,  the  metatarsus,  at  the  time  of  contact,  plays  the  part  of 
a  lever,  at  the  superior  extremity  of  which  the  weight  of  the  body  is  de- 
composed into  two  secondary  forces  :  the  one,  perpendicular  to  the  canon, 
tending  to  carry  the  hock  backward ;  the  other,  parallel  to  this  segment, 
showing  the  intensity  with  which  the  foot  presses  against  the  ground. 
The  latter  force,  destroyed  by  the  resistance  of  the  soil,  is  for  us  void 
of  interest.  As  to  the  former,  it  has  the  metatarsus  for  its  lever-arm, 
while  the  extensors  of  this  region  are  its  antagonists.  The  shorter  this 
arm  will  be,  the  less  will  be  the  muscular  force  required  to  counteract 
the  tendency  to  flexion.  Not  only  this,  but,  during  the  impulsion, 
the  extension  of  the  canon  will  equally  be  effected  without  any  greater 
expenditure  of  force. 

A  canon  which  is  short -relatively  to  a  long  leg  describes  a  less  exten- 
sive arc  of  a  circle,  and  is  less  heavy.  These  are  additional  reasons 
why  the  tibial  muscles  will  have  to  contract  with  less  intensity  and  to 
a  smaller  degree  in  order  to  produce  the  same  effect. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  metatarsus  is  covered  only  by  tendons, — in 
other  words,  by  inert  cords,  simple  agents  of  transmission.  The  tibia, 
on  the  contrary,  is  surrounded  by  the  fleshy  portion  of  the  muscles, 
contractile  organs,  whose  shortening  gives  the  measure  of  the  osseous 
displacements.  Large  dimensions  should,  therefore,  be  looked  for  in 
this  region,  which,  it  may  be  said,  constitutes  the  active  part  of  the 
segmented  pendulum  represented  by  the  tibia  and  the  metatarsus.  The 
length  of  the  canon  not  compensating  the  shortness  of  the  leg,  since 
its  role  in  locomotion  is  absolutely  passive,  there  is  the  best  reason  to 
select  one  that  is  short  in  relation  with  the  leg  when  the  object  is  to 
combine  the  best  conditions  for  speed.  This  consideration  in  the 
draught-horse  is  of  no  importance. 

Width. — The  width  of  the  leg  is  recognized  at  its  superior 
extremity  from  before  backward,  and  at  the  level  of  the  enlarged  portion 
of  the  extensors.  It  is  always  somewhat  inferior  to  that  of  the  fore- 
arm. 

It  indicates  the  development  of  the  muscles  in  this  zone,  and  we 
know  that  the  volume,  density,  and  compactness  of  the  muscles  are, 
in  the  superior  sections  of  the  members,  qualities  of  the  first  order. 
A  horse  with  a  leg  thus  muscled  is  called  strong-limbed ;  the  calf  of 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  249 

the  leg  is  well  outlined  and  powerful.  In  the  opposite  conformation,  the 
leg  is  lean,  flat,  or  frog-like,  from  analogy  with  that  of  the  familiar 
batrachian.  That  is  a  grave  defect,  particularly  in  the  draught-horse. 

The  leg  should  also  be  wide  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tarsus.  The 
calcanean  cord  must  be  distinctly  separated  from  the  tibia,  for  then  the 
probabilities  are  that  this  separation  is  due  to  the  length  of  the  cal- 
caneum,  that  arm  of  the  lever  of  the  muscles  which  producer  the 
impulsion,  the  extension  of  the  hock. 

Nevertheless,  let  no  error  be  committed  here ;  the  separation  in 
question  may  depend  upon  another  factor :  a  more  or  less  accentuated 
inclination  of  the  tibia  upon  the  canon. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  mere  examination  of  the  diagrams  of  Fig. 
75,  representing  two  tibiaB,  OM  and  ON,  differently  inclined  upon  their 
respective  canons,  that  the  wider  leg  is  also  the  more  inclined  of  the 
two,  OM,  although  its  calcanean  lever,  Q.C,  may  be  absolutely  of  the 
same  length  as  that,  OD,  of  the  straight  leg,  ON. 


FIG.  75, 


It  is  therefore  requisite,  at  all  times,  to  take  into  consideration  the 
direction  of  the  tibia  in  estimating  the  value  of  the  width  of  the 
inferior  part  of  the  tibial  region. 

Thickness. — In  order  to  estimate  properly  the  muscular  devel- 
opment of  this  region,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  its  thickness, — in 
other  words,  its  transverse  diameter.  This  can  be  appreciated  by 
examining  the  horse  obliquely  from  in  front,  or  by  viewing  it  from 


250  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

before  or  from  behind.  The  reliefs  of  the  anterior  muscles  in  either 
of  these  positions  should  be  plainly  marked  and  strongly  convex  out- 
wardj  When  the  leg  possesses  but  little  thickness,  it  then  lacks  force, 
and  is  qualified  thin,  lean,  flat,  as  we  have  seen  above. 

Direction. — The  direction  of  the  leg  is  as  important  a  qualifica- 
tion with  regard  to  the  development  of  force  as  to  the  production  of 
speed,  for  it  favors  the  muscular  action  and  facilitates  the  play  of  the 
articular  angles,  according  to  its  obliquity.  It  is  measured  by  a  line 
joining  two  points  situated  the  one  above,  the  other  below,  the  two 
external  tibial  tuberosities,  superior  and  inferior  respectively. 

The  direction  of  the  leg,  like  that  of  the  thigh,  should  fulfil  two 
principal  requirements : 

1st.  It  should  not  alter  the  regularity  of  the  vertical  axis,  which 
axis  affects  the  vertically  of  the  canon  and  the  tangency  of  the  hock 
to  the  vertical  line  which  falls  from  the  apex  of  the  buttock. 

2d.  It  should  secure  a  large  opening  and  the  proper  direction  of 
the  femoro-tibial  and  tibio-tarsal  angles. 

A  mean  inclination  of  65  to  70  degrees,  according  to  our  researches, 
fulfils  very  well  these  conditions  in  swift  horses.  Indeed,  instantane- 
ous photographs  demonstrate  that  the  limit  of  extension  of  the  tibial 
section  is  situated  very  nearly  on  the  vertical  line  which  passes  through 
the  centre  of  the  coxo-femoral  joint.  Remembering  this  disposition,  as 
well  as  the  fact  that  the  femur  is  capable,  during  flexion,  of  surpassing 
posteriorly  the  vertical  line  through  its  centre  of  movement,  it  is  only 
natural  that  the  obliquity  of  the  tibia  should  be  more  marked  than 
that  of  the  femur. 

When  the  leg  is  too  straight,  which  is  rare,  its  degree  of  extension 
is  necessarily  limited,  and  the  step  is  short,  whatever  may  be  the  length 
of  the  thigh ;  the  foot,  being  too  far  forward,  causes  the  horse  to  be 
under  himself  behind.  When  it  is  too  oblique,  the  flexion,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  reduced,  and  the  hock,  being  carried  too  far  backward,  pro- 
duces the  opposite  defect,  and  the  animal  is  said  to  camp  behind. 

In  speaking  thus,  we  have  supposed  the  direction  of  the  femur  and 
the  metatarsus  to  be  invariable,  for  it  will  be  understood  that  the  former 
of  these  segments,  by  modifying  its  inclination,  might  re-establish  the 
normal  axis  of  the  limb.  But  given  a  proper  obliquity  of  the  femur, 
and,  besides,  the  vertical  direction  of  the  canon  as  necessary,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  tibia  has  a  direct  influence  upon  the  axes  and  the  degree 
of  aperture  of  the  femoro-tibial  and  tibio-tarsal  angles.  Should  it 
become  more  vertical,  it  widens  the  angles,  lengthens  the  member, 
raises  the  trunk,  diminishes  the  stability  of  the  equilibrium,  and 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  251 

favors  speed ;  should  it  become  more  inclined,  it  closes  the  angles, 
shortens  the  member,  draws  the  body  down  to  the  ground,  and  favors 
the  muscular  insertions  and  the  production  of  force. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  more  the  tibia  is  inclined  on  the 
femur  the  more  perpendicular  is  the  insertion  of  the  muscles  upon 
their  lever-arm  and  the  more  effective  are  their  contractions.  These 
two  segments  are  never  so  oblique  upon  each  other  as  to  form  a  Bright 
angle,  even  when  the  member  is  in  station.  Although  normally  very 
obtuse,  the  more  closed  the  femoro-tibial  angle  is  the  more  favorably 
is  it  disposed  for  all  the  manifestations  of  force.  It  renders  the  buttock 
shorter  without  preventing  it  from  being  strongly  muscled ;  it  diminishes 
the  height  of  the  animal  without  interfering  with  an  increase  of  its 
bulk.  Besides,  is  not  this  the  form  which  this  angle  assumes  when 
the  draught-horse  is  called  upon  to  move  his  load  and  to  display  great 
force  ?  Does  he  not  incline  the  croup,  the  thigh,  the  leg,  and  the  canon, 
close  all  the  angles,  bring  the  body  to  the  ground,  correct  the  muscular 
insertions,  and,  in  a  word,  adapt  his  locomotory  apparatus  to  the  new 
conditions  which  are  imposed  on  him  ? 

In  the  rapid  motor,  the  angle  of  the  stifle  should  offer  a  greater 
amplitude.  If,  indeed,  on  the  one  hand  we  should  seek  in  the  abdomi- 
nal limb  for  a  certain  horizontally  of  the  croup  with  a  view  of  aug- 
menting the  power  and  extent  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  the 
case  is  quite  different  with  the  inferior  segments,  the  femur,  tibia,  and 
canon,  which  require  but  little  obliquity  to  move  one  upon  the  other 
with  a  great  amplitude  when  the  foot  is  raised  from  the  ground.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  the  femoro-tibial  angle  is  much  more  open  in 
the  running-horse  than  in  any  other.  A  tibia  excessively  inclined  in 
relation  with  the  femur  would  not  reach  its  limit  of  extension  quickly 
enough ;  too  much  time  would  be  taken  up,  and  the  extension  would 
not  be  terminated  before  the  foot  had  touched  the  ground  again.  We 
have  seen  in  discussing  the  thigh  that  the  femoro-tibial  angle  is  about 
145  to  150  degrees  in  horses  endowed  with  speed.  This  is  a  quality 
which  we  have  recognized  in  the  best  running-horses,  and  which  we 
will  give  only  as  a  simple  datum  on  which  our  judgment  can  be  based, 
for  this  angle  varies  according  to  the  type  of  the  horse  examined. 

In  order  to  subserve  speed,  it  is  necessary,  besides,  that  the  tibio- 
tarsal  angle  be  very  wide,  another  condition  which  implies  a  small 
inclination  of  the  direction  of  the  leg.  The  canon  can  then  be  more 
strongly  flexed,  pass  over  more  space,  and  take  a  long  stride,  particu- 
larly if  the  tibia  be  long  and  well  muscled.  Moreover,  when  the  foot 
gets  on  to  the  ground  again,  the  extension  of  the  hock  is  at  its  full  on 


252  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

account. of  the  degree  of  closing  which  its  angle  has  attained,  and  also 
because  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  canon  are  in  a  more  favorable 
position  to  contract  with  intensity. 

A  small  tibio-tarsal  angle  depends  upon  one  of  two  causes :  an 
excessive  obliquity  either  of  the  canon  or  of  the  tibia.  In  the  first 
case,  a  portion  of  the  force  is  expended  in  raising  the  trunk  upward 
instead  of  propelling  it  forward.  In  the  second  case,  the  tibia,  being 
too  much  inclined  and  too  much  directed  backward,  cannot  execute  its 
movements  upon  the  femur  with  sufficient  freedom,  and  limits  the 
gracefulness  and  velocity  of  the  locomotion. 

The  tibio-tarsal  angle,  according  to  our  measurements,  oscillates 
about  156  to  160  degrees  in  the  most  beautifully  constructed  running- 
horses.  It  is  never  136  degrees,  as  affirmed  by  the  partisans  of  the 
theory  of  the  parallelism  of  the  segments,  not  even  in  the  draught- 
horse,  in  which  the  angle  is  smaller,  and  in  which,  in  truth,  its  exami- 
nation is  of  no  importance. 

In  this  respect  our  observations  are  absolutely  in  accord  with  those 
of  our  colleague,  M.  Laulanie". 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  diseases  of  this  region,  few  as  they  are, 
are  nevertheless  capable  of  presenting  characters  of  exceptional  gravity.  We 
will  cite : 

1st.  "Wounds  caused  by  kicks  from  other  horses,  received  during  work,  out- 
door exercise,  or  in  the  stable.  These  wounds  generally  appear  on  the  internal  and 
the  anterior  faces  of  the  tibia.  They  are  less  grave  upon  the  external  surface, 
because  here  the  bone,  protected  by  the  muscles,  is  less  predisposed  to  fractures. 
The  intense  lameness  which  accompanies  these  injuries  usually  prevents  the 
animal  from  working  or  being  presentable  for  sale. 

2d.  Osseous  tumors,  of  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  sometimes  observed 
on  the  internal  faces  of  the  two  tibiae,  deserve  the  greatest  consideration  on  the 
part  of  the  buyer.  Although  their  presence  may  be  related  to  a  simple  external 
violence,  yet  they  are  often  the  sign  of  a  veritable  callus, — that  is  to  say,  of  the 
work  of  consolidation  which  has  taken  place  at  the  point  where  the  bone  has 
been  fractured  in  consequence  of  more  or  less  intense  traumatisms.  Experience 
has  demonstrated  that  incomplete  fractures  of  the  bone,  imperfectly  consolidated, 
may  be  rendered  complete  under  the  influence  of  muscular  contraction  alone. 
It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  defer  the  purchase  of  a  horse  which  presents  this 
blemish. 

3d.  Lastly,  let  us  mention  the  lameness  due  to  rupture  of  the  tendon  of 
the  flexor  of  the  metatarsus.  This  tendon,  an  integrant  part  of  the  muscle 
in  question,  extends  from  the  inferior  and  external  extremity  of  the  femur  to  the 
supero-anterior  extremity  of  the  canon ;  it  plays  a  most  important  mechanical 
role,  in  so  far  as  it  establishes  an  intimate  connection  between  the  movements  of 
the  metatarsus  and  those  of  the  thigh.  This  tendinous  cord,  under  the  influence 
of  the  energetic  efforts  made  by  the  animals  to  free  themselves  from  their  bonds 
when  placed  under  such  restraint  as  is  used  by  the  blacksmith  in  shoeing  a  vicious 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  253 

subject,  or  when  their  limbs  get  entangled  in  the  traces,  when  they  are  down  on 
the  ground,  or  again  under  the  influence  of  a  forcible  gliding  backward  of  the 
foot,  etc.,  may  not  withstand  the  strain  and  may  become  ruptured.  The  simul- 
taneousness  which  at  first  existed  between  the  movements  of  the  two  above-named 
segments  at  once  disappears.  The  flexion  of  the  canon  is  no  more  synchronous 
with  that  of  the  thigh ;  the  former  sometimes  remains  pendulous  or  swings  back- 
ward, and  the  tendo  Achillis  (cord  of  the  hock)  becomes  relaxed  and  thrown  into 
folds  when  the  animal  walks.  As  to  the  position  of  the  limb  in  station,  it  is 
normal. 

This  lameness,  which  must  not  be  mistaken  for  a  symptom  of  fracture  of 
the  tibia,  in  spite  of  its  appearance,  is  ordinarily  not  serious ;  it  simply  incapacitates 
the  animal  for  his  work  for  six  or  seven  weeks. 

4th.  We  need  only  mention,  in  terminating,  the  excoriations  which  are 
rather  frequent  upon  the  legs  of  kicking  horses.  They  are  common  on  the 
internal  face  in  those  subjects  that  struggle  and  kick  to  disengage  themselves 
when  the  members  have  been  displaced  over  the  shaft  or  the  pole  of  the  vehicle 
or  the  traces  of  the  harness.  The  presence  of  these  wounds,  or  their  traces  on  the 
skin,  should  be  a  warning  to  the  intending  purchaser  of  some  bad  and  vicious 
disposition  in  the  animal  which  is  oifered  to  him. 

D The  Hock. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  hock,  in  the 
horse,  is  analogous  to  the  knee.  It  corresponds  to  the  tibio-tarso- 
metatarsal  articulations,  supports  the  bones  of  the  leg,  and  forms  the 
centre  of  the  chief  movements  of  the  foot. 

Functionally,  it  is,  more  than  any  other,  a  region  of  dispersion  of 
concussion  as  well  as  of  propulsion.  It  is  upon  this  region  that  the 
efforts  of  the  extensor  muscles  which  propel  the  body  are  concentrated ; 
it  is  on  this  point  that  the  reactions  of  locomotion  bear  at  the  moment 
when  the  body,  moving  with  great  velocity,  and  projected  forward, 
strikes  the  ground ;  finally,  this  is  the  region  on  which,  in  the  act  of 
rearing,  all  the  weight  of  the  body  presses  down  with  such  great  force. 

Under  these  different  aspects  its  study  is  full  of  interest,  as  much 
in  relation  to  animal  mechanics  as  to  that  of  pathology. 

Let  us  examine  with  some  detail  the  parts  which  compose  it. 

The  Bones. — The  tarsus  of  the  horse  is  composed  of  six  small  bones,  some- 
times seven,  from  a  want  of  fusion  of  the  median  and  small  cuneiforms  in  one  of 
them.  Among  these  bones  there  are  two  whose  volume  and  function  are  quite 
peculiar;  these  are  the  astragalus  and  the  calcaneus.  The  first  presents  a 
very  movable  articular  trochlea,  or  pulley,  which  is  opposed  to  the  inferior 
extremity  of  the  tibia ;  the  second,  more  salient  and  elongated,  is  situated 
behind  the  preceding,  continues,  by  its  direction,  the  canon,  and  forms  a  powerful 
arm  of  a  lever  for  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  metatarsus. 

Underneath  these  two  principal  bones  are  found  the  four  othero,  flattened 
from  above  downward,  with  numerous  facets.  They  are  very  solidly  united  to  the 


254 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


calcaneus  and  the  astragalus,  the  three  pieces  of  the  metatarsus,  and  play  the 
role  of  dispersing  agents  for  the  weight  of  the  body  in  movement. 

Ligaments. — The  bones  of  which  we  have  spoken  are  joined  in  a  most 
intimate  manner  to  the  adjoining  structures,  the  tibia  and  the  metatarsus,  by 
capsular  and  funicular  ligaments,  which  allow  perfect  freedom  in  the  tibio-tarsal 
hinge. 

Among  these  ligaments,  two  lateral,  external  and  internal,  unite  the  external 
and  the  internal  tuberosities  of  the  tibia  to  the  head  of  the  corresponding  rudi- 
mentary metatarsal  bones.  They  are  elongated,  rounded,  unelastic,  tortuous 
according  to  their  length,  and  take  successive  attachments  on  the  lateral  surfaces 
of  the  bones  which  lie  in  their  course. 

Two  capsular  ligaments  of  unequal  resistance  protect  the  tarsus  in  front  and 
behind.  The  anterior,  somewhat  thin  and  stronger  outwardly,  extends  from  the 
anterior  edge  of  the  inferior  articular  surface  of  the  tibia  to  the  surface  of  the 
tarsal  bones  and  the  canon.  It  protects  the  synovial  membrane  in  front.  The 
posterior  affects  a  general  analogous  disposition  as  to  its  attachments,  but  it  is 
thin  and  membranous  in  its  superior  part  in  order  to  yield  easily  to  movements 
of  flexion,  whilst  in  its  centre  and  inferiorly  it  is  reinforced  by  a  plate  of  fibro- 
cartilage,  which  serves  as  a  gliding  surface  for  the  tendon  of  the  deep  flexor  of 
the  phalanges.  It  keeps  in  position  the  articular  synovial  membrane  behind. 

Articular  Synovial  Membranes. — Of  the  five  tarsal  articulations,  only 
one  is  interesting  from  an  external  point  of  view.  This  is  the  tibio-astragaloid, 
which  is  lined  by  a  special  synovial  membrane.  Although  this  membrane  is 
firmly  maintained  on  the  sides  by  the  lateral  ligaments,  and  in  front  and  behind 
by  the  capsular  ligaments  described  above,  nevertheless,  it  presents  certain  weak 
spots  which  may  possibly  yield  under  the  influence  of  the  interarticular  pressure 
from  an  excess  of  synovial  secretion.  These  spots  are  three  in  number :  the  one 

antero-internal,  where  the  ligament  is  not  protected 
by  the  anterior  tibial  muscles,  the  other  two  poste- 
rior, and  situated  above  the  reinforcing  fibro-carti- 
lage  of  the  posterior  ligament.  Pressure  applied  to 
any  one  of  these  swellings  will  cause  the  liquid  to 
flow  into  the  others,  a  fact  which  demonstrates  con- 
clusively enough  their  intercommunication. 

Tendons  and  Tendinous  Bursse. — The  ten- 
dons of  the  various  muscles  glide  over  the  bones 
and  the  ligaments  of  the  hock  by  means  of  synovial 
bursse,  of  which  it  is  necessary  to  say  a  few  words. 

In  front  and  on  the  outside,  the  anterior  capsu- 
lar ligament  is  maintained  by  the  tendons  of  the 
anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges  and  the  flexor  of 
the  metatarsus,  which  is  held  by  a  fibrous  aponeu- 
rosis  in  the  bend  of  the  hock ;  their  movements  are 
effected  through  the  intervention  of  the  underlying 
connective  tissue. 

On  the  outside  is  the  tendon  of  the  lateral  ex- 
tensor of  the  phalanges,  which  a  bursa  of  its  own 
enables  to  glide  through  a  duplicate  of  the  external  lateral  ligament. 

On  the  inside  we  find  the  tendon  of  the  oblique  flexor  of  the  phalanges  (Fig. 


FIG.  76. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  255 

76)  having  almost  the  same  disposition  along  the  internal  lateral  ligament,  while 
below,  supplied  also  with  a  special  synovial  bursa,  the  cunean  tendon  of  the 
flexor  metatarsi  passes  obliquely  backward  over  the  internal  face  of  the  hock ; 
this,  when  in  a  state  of  abnormal  distention,  is  capable,  according  to  Bouley,1  of 
simulating  a  spavin  by  the  enlargement  that  it  forms  under  the  skin  at  the  very 
point  where  a  spavin  is  located. 

Finally,  at  the  back,  the  tarsus  is  transformed  into  a  fibrous  envelope  known 
as  the  tarsal  sheath.  Its  anterior  wall  is  constituted  by  the  posterior  ligaments 
of  the  hock ;  it  is  completed  behind  by  an  arch  of  fibrous  tissue  extending  from  the 
posterior  border  of  the  calcaneus  to  the  inner  side  of  the  tarsal  bones.  It  gives 
passage  to  the  perforans  tendon  through  the  medium  of  a  synovial  membrane. 
The  latter  extends  from  the  inferior  fourth  of  the  tibia  downward  to  about  the 
superior  third  of  the  canon.  When  this  synovial  membrane  becomes  dilated  it 
forms  two  hernise  superiorly  in  the  hollow  of  the  hock,  one  on  the  outer  and  the 
other  on  the  inner  side,  posterior  to  the  corresponding  culs-de-sac  of  the  tibio- 
astragaloid  articulation.  It  is  also  prolonged  downward  along  the  flexor  tendons 
in  the  shape  of  a  tumor  of  variable  size,  sometimes  simulating  curb. 

The  summit  of  the  calcaneus  also  presents  a  little  synovial  gland,  where  the 
tendon  of  the  gastrocnemius  muscle  is  attached,  to  facilitate  its  gliding  upon  the 
aforesaid  bones  during  extension  and  flexion  of  the  metatarsus.  This  bursa, 
being  very  firmly  sustained  over  its  periphery,  is  not  liable  to  become  distended 
and  form  external  dilatations.  It  is  different,  however,  with  the  bursa  which 
facilitates  the  play  of  the  superficial  flexor  of  the  phalanges  over  the  summit  and 
along  the  posterior  border  of  the  calcaneus,  and  which  almost  entirely  covers  this 
surface.  This  tendon,  after  winding  around  that  of  the  gastrocnemius,  widens, 
becomes  inflected  over  the  head  of  the  calcaneus,  almost  completely  enveloping 
it,  and  is  then  continued  in  the  region  of  the  canon.  Now,  it  is  for  a  distance  of 
about  five  centimetres  along  the  perforatus  tendon  in  front  of  the  summit  of  the 
calcaneus  that  the  enlargement  manifests  itself  when,  from  excessive  secretion 
of  the  synovial  fluid,  this  membrane  becomes  distended. 

External  Conformation.— The  hock  is  a  centre  of  movement, 
whose  perfect  integrity  is  so  important,  as  affecting  the  usefulness  of 
the  animal,  that  the  eye  should  know  and  recognize  its  normal  form 
in  its  least  details. 

This  region  is  divided  into  four  faces:  an  anterior,  a  posterior,  and  two 
lateral. 

a.  Anterior  Face. — The  anterior  face  (Fig.  77,  A)  corresponds  to  the 
summit  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle ;  it  has  received  the  name  of  fold  of  the  hock, 
and  shows,  on  each  side,  the  profile  of  the  lateral  faces.  It  presents,  outwardly, 
above  and  behind,  the  summit,  a,  of  the  calcaneus ;  below  this,  the  external 
tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  b ;  finally,  below,  the  eminence,  c,  formed  by  the  base 
of  the  calcaneus,  the  cuboid  and  the  head  of  the  external  rudimentary  metatarsal 
bone.  On  the  inside,  it  offers  the  very  prominent  internal  tuberosity  of  the 
tibia,  d  ;  lower  down,  the  internal  tubercle  of  the  astragalus,  e  ;  finally,  altogether 
below,  the  prominence  of  the  head  of  the  internal  metacarpal  bone,  /;  in  its 

1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  pratique,  etc.,  t.  x.  p.  569. 


256 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


middle  is  visible  the  tendons  of  the  flexor  metatarsi  and  of  the  anterior  extensor 
of  the  phalanges,  g ;  inferiorly,  the  groove,  h,  of  the  pulley  of  the  astragalus ; 
inwardly,  the  saphena  vein  crosses  this  face  obliquely  from  above  to  below,  i; 
finally,  still  on  its  internal  part,  the  unsustained  portion  of  the  articular  synovial 
membrane,  k. 

b.  Posterior  Face. — This  face   (Fig.  77,  B]  is  angular  and  constituted 
from  above  downward :  by  the  cord,  I,  and  the  point  of  the  hock,  a  ;  the  posterior 
border,  a',  of  the  calcaneus  and  the  perforatus  tendon.    But,  viewed  from  behind, 
the  hock  also  presents :  the  profiles  of  the  lateral  faces,  b,  n,  c,  and  d,  e,  f  (the 
same  letters  as  in  the  preceding  figure) ;  the  hollow  of  the  hock,  m.  m,  and  the 
chestnut,  o. 

c.  External  Face. — This  face  is  limited  in  front  by  a  line  which  has,  in 
its  middle  part,  a  summit,  h  (Fig.  77,   C),   corresponding  to  the  astragaloid 
trochlea ;  behind,  the  line,  forming  the  profile  of  this  same  face,  is  very  angular 
at  the  level  of  the  summit  of  the  calcaneus,  a,  at  a  point  known,  in  external 
anatomy,  under  the  name  of  the  point  of  the  hock.     Between  the  latter  and  the 
canon  are  seen  successively :  the  posterior  border  of  the  calcaneus,  a'  ;  then  the 
tendon,  t ;  above  the  point  of  the  hock  is  detached,  very  prominently,  the  cord 
of  the  hock,  I,  in  front  of  which  is  seen  a  deep  depression,  m,  called  the  hollow  of 
the  hock.    This  face,  for  the  remainder  of  its  extent,  is  undulated  in  its  middle 
by  three  superposed  processes:   the  superior  is  formed  by  the  infero-external 


FIG.  77. 

tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  b ;  the  middle  one,  more  effaced,  is  constituted  by  the 
base  of  the  calcaneus,  n  ;  the  inferior,  c,  corresponds  to  the  cuboid  and  the  head 
of  the  external  rudimentary  metatarsal  bone. 

d.  Internal  Face. — The  internal  face  offers  almost  the  same  peculiarities 
as  the  external.  It  shows  anteriorly  the  convexity  due  to  the  astragalus,  h  (Fig. 
77,  D) ;  posteriorly,  the  point,  a,  the  cord,  I,  and  the  hollow,  m,  of  the  hock ;  in 
the  centre  and  from  above  downward  the  infero-internal  tuberosity  of  the  tibia, 
d,  the  internal  tubercle  of  the  astragalus,  e,  and,  finally,  the  large  cuneiform  and 
the  head  of  the  internal  rudimentary  metatarsal  bone,/.  But  on  this  face  are 
seen,  besides :  the  muscular  portion  of  the  deep  flexor  of  the  phalanges,  which 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  257 

is  well  outlined,  p,  over  which  are  located  numerous  venous  branches,  r;  the 
saphena  vein,  i ;  the  chestnut,  o  ;  and,  finally,  the  point,  k,  where  the  articular 
synovial  is  unsustained. 

Such  is  the  conformation  which  the  normal  hock  presents  when  it 
is  examined  on  its  four  faces.  We  have  insisted  much  upon  this,  in 
order  that  the  beginner  may  not  mistake  for  incipient  blemishes  nor- 
mal eminences  and  depressions  which  are  only  the  indications  of  one 
of  the  primary  qualities  of  this  region,  its  neatness  of  outline. 

Examination  of  the  Hock. — The  blemishes  of  the  hock,  as 
soon  as  they  become  apparent,  modify  at  once  the  neatness  of  its  lines, 
which  cannot  deceive  the  attentive  and  educated  observer ;  it  is  not  the 
same,  however,  with  the  student.  We  would  therefore  advise  the 
latter  to  examine  the  region  with  care  in  front,  between  the  fore-legs, 
and  behind,  in  order  to  determine  the  form  of  the  profile  of  the  lateral 
faces ;  then  to  view  it  from  the  side,  to  see  the  profile  of  the  anterior 
and  the  posterior  faces.  When  he  has  acquired  a  certain  skill,  he  can 
attempt  a  more  complicated  but  more  rapid  examination,  which  is. 
called  oblique  or  three-quarters,  either  in  front  or  behind.  The  com- 
plexity and  the  greater  rapidity  of  the  oblique  examination  are  readily 
understood,  since,  in  such  a  case,  the  eye  endeavors  to  appreciate,  with 
the  same  glance,  the  two  adjacent  faces  of  the  region. 

Some  persons  claim  that  it  is  ridiculous  to  examine  the  hock  by 
viewing  it  from  between  the  fore  members ;  others  remark  the  same 
of  those  who,  not  contented  with  seeing  with  minuteness,  insist,  more- 
over, on  feeling  with  their  hands,  the  better  to  ascertain  the  facts.  Such 
deference  for  the  spectators'  opinions  would  be  very  injudicious,  and, 
moreover,  a  very  bad  example  for  beginners  whose  many-minded 
teachers  are  already  so  numerous.  We  are  not  aware  that  any  one 
ever  became  possessed  of  science  by  intuition  ;  in  order  to  know  a 
thing  a  man  must  have  given  himself  the  trouble  of  learning  it. 

Now,  this  book  is  especially  prepared  for  the  student,  whom  it  is 
necessary  to  impress  with  this  great  truth, — namely,  that,  in  the  pur- 
chase of  horses,  "  he  who  does  not  open  his  eyes  opens  his  purse  wide  !" 
Open  your  eyes  wide,  therefore,  until  you  have  acquired  absolute  cer- 
tainty concerning  what  you  are  examining,  and  by  no  means  refrain 
from  feeling  with  your  fingers  if  needs  be.  We  will  never  regret  too 
much  precaution  in  such  a  case,  if  we  can  thereby  avoid  committing 
an  error ;  and  in  any  case  the  purchaser  will  not  be  the  party  who 
will  complain  of  it. 

Whatever  precautions  may  be  employed,  a  careful  examination  of 
the  hock  always  requires  certain  preparatory  conditions  in  the  animal. 

17 


258  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

He  must  stand  in  such  a  manner  that  each  of  the  four  members  sup- 
ports its  own  share  of  the  body-weight  and  lies  in  its  natural  axis. 
If  this  little  detail  is  neglected,  the  eye  will  be  deceived  as  to  the  true 
dimensions  of  the  region  and  cannot  compare  the  one  side  with  the 
other,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter. 

Movements. — The  hock  is  the  seat  of  only  two  extensive  move- 
ments, that  of  extension  and  that  of  flexion.  The  plane  of  these  move- 
ments, on  account  of  the  obliquity  of  the  astragaloid  trochlea,  is 
slightly  oblique  outward,  a  disposition  which,  coinciding  with  a  certain 
obliquity  of  the  femur,  permits  the  member  to  be  extended  without 
being  restrained  by  its  contact  with  the  abdominal  parietes. 

There  are,  besides  these  principal  movements,  others,  very  limited, 
consisting  of  simple  gliding  of  the  contiguous  bones,  whose  effect  is  to 
attenuate  the  locomotory  reactions,  and  which  are,  in  the  case  of  the 
hock,  an  apparatus  of  dispersion  analogous  to  that  of  the  knee. 

When  leaving  the  state  of  repose,  the  foot  is  always  more  abducted 
in  flexion  than  in  extension,  and  both  are  executed  with  the  most  per- 
fect regularity.  When,  however,  the  articulations  of  the  member  are 
diseased,  whether  those  of  the  leg  or  those  of  the  hock,  as  deduced 
from  the  observations  of  Rigot  and  from  our  own,  flexion  is  sudden, 
jerking,  exaggerated,  and  sometimes  so  extensive  that  the  anterior  face 
of  the  fetlock  almost  touches  the  parietes  of  the  abdomen.  This  phe- 
nomenon constitutes  string-halt  or  dry  spavin ;  but  the  hock  offers  no 
trace  of  external  deformity.  We  will  again  revert  to  this  on  the 
subject  of  the  gaits. 

Finally,  when,  at  the  moment  of  contact,  the  points  of  the  calcanei 
are  turned  outward  by  a  sort  of  rotation,  of  which  the  foot  is  the  cen- 
tre, the  horse  is  said  to  have  rotating  hocks.  (See  Gaits.) 

The  Hock  as  a  Centre  of  Amortissement  and  Impul- 
sion.— This  region  is  one  of  the  most  energetic  centres  of  impul- 
sion in  the  posterior  member.  It  is  by  its  aid  that  the  tibio-tarsal 
angle  can  suddenly  open  in  order  to  project  the  body  forward  at  the 
end  of  the  phase  of  contact. 

The  quantity  of  movement  of  the  body,  after  being  first  dissemi- 
nated upon  the  bones  and  the  ligaments  of  the  coxo-femoral  articulation, 
and  secondly  upon  those  of  the  femoro-tibial  union,  is  then  transmitted 
to  the  tibio-tarsal  articulation,  where,  a  certain  portion  having  already 
been  destroyed,  it  is  again  dispersed  upon  the  tarsal  bones  and  their 
ligaments.  The  combined  action  of  the  weight  of  the  body  and  its 
velocity  results  in  a  diminution  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle  as  well  as  of 
the  other  angles  in  the  superior  part  of  the  member.  In  the  hock,  as 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


259 


elsewhere,  the  extensor  muscles  hinder  this  closing  of  the  angle  by 
acting  in  the  manner  of  a  lever  of  the  second  class,  or  that  of  force. 
The  canon,  which  is  a  portion  of  the  arm  of  this  lever,  takes  its  point 
of  contact  upon  the  soil  by  means  of  the  foot,  and  receives  the  weight 
of  the  body  upon  the  astragaloid  pulley,  while  the  power,  represented 
by  the  gastrocnemius  and  the  perforatus  muscles,  maintains  the  equi- 
librium of  this  weight  by  strong  traction  upon  the  extremity~bf  the 
calcaneus. 

A  fact  here  strikes  the  mind  of  whoever  considers  the  nature 
of  this  power,  that  it  has  to  overcome  at  every  moment  a  resist- 
ance of  more  than  100  kilogrammes !  It 
is  its  relative  feebleness ;  it  is  the  small 
volume  of  the  fleshy  body  of  the  gastroc- 
nemius and  the  perforatus  muscles,  and 
even  of  the  perforans,  which  can  also  sus- 
tain the  tibio-tarsal  angle ;  it  is  the  small 
volume  of  these  agents,  compared  with  the 
powerful  muscles  of  the  croup  and  the 
thigh,  which  Professor  Lemoigne  justly 
regards  as  a  key  to  the  rigidity  of  the 
member, — a  key  without  which  all  the 
other  extensors  would  be  deprived  of  their 
fulcrum  or  point  of  support.1  It  seems 
that  there  exists  here  an  enormous  contra- 
diction between  the  means  at  the  disposal 
of  the  organism  and  the  effects  which  it  is 
to  produce. 

This  inconsistency  is  only  apparent, 
and  disappears  as  soon  as  we  examine  the 
mode  of  proceeding  by  which  the  extension 
of  the  hock  is  effected.  By  reason  of  the 
connections  which  exist  between  the  femur 
and  the  calcaneus,  through  the  interven- 
tion of  the  cord  ab  (Fig.  78),  the  opening  of  the  femoro-tibial  angle 
cannot  take  place  without  producing  coincidently  and  in  the  same  pro- 
portion the  opening  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle. 

As  the  opening  of  the  former  may  depend  upon  the  straightening 
of  the  femur  or  of  the  tibia,  under  the  influence  of  their  proper  exten- 
sors, ef,  cd,  it  follows  that  all  muscular  traction  exerted  on  the  summit, 


FIG.  78. 


A.  Lemoigne,  Note  communiquee. 


260  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

e,  of  the  trochanter,  or  on  the  summit,  c,  of  the  patella,  is  communi- 
cated also  in  the  same  sense  and  with  an  equal  intensity  to  the  summit, 
a,  of  the  calcaneus. 

It  is  thus  that,  in  spite  of  their  distance  of  separation,  the  exten- 
sors of  the  femur  and  of  the  tibia  participate  in  an  indirect  manner 
in  the  extension  of  the  canon, — that  is  to  say,  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
tibio-tarsal  angle,  owing  to  the  mechanical  role  of  the  cord  of  the  hock. 
This  remarkable  synergy  or  correlation  in  the  extension  of  the  articular 
angles  of  the  posterior  limb  explains  the  vigor,  precision,  and  sudden- 
ness of  the  propulsive  movements  of  this  member  during  locomotion. 
It  also  accounts  for  the  true  action  of  the  gastrocnemius,  the  perfor- 
atus,  and  part  of  the  tibial  aponeurosis,  which  thus  become  agents  of 
transmission  in  common  with  the  muscles  of  the  croup,  the  stifle,  and 
the  leg,  enormous  muscles,  acting  together  and  simultaneously  to  over- 
come the  inertia  of  the  body  and  to  propel  the  latter  forward. 

Thus  the  organization  of  this  cord  responds  admirably  to  the 
function  which  is  allotted  to  it.  Being  composed  of  two  voluminous 
tendons,  that  of  the  perforates  and  that  of  the  gastrocnemius,  twisted 
one  upon  the  other,  reinforced  by  a  thick  lamina  of  the  tibial  aponeu- 
rosis, and,  finally,  attached  to  the  summit  of  the  calcaneus,  this  cord 
acts,  besides,  almost  perpendicularly  to  the  extremity  of  one  of  the 
longest  lever-arms  in  the  economy.  The  tarsus,  from  the  number  of 
its  bones,  the  smallness  of  their  dimensions,  the  strength  of  their 
means  of  union,  the  tenuity  of  their  movements,  becomes  finally  the 
instrument  which  receives  the  force,  transmits  it,  attenuates  it,  dis- 
perses and  decomposes  it  without  inconvenience  to  the  living  machine, 
on  condition,  however,  that  this  base  be  constituted  according  to  the 
mechanical  principles  which  we  are  about  to  explain. 

Beauties. — The  hock,  to  be  well  formed,  should  be  neatly  outlined, 
lean,  wide,  thick,  well  opened,  and  well  directed. 

Neatness  of  Outline. — The  hock  is  said  to  be  neat  and  nicely 
cut  out  when  it  reproduces  exactly  the  shape  which  we  have  described 
above.  It  is,  in  this  case,  exempt  from  blemishes,  and  its  hollow  is 
very  pronounced. 

Leanness  or  Dryness. — This  region  is,  moreover,  qualified  lean 
or  dry  when  all  its  normal  elevations  and  depressions  are  well  marked 
and  covered  by  a  fine,  supple  skin,  adherent  to  the  adjacent  parts. 
The  neatness  of  outline  indicates  the  soundness  of  the  pieces  of  the 
tarsal  apparatus ;  its  leanness,  on  the  contrary,  implies  the  pureness  of 
the  breed,  the  fineness  of  the  constitution,  and  the  energy  and  excita- 
bility of  the  individual.  In  subjects  of  a  lymphatic  tern  erament,  as 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  261 

in  those  of  the  North  of  France  and  some  of  the  districts  of  the 
West,  the  skin  and  the  hairs  are  thick,  the  subcutaneous  connective 
tissue  abundant,  and  all  the  osseous  reliefs  more  or  less  effaced.  These 
animals  frequently  have  &  fat,  full,  doughy  hock.  We  must  not  con- 
found this  state  with  an  absolutely  blemished  condition  of  the  parts, 
for  we  should  thereby  frequently  be  liable  to  discard  many  excellent 
horses,  in  which,  on  account  of  the  race,  the  climate,  and  the  soil,  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  the  dry  hock  which  is  usually  observed  in  horses 
of  meridional  countries,  above  all  in  the  finer  races. 

Width. — The  width  of  the  tarsus  is  an  absolute  quality,  but  in 
order  to  appreciate  the  same  it  is  indispensable  that  the  members  be 
stationed  in  their  normal  axis.  It  is  measured  from  the  point  to  the 
fold  of  this  region.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that,  if  the  canon 
be  placed  well  under  the  trunk,  for  example,  this  dimension  will  appear 
more  considerable  in  consequence  of  the  diminished  obliquity  of  the 
calcaneus  upon  the  tibia.  It  is  precisely  on  account  of  this  possible 
error,  resulting  very  frequently  from  d  defect  in  the  vertical  axis  or  a 
variable  obliquity  of  the  leg,  that  deception  as  to  the  width  of  the 
hock  may  arise,  and  the  latter  is  not  always — far  from  it — the  ex- 
pression of  the  length  of  the  calcaneus,  even  as  many  think.  With 
H.  Bouley,  we  should  recommend  the  intending  purchaser  not  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  one  dimension  indicated  above.  He  should,  more- 
over, appreciate  the  distance  comprised  between  the  cord  and  the  ante- 
rior profile  of  the  leg  on  the  one  part,  and  the  perforate  tendon  and 
the  anterior  profile*  of  the  canon  on  the  other.  In  other  words,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  ascertain  the  width  of  the  hock  above,  in  the 
middle,  and  below.  If  these  three  conditions  are  not  fulfilled  the 
region  cannot  be  qualified  wide,  for  it  is  eminently  defective  from  the 
very  disproportion  of  its  parts. 

It  is  ordinarily  at  the  inferior  extremity,  at  the  level  of  its  base, 
that  the  region  shows  an  abnormal  narrowness,  owing  to  which  it  is 
styled  strangled.  The  tarsal  bones  of  the  lower  row  are,  in  this  case, 
not  in  relation,  in  their  development,  with  the  dimensions  of  the  astrag- 
alus, the  tibia,  and  the  calcaneus ;  above  all,  with  the  last,  which  loses 
none  of  its  power  and  acts,  by  this  very  reason,  with  so  much  more 
force  upon  the  ligaments  which  unite  it  to  the  metatarsal  lever,  of 
which  it  really  constitutes  the  superior  extremity.  Such  a  hock,  there- 
fore, becomes  blemished  very  soon,  and  should  be  rejected  for  very 
severe  services  expected  from  the  saddle-  or  the  draught-horse. 

When  the  region  is  deficient  in  width  over  its  whole  area,  it  is 
called  slender,  narrow.  This  is,  we  believe,  a  serious  defect,  although 


262  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

there  are  some  authors  who  excuse  it,  and  even  class  this  form  of  hock 
among  the  good  conformations.  We  can  only  admit  one  thing  or  the 
other  :  either  the  width  is  an  absolute  beauty  or  it  is  a  defect.  If  the 
former  of  these  opinions  be  adopted,  it  is  plain  that  the  same  qualities 
cannot  be  attributed  to  the  narrow  hock  as  to  the  wide  hock,  which  is 
exactly  the  reverse.  This  is,  nevertheless,  what  the  authors  of  whom 
we  speak  have  done,  unknown  to  themselves,  although  the  inconsistency 
of  such  a  theory  is  at  once  apparent. 

The  width  of  the4  hock,  in  reality  (we  suppose  it  well  directed  and 
well  opened),  implies  : 

1.  The  separation  of  the  calcanean  cord,  which,  in  its  turn,  depends 
upon  both  the  volume  of  the  posterior  muscles  and  the  length  of  the 
calcaneus  (superior  width). 

2.  The  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  tibio-astragaloid  articula- 
tion and,  here  again,  the  length  of  the  calcaneus  (middle  width). 

3.  Finally,  the  antero-posterior  development  of  the  inferior  row 
of  tarsal  bones  (inferior  width),  which  is  tantamount  to  saying  that  a 
wide  hock  commands  a  well-muscled  leg ;  a  well-directed  tarsal  cord 
in  relation  to  the  arm  of  its  lever,  which  is,  in  addition,  powerful  of 
itself  on  account  of  its  great  length  ;   large  articular  surfaces  securing, 
consequently,  much   amplitude   to   the  movements  of  extension  and 
flexion  ;  finally,  a  solid  union  with  the  metatarsal  column,  whose  width 
is  evidently  correlative. 

The  slender,  narrow  hock  presents  a  conformation  precisely  the 
opposite.  It  is,  therefore,  for  inverse  reasons,  defective,  which  is 
indeed  confirmed  by  observation.  A  strange  sophism  would  be  com- 
mitted, unknown  to  himself,  by  the  man  who  would  argue  the  useful- 
ness of  so  powerful  a  hock  associated  with  a  weak  croup  and  bad  loins.1 
The  solidity  of  one  region,  it  is  true,  can  sometimes  exaggerate  the 
feebleness  of  another ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  example  under 
consideration.  If  such  a  croup  or  such  loins  transmit  the  impulsion 
badly,  what  will  the  impulsion  be  with  a  narrow  hock?  The  two 
defects  will  be  superadded  to  each  other  without  any  chance  of  compen- 
sation ! 

Thickness. — The  thickness  of  the  hock  is  measured  from  one 
lateral  face  to  another.  It  is  appreciated  by  examining  the  region  in 
front,  behind,  or  obliquely,  if  one  has  more  experience  and  a  more  prac- 
tised eye.  Like  the  width,  we  must  view  it  above,  in  the  middle,  and 
below,  in  order  to  assure  ourselves  that  there  is  a  proper  correlation 


1  Merche,  Nouveau  Trait£  des  formes  ext£rieures  du  cheval,  p.  447. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  263 

between  the  development  of  each  of  these  secondary  parts.  The  thick 
hock  merits  this  name  and  is  truly  beautiful  only  on  condition  of  its 
great  transverse  diameter  at  the  level  of  the  tibia,  the  astragalus,  and 
the  superior  extremity  of  the  canon. 

The  tarsal  thickness  indicates  that  of  the  leg,  of  the  canon,  of  the 
fetlock,  and  of  the  pastern.  It  bespeaks  perfect  steadiness  and  equi- 
librium in  every  part  of  the  hind  limb ;  while  its  breadth  has  the 
entire  command  of  the  extent  of  the  movements,  the  latter  taking 
place  backward  and  forward  and  vice  versa. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  this  thickness  in  the  draught-horse,  for 
example,  should  not  be  compared  to  that  of  the  thoroughbred,  two 
types  essentially  different.  In  the  one,  the  bones  are  voluminous,  short, 
and  the  muscles  powerful ;  in  the  other,  the  bones  are  long,  relatively 
slender,  and  the  muscles  long.  If  each  requires,  with  equal  propriety, 
wide  and  thick  articulations,  absolute  beauties  applying  to  all  services, 
still  it  is  necessary  that  the  proportions  and  the  general  harmony  should 
not  suffer  thereby. 

Extent  of  the  Tibio-tarsal  Angle. — As  the  hock  is  practically 
only  one  articulation,  the  summit  of  an  angle,  it  is  not  useless  to 
inquire  if  its  degree  of  openness  is  capable  of  influencing  the  functions 
of  the  parts,  and  if  this  angle,  once  determined,  can  owe  the  separation 
of  its  branches  to  a  greater  or  lesser  inclination  of  the  one  or  the  other 
of  them.  In  other  terms,  what  is  the  value  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle, 
and  what  is  its  orientation  on  the  member  to  be  in  the  most  favorable 
attitude  for  the  development  of  force  or  the  display  of  velocity  ? 

Most  writers  have  endeavored  to  answer  this  question  by  advancing 
theoretical  views  insufficiently  based  on  facts.  Hence  their  writings 
contain  numerous  contradictions.  We  think  we  have  been  more  logical  in 
studying  first  very  beautiful  models,  with  a  view  of  reasoning  afterwards 
more  easily  in  the  particular  cases  which  present  neither  an  absolute 
beauty  nor  a  veritable  defect,  and  which  are  so  often  met  in  practice. 

Dismissing  for  a  moment  the  obliquity  of  the  leg,  let  us  remark 
that  the  angle  of  the  hock  undergoes  more  or  less  the  influence  of  the 
three  metatarsal  directions,  as  follows  : 

a.  The  canon  remains  vertical. 

b.  It  is  oblique  forward  and  downward. 

c.  It  is  oblique  backward  and  downward. 

We  will  suppose,  in  each  of  these  instances,  the  point  of  the  hock 
tangent  to  a  vertical  line  which  would  start  from  the  point  of  the  but- 
tock, as  we  remark  it  in  the  member  with  a  normal  axis.  (See  Axes.} 

a.  The  Canon,  Vertical. — The   canon  in  this  case  is  tangent 


264 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


throughout  its  entire  length  to  the  previously-cited  vertical  axis. 
This  position  of  the  member  is  the  most  favorable  to  the  proper  exe- 
cution of  its  locomotory  function,  as  we  will  verify  a  propos  of  the 
vertical  axes.  It  belongs,  besides,  to  all  properly-conformed  horses, 
whatever  may  be  the  service  for  which  they  are  destined. 

The  tibio-tarsal  angle,  under  this  premise,  can  be  more  or  less  open 
according  to  the  situation  of  the  tibia  which  constitutes  its  superior 
branch.  Whence,  consequently,  there  follow  two  secondary  proposi- 
tions with  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  latter  segment. 

1st.  The  Tibia,  Straight.— We  will  designate  thus  a  tibia  whose 
obliquity  is  little  marked  (about  65  to  70  degrees).  The  hock  which 
corresponds  to  it  is  called  straight;  the  angle  which  it  forms  is  very 
open  (Fig.  79).  A  similar  conformation  is  favorable  to 
velocity  or  speed,  for  it  allows  long  strides,  during  which 
the  calcaneus  becomes  more  and  more  perpendicular  to' 
the  muscles  that  have  to  move  it.  Besides,  the  foot,  on« 
arriving  on  the  ground,  is  more  strongly  flexed  upon 
the  leg,  which  gives  the  hock  a  more  energetic  and  ex- 
tensive impulsion. 

Running-horses  ordinarily  have  this  region  thus 
disposed;  their  tibio-tarsal  angle  is  about  155  to  160 
degrees,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  treating  of  the  leg. 
The  observer  is  easily  deceived  as  to  the  width  of 
the  straight  hock  on  account  of  the  direction  which  the 
calcaneus  here  affects.  On  that  account  it  is  necessary 
to  observe  the  length  of  this  bone  during  walking. 
But  it  is  an  error  to  believe  that  this  hock,  implying 
but  little  inclination  of  the  tibia,  necessarily  violates 
the  vertical  axis  by  placing  the  limb  more  under  the 
trunk.  It  suffices,  to  convince  ourselves  of  the  contrary,  to  observe 
the  thoroughbred  horses,  which  have  in  nearly  all  instances  a  marked 
opening  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle,  and  to  make  measurements,  as  we 
have  done,  upon  their  articular  angles ;  it  will  then  be  verified  that 
their  axes  are  perfectly  normal  on  account  of  the  suitable  direction  of 
the  croup  and  the  thigh. 

The  straight  hock,  which  it  seems  should  produce  much  fatigue  to 
the  animal  from  the  little  perpendicularity  of  its  cord  upon  the  cal- 
caneus, is  precisely  so  disposed  in  order  that  the  deficient  muscular 
contraction  may  not  interfere  in  a  great  measure.  As  H.  Bouley 1  has 


FIG.  79. 


H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit.,  p.  580. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  265 

remarked,  "when  the  pieces  of  a  freshly-dissected  hock  are  moved, 
it  is  easy  to  recognize  that,  towards  the  limits  of  its  movement  of 
extension  and  flexion,  the  angle  opens  and  closes  by  a  sort  of  spring- 
like action,  which  cannot  be  better  compared  than  to  that  of  the  blade 
of  a  pocket-knife  upon  its  handle.  The  articulation,  being  once  opened, 
the  two  segments  will  remain  in  this  state  of  extension  by  the  very  fact 
of  the  manner  of  coaptation  of  their  surfaces  of  contact,  and  the 
intervention  of  a  muscular  force  .to  maintain  them  vertically  is  not  at 
all  necessary." 

The  straight  hock,  finally,  possesses  this  advantage  from  a  point  of 
view  of  speed,  that  it  is  usually  associated  with  long  posterior  members 
capable  of  taking  long  steps.  Supposing  the  lengths  of  the  crural, 
tibial,  and  metatarsal  segments  to  be  equal,  it  is  evident  that  their 
superposition,  in  a  more  or  less  vertical  manner,  will  give  a  more  con- 
siderable total  height  to  the  member  than  if  these  pieces  are  joined  in 
a  more  oblique  manner.  Whence  it  follows  that  a  horse  having  his 
bones  thus  articulated  will  have  his  locomotory  apparatus  more 
developed  relatively  to  the  body,  and  hence  will  be  endowed  with 
greater  speed. 

2d.  The  Tibia,  Oblique. — The  first  eifect  of  such  a  direction 
is  the  closing  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle,  allowing  less  freedom  to  the 
movements  of  flexion  than  if  this  angle  were  more  open.  Another 
effect  is  a  more  perpendicular  insertion  of  the  cord  of  the  hock,  which 
places  the  latter  in  the  best  conditions  for  the  proper  utilization  of  its 
force.  The  last  result  is  a  lessening  of  the  total  length  of  the  posterior 
member  and  a  proportionate  diminution  of  the  aptitude  of  the  organism 
in  relation  to  speed. 

Thus  conformed,  the  animal  is  closer  to  his  base  of  support ;  the 
hock  is  strong,  and  its  muscles  well  disposed ;  but  the  step  is  shorter 
on  account  of  the  smallness  of  the  tarsal  angle  and  the  diminished 
length  of  the  member.  All  things  being  equal  otherwise,  the  gait  will 
be  less  rapid,  unless  it  makes  up  by  the  repetition  of  its  movements 
for  the  space  and  time  lost  at  each  stride,  which  will  fatigue  the  ani- 
mal and  wear  him  out  more  quickly ;  but  if  the  step  lacks  amplitude 
and  the  member  length,  the  muscles  may  be  more  voluminous,  the 
body  developed,  and  the  total  mass  considerable.  The  animal  being 
then  capable  of  the  most  energetic  efforts  at  a  very  slow  pace,  the 
quantity  of  movement  (mv)  produced  will  not  be  less,  because  it  will 
displace  a  greater  weight  with  more  feeble  velocity.  Poorly  adapted 
for  the  turf,  he  will  be  excellent  for  traction,  provided  that  his  confor- 
mation has  been  modified  in  the  sense  which  we  have  indicated. 


266 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


The  hock  with  a  small  angle,  which  we  will  call  common,  because 
it  is  ordinarily  met  in  horses  for  light-draught  and  rapid  heavy- 
draught  services,  is,  in  our  opinion,  more  favorable  to  the  production 
of  force.  Does  this  mean  that  the  straight  hock  is  defective  for  all 
laborious  services,  and  that  it  is  only  observed  in  long-striding  horses  ? 
By  no  means.  It  is  rather  frequently  seen  in  our  heavy,  lymphatic 
horses,  which  our  measurements  have  proved ;  it  should  not,  in  such 
cases,  be  considered  as  defective  unless  it  at  the  same  time  lacks  width, 
which  is  not  rare,  or  unless  its  deficiency  is  not  compensated  by  a  mus- 
cular and  powerful  leg. 

b.  The  Canon,  Oblique  forward  and  downward.— This 
conformation,  in  which  the  canon  is  deviated  in  advance  of  the  verti- 
cal line  falling  from  the  point  of  the  buttock,  has 
caused  the  hock  to  be  qualified  elbowed  or  angular 
(Fig.  80). 

This  hock,  says  H.  Bouley,1  "always  appears 
wide  in  its  superior  part,  because  its  angularness 
results  in  a  separation  of  the  calcaneus  from  the 
tibia  and,  consequently,  places  the  calcanean  cord 
at  a  greater  distance  from  the  latter  bone ;  whence 
a  widening  of  the  external  surface.  This  bending 
of  the  region,  besides,  also  has  the  effect  of  placing 
the  arm  of  the  calcanean  lever  in  the  most  favor- 
able condition  for  the  production  of  force. 

"But,  by  the  side  of  these  advantages,  real 
disadvantages  present  themselves,  which  give 
ample  reasons  for  considering  this  conformation 
as  being  defective.  First,  the  column  of  sup- 
port below  the  tibia  being  situated  obliquely,  it  results  that  the  press- 
ure of  the  weight  of  the  body,  instead  of  being  transmitted  to  the 
ground  by  the  bones  exclusively,  as  in  the  vertical  position  of  this 
segment,  causes  a  strain,  proportionate  to  the  degree  of  the  obliquity, 
on  the  ligaments  which  unite  the  tarsus  with  the  metatarsus  as  a 
whole,  and  imposes  upon  them  an  abnormal  function.  In  addition, 
these  ligaments,  during  locomotion,  are  subjected  to  all  the  greater 
strain,  because  the  muscular  force  finds,  in  the  direction  of  the  cal- 
canean lever-arm,  more  favorable  conditions  for  its  development. 
These  are  two  causes  which  fatigue  the  apparatus  of  the  hock  more 
and  hasten  its  premature  ruin.  Experience  bears  witness  to  this 


FIG.  80. 


1  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit.,  t.  x.  p.  579. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  267 

effect.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  witness,  at  the  base  of 
elbowed  hocks,  the  development  of  osseous  tumors,  which  are  the 
expression  of  the  excess  of  its  function,  to  which  such  hocks  are  pre- 
disposed from  the  very  fact  of  their  defective  conformation.  We  can 
understand  that  this  defect  will  tend  to  become  more  exaggerated 
when  the  hock,  instead  of  corresponding  to  the  vertical  through  the 
buttock,  is  situated  farther  under  the  centre  of  gravity.  Horses 
whose  hocks  are  angular  are  often  animals  of  superior  quality  so  far 
as  energy  for  work  is  concerned,  and  are,  consequently,  predisposed  to 
ruin  themselves  so  much  more  quickly,  as  the  apparatus  upon  which 
they  apply  their  force  possesses  less  favorable  conditions  for  resistance." 

The  learned  author  of  this  quotation  might  have  added  that  the 
angular  hock,  by  drawing  the  inferior  part  of  the  member  towards  the 
centre  of  gravity,  by  causing  an  exaggerated  closing  of  the  tibio-tarsal 
angle  and  too  great  a  stretch  of  the  foot  forward  under  the  trunk, 
determines,  besides,  an  overloading  of  the  posterior  members  prejudicial 
to  their  functions.  It  augments  the  work  of  the  extensor  muscles  of 
the  metatarsus  during  station,  diminishes  the  amplitude  of  the  step  by 
restraining  the  movement  of  flexion,  and,  finally,  expends  to  no  pur- 
pose a  part  of  the  effort  of  impulsion  to  elevate  the  trunk  instead  of 
carrying  it  directly  forward. 

Such  a  hock  should,  for  these  reasons,  be  rejected  in  spite  of  its 
apparent  width,  for  it  is  the  result  of  an  imperfection  in  the  axis  of 
the  member  which  will  soon  ruin  it. 

c.  The  Canon,  Oblique  downward  and  backward.— This 
direction  of  the  canon  places  the  posterior  member  in  the  attitude 
which  is  called  camping,  and  which  approaches  somewhat  that  of  the 
animal  when  he  urinates.  We  will  have  occasion  to  return  to  this  in 
discussing  the  axes.  Let  us  say,  for  the  present,  that  it  places  the 
members  in  a  very  unfavorable  condition  to  fulfil,  with  ease,  their 
functions  as  columns  of  support  and  as  agents  of  impulsion,  relatively 
to  the  trunk.  It  removes  them  too  far  from  the  centre  of  gravity, 
transfers  a  corresponding  portion  of  the  body-Aveight  upon  the  anterior 
members  and  the  loins,  and  renders  the  impulsion  more  feeble  and  less 
extensive ;  it  predisposes  to  gliding  backward,  fatigues  the  animal 
more,  leads  to  sway-backedness,  etc.  (See  Axes.) 

We  must  not  confound  this  conformation  with  that  which  is  proper 
to  a  straight  hock.  The  femoro-tibial  and  tibio-tarsal  angles,  in  the 
latter  case,  are  open,  but  the  natural  axis  of  the  limb  is  preserved, 
while,  in  the  horse  camping  behind  (only  from  the  hock  down),  the 
tibia  remains  very  oblique,  whilst  it  leaves  the  tibio-tarsal  angle  very 


268  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

large  and  disturbs  the  normal  axes.  Whence  it  follows  that  this  angle 
is  badly  disposed  for  the  functions  of  its  branches  during  locomotion, 
and  even  tends  to  resist  the  efforts  intended  to  draw  them  towards 
each  other  during  station.  Its  bisectrix,  if  prolonged  to  the  ground, 
meets  the  latter  at  a  point  insufficiently  distant  from  that  where  the 
hind  feet  effect  their  contact,  and  the  consequence  then  is  that  the  angle 
is  quite  as  badly  opened  for  the  production  of  speed  as  for  that  of 
force. 

Direction  of  the  Hock. — The  direction  of  the  hock  must  be 
studied  from  two  different  points  of  view  :  in  relation  with  the  median 
plane  of  the  body  and  in  relation  with  the  axis  of  the  member. 

1st.  Direction  Relative  to  the  Median  Plane. — Relative  to 
the  median  plane  of  the  body,  the  hock  can  assume  three  situations, 
— namely : 

It  is  parallel  and  thus  well  directed. 

It  is  deviated  inward  and  qualified  close  or  cow-hocked. 

Finally,  it  is  deviated  outward,  which  renders  the  horse  open 
behind. 

In  order  to  have  its  normal  direction,  the  hock  should  be  parallel 
to  the  median  plane,  for  its  branches  are  flexed  and  extended  upon 
each  other  in  a  plane  equally  parallel,  not  to  speak  of  the  normal  devi- 
ation which  the  inferior  part  of  the  member  affects  during  flexion.  In 
this  case  the  impulsion  given  by  the  posterior  limbs  is  transmitted, 
without  lateral  oscillations,  to  the  spinal  column,  whose  direction  it 
follows,  and  there  is  no  waste  of  force  in  the  projection  of  the  body. 
The  play  of  the  extremities  is  easy ;  the  feet  are  not  predisposed  to 
interfering ;  their  contact  with  the  ground  is  uniform ;  the  gait  is  free, 
regular,  brilliant,  and  the  tarsal  apparatus  will  withstand  a  prolonged 
service. 

When  the  hocks  are  close  or  crooked  (Fig.  81),  their  points,  when 
viewed  from  behind,  converge,  and  the  inferior  part  of  the  members  is 
deviated  outward.  The  horse  is  then  designated  cow-hocked,  or  close- 
hammed;  his  movements  are  without  elegance,  although  the  conforma- 
tion is  often  associated  with  very  great  qualities. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  points  of  the  hocks  (Fig.  82)  are  diverging, 
the  lower  part  of  the  member  is  turned  inward ;  the  animal  is  open,  or 
too  open  behind,  in  view  of  the  great  separation  of  the  two  calcanei. 

We  will  explain,  when  treating  of  the  axes  of  the  members,  the  dis- 
advantages of  these  defects,  which  give  to  such  subjects  the  most 
ungraceful  gaits  imaginable. 

2d.  Direction  Relative  to  the  Axis  of  the  Member. — In 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


269 


order  that  the  tarsal  apparatus  may  fulfil  its  functions  well,  it  is  not 
enough  that  it  should  be  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  body, 
but  it  is  also  necessary  that  the  median  line  of  the  member  divide  it 
into  two  very  equal  moieties.  If  this  condition  be  not  realized,  the 


FIG.  81. 


FIG.  82. 


region  of  the  hock  is  displaced  inwardly  or  outwardly,  and  becomes 
the  seat  of  irregularities  in  its  contact  more  or  less  prejudicial  to  the 
integrity  of  the  locomotory  machine. 

When  the  hocks  are  strongly  convex  on  their  internal  face  from 
above  to  below,  they  are  most  ordinarily  angular  in  front,  and  the 
animal  is  close  behind. 

The  deviation  opposite  to  the  latter,  and  common  in  horses  too 
open  behind,  consists  in  a  rather  strongly-marked  concavity  of  the 
whole  of  the  internal  surface  of  the  member,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
calcanei  become  very  diverging,  while  the  two  hoofs,  nearer  each  other 
than  they  should  be,  converge  and  even  touch  each  other  in  the  region 
of  the  toes.  A  horse  offering  this  conformation  could  be  called  bow- 
legged,  on  account  of  its  analogy  to  the  aspect  of  the  man  whose  legs 
are  thus  directed.  In  both  forms  the  hock  does  not  give  the  natural 
impulsion  to  the  body,  and  the  members  move  in  a  very  ungraceful 
manner.  (See  Axes  of  Members.) 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — The  alterations  of  which  the  hock 
may  be  the  seat,  says  H.  Bouley,1  are  numerous,  varied,  and  often  of 
extreme  gravity.  They  may  affect  any  of  the  constituent  parts  of 


H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit.,  p.  586. 


270  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

this  complex  apparatus :  the  bones,  the  synovial  membranes,  the  liga- 
ments, the  tendons  and  their  sheaths,  and,  finally,  the  subcutaneous 
tissue.  The  skin  itself  is  sometimes  affected,  but  only  in  a  mild 
degree,  as  compared  with  the  intrinsic  pieces  of  the  region. 

The  number  and  gravity  of  these  lesions  are  readily  explained  by 
the  important  role  of  the  hock  in  the  function  of  locomotion. 

Following  the  method  of  H.  Bouley,  we  will  study  them  by  passing 
from  without  to  within.  They  exist,  in  fact,  upon  the  skin,  the  con- 
nective tissue,  the  tendons  and  their  bursae,  the  bones,  and  the  tibio- 
tarsal  articular  synovial  membrane. 

a.  The  Skin. — The  point  of  the  hock  is  quite  frequently  the  seat  of  denuda- 
tions and  excoriations,  whose  presence  should  attract  the  attention.  Such 
wounds,  by  reason  of  their  locality,  are  often  an  index  of  the  vicious  character  of 
the  animal,  or  of  his  irritable  disposition.  They  result  from  blows,  kicks,  kick- 
ing, and  are  particularly  common  in  irritable  mares  which  are  continually  uri- 
nating. They  are  sometimes  followed  by  accidental  white  markings  in  subjects 
with  dark-colored  extremities ;  at  other  times  by  cicatrices  of  a  variable  con- 
figuration, visible  on  the  outside,  covered  by  the  surrounding  hairs,  or  fraudulently 
hidden  by  a  colored  coating. 

Traces  of  cauterization,  in  points  or  in  lines,  which  are  seen  on  blem- 
ished hocks  should  induce  one  to  ascertain  whether  the  affection  for  which  the 
cauterization  has  been  employed  has  entirely  disappeared,  or  whether  the  region 
is  improved  in  a  manner  to  permit  of  a  better  utilization  of  the  animal. 

It  is  in  the  fold  of  this  hock  that  the  most  serious  cutaneous  lesions  are 
observed.  They  consist  of  transverse  fissures,  known  under  the  vulgar  name  of 
sallenders,  occasioned  by  external  irritation,  con- 
tinual friction,  or  the  application  of  a  vesicant.  Pri- 
marily benign,  sallenders  soon  becomes  complicated  in 
consequence  of  the  irifcessant  movements  of  the  parts, 
and  also  other  causes,  such  as  the  humidity,  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  temperature,  uncleanness,  etc.  It  then 
becomes  a  wound,  rebellious  to  cicatrization,  with 
thick,  indurated  borders,  covered  with  scabs,  and 
always  very  painful  during  the  hot  seasons. 

b.  Connective  Tissue. — The  subcutaneous  con- 
nective tissue  at  the  point  of  the  hock,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  contusions  and  repeated  frictions,  becomes 
infiltrated  with  serum,  and  forms  at  the  end  of  a  cer- 
tain time  a  soft,  fluctuating,  sometimes  oedematous, 
non-inflammatory  tumor  designated  under  the  names 
FIG.  83.  capped  hock  and  capellet l  (Fig.  83). 

Capped  hock  is  nothing  else  but  hygroma  of  the 

summit  of  the  calcaneus.  Its  greatest  inconvenience  is  the  deformity  of  the  point 
of  the  hock,  but  it  occasions  no  lameness.  It  constitutes  none  the  less  quite  a 

1  "  The  first  of  these  names  is  without  doubt  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  tumor  has  been 
compared  to  a  small  cap  adorning  the  head  of  the  calcaneus."  (H.  Bouley.) 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  271 

serious  blemish  in  pleasure-horses,  on  account  of  the  deformity  which  it  produces 
and  the  tenacity  with  which  it  resists  the  means  employed  for  its  resolution. 
It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  purely  accidental  O3dema  of  this  part  in 
horses  standing  in  the  stable  for  a  long  time,  which  disappears  promptly  under 
the  influence  of  exercise. 

c.  Tendons  and  Tendinous  Synovials. — We  will  mention,  in  passing, 
the  rupture  of  the  tendinous  portion  of  the  flexor  metatarsi,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken  in  the  article  on  the  leg,  and  which  gives  rise  to  a  lameness  of  a 
special  character. 

We  will  also  name  an  accident, — an  exceptional  one,  indeed, — luxation  of  the 
calcanean  attachment  of  the  perforatus.  In  the  two  known  cases,  the  tendinous 
portion  of  this  muscle  had  ruptured  its  insertion  on  this  bone  from  a  very 
violent  effort  of  traction,  was  dislocated  externally  to  the  point  of  the  hock,  and 
produced  so  visible  a  deformity  that  the  animal  could  not  have  been  offered  for 
sale. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  ossification  of  this  calcanean  cap,  as  well  as  of  a 
portion  of  the  tendon  itself,  which  we  have  observed,  on  one  occasion  only,  in  an 
old  horse  that  was  sacrificed  for  dissection,  and  whose  hock  we  deposited  in  the 
Department  of  Collections  at  the  Alfort  School. 

These  lesions  have  no  other  interest  than  their  rarity.  A  different  case,  how- 
ever, is  that  of  the  abnormal  dilatations  of  the  synovial  sheaths  which  facilitate 
the  gliding  of  the  tendons  in  the  region  of  the  hock.  These  are,  on  the  contrary, 
most  common,  always  very  grave  (some  of  them  at  least),  with  regard  to  the  de- 
preciation in  the  value  of  the  animal.  They  are  known  under  the  generic  name 
of  tendinous  hygroma  or  thorough-pin. 

The  most  serious  among  them  is  undoubtedly  that  of  the  tarsal  sheath,  which, 
for  this  reason,  has  received  the  name  of  tarsal  or  tendinous  thorough-pin.  It  is 
characterized  by  subcutaneous  tumors,  which  appear  at  the  superior  or  at  the 
inferior  part  of  the  hock,  at  the  points  where  the  synovial  membrane  has  no 
support.  The  superior  dilatation  is  situated  in  the  hollow  of  the  hock,  immedi- 
ately in  front  of  the  tendo  Achilla  or  cord,  and  along  its  course.  More  salient 
on  the  internal  side,  it  is  sometimes  bilobed,  and  may  reach  the  inferior  fourth  of 
the  leg.  When  it  is  very  voluminous,  pressure  exercised  upon  it  will  not  force 
the  liquid  to  the  anterior  face  of  the  hock,  because  the  tarsal  sheath  does  not 
communicate  with  the  articulation ;  but  such  pressure,  being  transmitted  to  the 
swelling  at  the  inferior  part  of  the  hock,  renders  them  more  apparent. 

These  tumors,  less  developed  than  the  preceding  one,  and  less  distinctly  out- 
lined in  consequence  of  the  thickness  of  the  walls  of  the  sheath,  follow  the 
course  of  the  flexor  tendons  to  the  superior  third  of  the  canon. 

"  Tarsal  thorough-pin,"  says  H.  Bouley,  "  is  susceptible  of  acquiring  enormous 
dimensions,  particularly  on  the  internal  side.  It  has  been  seen  to  be  enlarged 
in  such  proportions  that  the  space  between  the  two  members  was  no  longer  suffi- 
cient for  their  normal  movements,  and  the  skin  over  its  surface  was  excoriated 
from  the  constant  friction  against  the  opposite  hock  during  the  movements  of 
locomotion." 

The  synovial  bursa  which  facilitates  the  gliding  of  the  expansion  of  the 
perforatus  upon  the  summit  of  the  calcaneus  is  also  capable  of  becoming  dilated 
to  an  abnormal  degree.  Although  very  strongly  attached  here,  it  can  yield  to 
the  pressure  of  the  liquids  from  within,  forming  along  the  cord  of  the  hock  an 


272  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

elongated,  cylindrical  tumor,  ordinarily  of  a  small  volume,  and  about  ten  centi- 
metres in  length.  This  is  called  calcanean  hygroma. 

H.  Bouley  observed  with  justness  that  the  synovial  cul-de-sac  which  permits 
the  gastrocnemius  tendon  to  glide  upon  the  summit  of  the  calcaneus,  during 
the  movements  of  extensive  flexion,  is  so  powerfully  supported  by  the  expansion 
of  the  perforatus  that  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  it  to  dilate  in  the  form  of 
external  enlargements.  He  adds,  with  equal  accuracy,  that  this  synovial  cannot 
in  any  manner  give  rise  to  the  tumor  which  we  have  studied  above  under  the 
name  of  capped  hock. 

Finally,  it  is  also  possible  to  meet  hydropsy  of  the  small  bursa  which  facilir 
tates  the  gliding  of  the  cunean  tendon  of  the  flexor  of  the  metatarsus  over  the 
surface  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament.  It  presents  a  small,  soft,  fluctuating 
tumor  of  the  size  of  a  large  bean,  situated  in  front  of  the  point  where  the  exos- 
tosis  of  a  spavin  usually  forms  and  for  which  it  is  sometimes  mistaken.  This 
dilatation  has  received  the  name  of  cunean  hygroma,  on  account  of  its  location 
in  relation  with  the  tendinous  branch  under  which  it  is  developed. 

d.  Articular  Synovials. — It  is  rather  common  to  meet  upon  the  astrag- 
aloid  pulley  and  in  the  corresponding  grooves  of  the  tibia  more  or  less  deep 
multiple  striae  or  fissures,  perfectly  regular,  and  all  of  them  parallel  to  the  lips 
of  the  astragalus.  These  strice  of  the  articular  surfaces  are  most  common  in  old 
horses.  They  are,  without  doubt,  due  to  some  slow  and  obscure  irritation  of  the 
tibio-tarsal  joint,  and  correspond  probably  to  a  special  irregularity  of  its  move- 
ments ;  but  clinicians  at  present  have  not  determined  in  a  precise  manner  the 
external  symptoms  of  this  variety  of  lesions,  which  should  consequently  be 
investigated.  (See  Defects  of  the  Gaits :  String-halt.} 

The  most  serious  alteration  of  the  tibio-astragaloid  articulation  is  consecutive 
to  a  hydropsy  of  its  synovial  membrane.  The  synovia,  under  the  influence  of  an 
excessive  functional  activity  on  the  part  of  this  membrane,  is  secreted  in  larger 
quantity  in  the  articular  cavity,  and,  in  the  long  run,  exercises  pressure  from 
within  which,  little  by  little,  dislocates  the  parietes  of  the  articular  cavity.  But 
as  the  latter  are  not  equally  sustained  everywhere,  the  places  which  offer  the 
least  resistance  to  the  internal  pressure  are  distended  beyond  their  physiological 
limits  and  produce  a  hernia,  by  forming  under  the  skin  three  tumors  whose  posi- 
tion is  stationary,  whose  volume  and  tension  alone  change  according  to  the 
intensity  of  the  alteration.  These  three  tumors  constitute  what  is  called  articular 
thorough-pin  of  the  hock. 

The  first  of  these  is  located  in  the  fold  of  the  hock  and  a  little  to  the  internal 
side.  It  modifies  the  profile  of  the  anterior  face  of  this  region  by  the  presence 
of  an  abnormal  curve,  yielding,  and  always  more  tense  to  the  finger  when  the 
member  is  on  the  ground. 

The  other  two  articular  dilatations  are  situated  behind  and  above  the  lateral 
ligaments,  between  the  tibia  and  the  perforans  tendon.  They  have  a  variable 
volume,  which  ranges  from  that  of  a  walnut  to  that  of  a  child's  head;  the 
internal  is  most  frequently  larger  than  the  external,  which  is  sometimes  absent. 
The  presence  of  one  of  these  constantly  coexists  with  that  of  the  anterior  swell- 
ing, and  that  is  what  we  might  expect,  since  all  three  are  only  diverticula  of  the 
same  cavity.  Pressure  exercised  upon  one  of  them  is  communicated  to  the 
others. 

The  synovial  dilatations  are,  in  general,  less  grave  than  the  osseous  tumors. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


273 


They  may  for  a  long  time  remain  compatible  with  the  liberty  of  the  movements. 
They  (the  articular  especially)  lame  the  animal  only  in  cases  of  abundant  hyper- 
secretion  of  synovia  and  excessive  tension  on  the  surrounding  tissues.  Their 
parietes,  in  long-standing  cases,  become  thickened  and  calcined  in  places,  restrain- 
ing greatly  the  tarsal  movements.  When  the  calcification  is  very  extensive,  it 
constitutes  a  false  anchylosis  of  the  articulation,  which  renders  rapid  locomotion 
absolutely  impossible. 

e.  The  Bones. — The  osseous  blemishes  in  the  region  of  the  hock  have 
received  different  names.     They  are:  curb,  spavin,  andjarde. 

1st.  Curb. — Curb  (Fig.  84,  B,  and  Fig.  85,  A)  is  a  periostitis  of  the  infero- 
internal  tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  which  is  developed  under  the  influence  of  external 
violence  or  excessive  strain  of  the  articulation.  It  is  characterized  by  the  forma- 
tion of  osseous  layers,  which  are  disposed  in  regular  strata  upon  the  tibial  tuber- 
osity, over  the  surface  covered  by  the  attachment  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament. 


FIG.  84. 


FIG.  85. 


This  formation  offers  a  longitudinal  groove  in  which  the  tendon  of  the  oblique 
flexor  of  the  phalanges  glides  and  manifests  itself  externally  by  a  curve,  more 
pronounced  than  in  a  normal  state,  when  this  face  is  viewed  from  in  front,  behind, 
or  obliquely.  At  the  beginning,  it  is  often  difficult  of  recognition  from  its  feeble 
dimensions,  which  render  the  comparison  of  the  two  hocks  necessary.  Unless 
they  are  both  blemished,  it  is  generally  easy  to  determine  the  presence  of  such  a 
neoplasm,  for  it  is  exceptional  that  the  two  enlargements  should  be  absolutely 
identical  in  relation  to  their  form  and  volume.  Curb  only  occasions,  lameness 
during  its  formation ;  when  it  is  once  developed,  the  lameness  disappears. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  some  which  from  the  volume  which  they  attajn  cover  up 
the  margin  of  the  tibial  articular  surfaces  and  interfere,  more  or  less,  with  the 
freedom  of  the  movements ;  in  such  cases  they  are  all  the  more  grave,  as  they 
are  rebellious  to  all  means  of  treatment. 

2d.  Spavin. — The  term  spavin  should  be  reserved  to  denote  a  periostitis 
at  the  lower  and  internal  part  of  the  hock  (Fig.  84  and  Fig.  86,  A).    It  involves 

18 


274 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  86. 


most  usually  certain  bones  of  the  tarsus  and  of  the  metatarsus  covered  by  the 
expansion  of  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament  of  the  ar- 
ticulation,— that  is  to  say,  the  head  of  the  rudimentary  metatarsal  bone,  a  small 
portion  of  the  principal  metatarsal,  the  cuneiforms,  the 
scaphoid,  and  even  the  base  of  the  astragalus.  Frequently, 
however,  it  is  much  more  circumscribed,  which  has  led  H. 
Bouley  to  specify  as  metatarsal,  or  low,  the  spavin  which  is 
situated  at  the  upper  extismity  of  the  canon,  and  as  tarso- 
metatarsal,  or  high,  that  V7hich  affects  the  bones  of  the  tarsus 
as  well  as  those  of  the  metatarsus. 

The  first  is  manifested  externally  as  an  exaggeration  of 
the  eminence  formed  by  the  head  of  the  internal  splint 
bone,  or,  again,  when  it  is  more  anterior,  by  the  greater  vol- 
ume of  the  tuberosity  of  insertion  of  the  flexor  muscle  of  the 
metatarsus.  Sometimes  it  is  complicated  by  a  splint  on  the 
canon,  in  consequence  of  the  abnormal  ossification  of  the  in- 
lerosseous  ligament  which  unites  the  rudimentary  to  the 
principal  metatarsal  bone.  Whatever  may  be  its  exact  seat 
and  its  volume,  which  are  susceptible  to  variation,  metafarsal 
spavin  ordinarily  occasions  only  a  temporary  lameness,  which 
ceases,  in  most  instances,  after  a  certain  lapse  of  time,  when 
the  work  of  ossification  is  completed. 

As  to  tarso-metatarsal  spavin,  its  gravity  is  very  different  and  its  frequency 
much  greater.  It  constitutes,  in  fact,  a  kind  of  exostosis  which  solders  the  inferior 
bones  of  the  tarsus  to  one  another  and  to  the  metatarsus.  It  is  at  first  limited  to 
the  periphery  of  the  articular  margins,  but  progressively  invades  the  articular 
surfaces  themselves.  The  latter  complication,  whose  evil  effects  are  easily  under- 
stood,—in  one  word,  true  anchylosis, — does  not  always  exist,  even  in  the  case 
of  very  voluminous  exostoses.  We  have  examined  the  articular  surfaces  in  a 
number  of  instances  in  old  horses,  and  found  them  still  intact.  Such  a  lesion 
does  not,  as  can  be  perceived,  completely  annihilate  the  movements  of  the  tarsal 
articulations,  and,  consequently,  lessens  the  gravity  of  the  prognosis  which  may 
have  been  deduced  from  it. 

Bone  spavin,  at  the  beginning  of  its  formation,  and  before  the  appearance 
of  the  external  tumor,  determines  a  lameness,  generally  very  intense,  upon  the 
nature  of  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  decide  with  certainty.  The  lame- 
ness which  follows  has  no  pathognomonic  character,  even  when  it  is  accompa- 
nied by  the  jerk  of  string-halt.  It  is  only  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time  that  the 
exostosis  is  manifested  in  profile  upon  the  internal  side  of  the  hock.  Its  volume 
and  its  seat  are,  in  such  cases,  very  variable.  Som3times  scarcely  distinct,  some- 
times very  well  defined,  it  projects  inward,  forwa/d,  or  backward  from  the  ar- 
ticulation. In  rather  frequent  cases  the  lameness  at  this  period  diminishes  in 
intensity  or  disappears  entirely ;  but  in  most  instances  it  persists  and  remains 
in  relation  with  the  extent  of  the  tumor.  Its  characteristics  are  no  longer  the 
same ;  the  animal  suffers  less  pain  and  the  limp  seems  to  be  due  more  to  the 
mechanical  difficulties  which  the  tarsal  bones  experience  in  their  displacements. 
However  it  may  be,  it  is  apparent  that  the  gravity  of  the  prognosis  varies  with 
the  nature  of  the  articular  lesions,  the  obstacles  offered  to  locomotion,  and  the 
persistence  and  tenacity  of  the  rational  symptoms  to  which  the  blemish  is  heir. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


275 


FIG.  87. 


3d.  Jarde.1 — Jarde  (Fig.  87)  is  not,  as  every  one  wrongly  believes,  an  osse- 
ous tumor,  reproducing  identically,  upon  the  external  side  of  the  hock,  the 
enlargement  which  a  spavin  forms  on  the  internal  side  of  the 
same  region.  It  is  simply  a  more  or  less  extensive  periostitis 
of  the  head  of  the  external  rudimentary  metatarsal  bone.  This 
lesion  is  very  often  complicated  by  a  splint,  as  in  the  case 
which  we  represent  (Figs.  88  and  89) ;  at  other  times,  and  this 
is  perhaps  the  most  frequent  circumstance,  nothing  is  found 
but  a  tumor  developed  at  the  superior  and  external  side  of  the 
canon, — that  is  to  say,  a  simple  splint.  This  is  at  least  the 
opinion  which  we  have  acquired  as  the  result  of  our  re- 
searches for  a  period  of  observation  extending  over  more 
than  forty  years,  in  conditions  altogether  exceptional  in  so  far 
as  the  abundance  of  the  specimens  studied  was  concerned. 

Jarde  is  never  situated  at  the  same  height  as  spavin ; 
it  is  always  lower,  which  already  implies  that  the  external 
tarsal  bones  are  not  the  seat  of  it.  Besides,  it  remains  con- 
fined outwardly  or  posteriorly,  and  does  not  extend  forward 
as  spavin  does ;  finally,  it  is  rather  inclined  to  descend  along 
the  rudimentary  metatarsal  than  to  ascend  upon  the  cuboid 
or  the  base  of  the  calcaneus,  additional  reasons  which  mili- 
tate in  favor  of  its  metatarsal  origin.  It  should,  therefore,  neither  in  location, 
lesions,  nor  gravity,  be  considered  as  the  homologue  of  spavin. 

We  also  sometimes  meet,  on  the  outer  side  of  the  hock,  a  tumor  localized 
on  the  base  of  the  calcaneus,  the  scaphoid,  the  cuboid,  and  the  head  of  the 
external  metatarsal  bone, — a  tumor  sufficiently  circumscribed  to  merit  a  special 
name  other  than  that  of  osteophyte,  of  which  we  shall  speak  farther  on.  (It 
could  be  called  external  spavin.} 

In  1852,  M.  Gillet2  represented  the  true  jarcle  with  great  exactness,  although, 
by  a  singular  deference  for  the  erroneous  opinions  of  his  predecessors  and  his 
contemporaries,  he  would  not  abide  by  his  own  observations  alone.  His  draw- 
ing, altogether  similar  to  our  own  (Figs.  88  and  89),  differed,  for  good  reasons, 
from  all  the  other  more  or  less  fantastic  representations  which  have  been  made 
of  the  blemish  in  question.  We  will  add  that  it  is  very  rare  to  meet  lesions 
of  this  nature,  and  we  are  certain  not  to  be  contradicted  upon  this  point  by  those 
who  have  taken  the  trouble  to  search  for  them. 

The  anatomical  facts  explain  why  the  periostitis  of  which  we  speak  can 
really  only  take  its  origin  upon  the  head  of  the  external  splint  bone  and  not 
otherwise.  It  is  necessary  first  to  recall  that  exostoses  resulting  from  usage 
appear  only  at  points  of  insertion  of  the  large  articular  ligaments.  It  is  at  these 
points  that  tractions  and  irritations  are  conveyed  to  the  periosteum  and  inflame 
it.  The  irritation,  spreading  little  by  little,  invades  ultimately  all  the  bony  sur- 
faces covered  by  these  ligaments.  It  is  according  to  this  process  that  curb, 
spavin,  and  exostoses  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  produced ;  this  same  pro- 
cess we  shall  find  again  as  the  primary  factor  in  the  formation  of  splints  or 


1  This  is  the  "curb"  of  English  authors. 

2  Gillet,  Des  Tares  osseuses  des  membres  du  cheval,  in  Recueil  de  memoires  et  observations 
sur  Phygiene  et  la  mgdecine  v6terinaires  militaires,  t.  iv.  p.  317,  chez  Dumaine,  Paris,  1852. 


276 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


exostoses  of  the  canon.    The  formation  of  a  jarde  is  no  exception  to  this  prin- 
ciple. 


FIG.  88.— Jarde  upon  the  dissected  hock. 


It  commences  at  the  head  of  the  external  metatarsal  bone  (Fig.  90), — that  is 
to  say,  at  the  inferior  insertion  of  the  powerful  calcaneo-metatarsal  ligament,  b, 
so  much  more  exposed  to  traction  on  its  component  fibres  as  the  efforts  which 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


277 


produce  it  are  exerted  at  the  extremity  of  a  calcaneus  longer  and  more  oblique 
upon  the  tibia.     Hence  it  has  always  been  considered  as  coexistent  with  angular 


FIG.  89.— Jarde  upon  the  macerated  hock. 

hocks.  The  tumor,  once  formed,  has  no  tendency  to  ascend ;  it  remains  localized 
at  the  place  which  we  have  just  indicated,  or,  perhaps,  is  complicated  by  a  splint 
upon  the  tract  of  the  interosseous  ligament,  which  unites  the  principal  meta- 
tarsal  to  the  corresponding  rudimentary  bone.  With  regard  to  its  seat,  it  may 


278 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


be  defined  as  a  periostitis  of  the  calcaneo-metatarsal  ligament,  b  (Fig.  90),  and 
the  external  tibio-tarsal,  a  (Fig.  91),  and  spavin  as  that  of  the  astragalo-meta- 
tarsal,  b  (Fig.  91),  and  the  internal  tibio-tarsal,  a  (Fig.  90),  ligaments. 


FIG.  90.— Dissected  hock  viewed  inwardly 
and  posteriorly. 


FIG.  91.— Dissected  hock  viewed  inwardly 
and  in  front. 


Whatever  may  be  its  situation,  it  occasions  a  very  characteristic  deformity 
of  the  profile  of  the  base  of  the  hock.  The  line  which  passes  from  the  summit 
of  the  calcaneus  to  the  fetlock,  instead  of  being  perfectly  straight,  describes,  on 
the  contrary,  a  curve  with  the  convexity  posterior,  at  the  level  of  the  head  of 
the  splint  bone  and  most  frequently  a  little  below.  The  enlargement  is  also  per- 
ceived upon  the  hock  viewed  from  behind  or  obliquely.  When  the  jarde  assumes 
the  form  of  a  splint,  it  sometimes  elevates  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock 
by  developing  in  the  posterior  gutter,  which  serves  as  a  cavity  of  reception  for 
the  latter.  In  this  case  it  is  the  line  of  the  tendon  which  loses  its  rectitude  and 
becomes  more  or  less  convex  behind. 

Before  leaving  this  subject,  we  should  warn  our  readers  against  a  tendency 
which  is  quite  general  among  horsemen,  particularly  in  the  army:  it  is  the 
mania  of  jardes,  if  we  may  use  such  an  expression.  Many  jardes  exist  often 
only  in  the  imagination  of  those  who  speak  of  it,  and  who,  to  a  certain  degree, 
cannot  inspect  a  horse  without  seeing  this  lesion.  The  head  of  the  external 
metatarsal  bone,  in  our  opinion,  has  not  always  the  same  configuration ;  it  is 
sometimes  very  angular,  and  may,  in  this  case,  alter  externally  the  posterior 
profile  of  the  tarsus, — above  all,  if  the  hock  is  cow-hocked, — without  justifying 
thereby  a  conclusion  of  the  existence  of  a  blemish,  because  the  structures  still 
are  and  will  remain  perfectly  normal. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  279 

A  jarde  is  far  from  offering  the  same  gravity  as  spavin.  This  is  simply  due 
to  the  fact  that  it  never  terminates  in  anchylosis  of  the  inferior  tarsal  articula- 
tions ;  the  latter  remain  absolutely  intact. 

The  lameness  which  it  determines,  when  the  work  of  ossification  has  been 
completed,  depends  upon  the  want  of  freedom  experienced  by  the  small  metatarsal 
arthrodia  or  the  compression  of  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  and  the 
flexor  tendons. 

Osteophytes. — The  hock  does  not  always  present  so  clear  a  delimitation 
of  its  osseous  blemishes ;  in  old  horses  it  is  quite  frequently  the  seat  of  dissemi- 
nated bony  deposits  whose  point  of  origin  may  be  in  the  thickness  of  the  ante- 
rior capsular  ligaments,  that  of  the  lateral  ligaments,  or  again  in  that  of  the 
articular  and  tendinous  synovial  membranes.  This  condition,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  the  ultimate  complication  of  synovial  dilatations,  and,  consequently,  is  nothing 
remarkable.  The  normal  profiles  of  the  hock,  in  such  instances,  are  completely 
changed.  At  the  level  of  these  osseous  tumors  the  region  presents  more  or  less 
voluminous,  hard,  and  irregular  reliefs,  which  have  a  great  tendency  to  join  and 
eventually  encircle  the  tarsal  apparatus.  These  are  always  conclusive  evidence 
of  ruin  and  of  usage  driven  to  its  utmost  limits. 


E. — The  Chestnut. 

The  chestnut,  o  (Fig.  77,  B  and  D),  in  the  posterior  member,  is 
situated  on  the  inferior  part  of  the  internal  surface  of  the  hock.  It 
responds  anatomically  to  the  small  cuneiform,  and  is  sometimes  wanting. 
Huzard  the  elder  has  mentioned  its  absence,  and  we  have  also  verified 
it  in  several  instances.  In  such  a  case  the  description  of  the  horse 
should  mention  the  fact.  As  in  the  anterior  member,  its  area  and 
volume  vary  in  a  great  measure  according  to  the  race ;  it  has,  besides, 
nothing  of  special  interest. 

(The  chestnut,  anatomically,  is  the  rudiment  of  the  hoof  of  the 
fifth  digit  or  thumb,  which  it  represents.  Its  absence  is  most  fre- 
quently noticed  in  meridional  horses,  probably  the  descendants  of  the 
African  horse,  which,  of  all  the  equine  races,  is  the  most  closely  related 
to  the  ass.  It  is  smaller  in  well-bred  horses. — Harger.) 

F.— The  Canon  and  the  Tendons. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base. — The  canon  is  the 
region  of  the  members  which  extends  vertically  from  the  knee  or  the 
hock  to  the  fetlock. 

Its  anatomical  base  consists  of  the  three  metatarsal  or  metacarpal  bones,  the 
tendons  of  the  different  motor  muscles  of  the  phalanges,  and  a  very  strong  liga- 
ment, known,  on  account  of  its  functions,  under  the  name  of  the  suspensory 
ligament  of  the  fetlock. 


280 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Of  these  three  bones,  one,  the  principal  metatarsal  or  metacarpal,  is  much 
more  developed  than  the  other  two,  which  are  altogether  rudimentary.  The  latter 
(Fig.  92)  are  united  to  the  sides  of  the  principal  bone  by  means  of  a  very  resist- 
ing interosseous  ligament  which  ossifies  with  age,  save  at  its  two  extremities. 


FIG.  93. 


The  superior  part,  or  the  head  of  these  small  styloid  bones,  is  articulated  by  two 
diarthrodial  facets  with  the  extremity  of  the  median  bone  of  the  canon  ;  their 
inferior  extremity,  slightly  dilated  and  button-shaped,  almost  free  and  tangible  to 
the  finger,  is  united  by  a  fibrous  ligament  to  the  region  which  we  will  study  as 
the  ergot. 

Thus  constituted,  the  canon  is  articulated  above,  through  the  intervention 
of  its  component  parts,  with  the  lower  row  of  carpal  or  tarsal  bones,  from  which 
it  receives  and  transmits  impressions  ;  below,  the  middle  bone  forms  with  the 
first  phalanx  a  very  movable  joint,  which  is  completed,  behind,  by  the  two  sesa- 
moid  bones. 

No  muscles  worthy  of  attention  exist  in  this  region.  The  tendons  of  the 
extensor  muscles  of  the  phalanges  are  found  on  its  anterior  surface,  and  those  of 
the  flexors,  perforans,  and  perforatus  on  the  posterior.  We  must  mention,  be- 
sides, the  carpal  and  the  tarsal  check  tendons,  fibrous,  unelastic  laminse, 
which  emanate  from  the  posterior  ligament  of  the  carpus  and  the  tarsus;  and  ter- 
minate, after  a  more  or  less  extensive  course,  in  the  deep  flexor  tendon  of  the 
digit. 

Two  large  synovial  membranes  exist,  one  above,  the  other  below,  upon  about 
a  third  of  the  length  of  the  canon.  The  superior  we  have  already  studied  :  it 
belongs  to  the  carpal  or  the  tarsal  sheath.  The  inferior  will  be  studied  with  the 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  281 

fetlock :  it  is  that  of  the  metacarpo-  or  metatarso-phalangeal  sheath,  also  called  the 
great  sesamoid  sheath.  They  both  facilitate  the  gliding  of  the  flexor  tendons  of 
the  phalanges,  the  first  against  the  posterior  face  of  the  hock  or  the  knee,  and 
the  second  over  the  angle  of  the  fetlock ;  both  permit,  besides,  the  movements  of 
the  two  cords  upon  each  other. 

Finally,  against  the  posterior  face  of  the  principal  bone  of  the  canon,  in  a 
sort  of  gutter  formed  by  the  splint  bones,  is  lodged  the  vast  ligamentous  brace 
of  the  fetlock,  a  (Fig.  93),  which  is  bifid  interiorly  and  terminates  upon  the 
sesamoid  bones. 

It  is  not  without  interest  to  note,  in  passing,  a  somewhat  infrequent  fact  of 
which  science,  nevertheless,  has  a  certain  number  of  examples ;  we  refer  to  the 
existence  of  supernumerary  digits l  on  the  internal  face  of  the  canon  of  one,  two, 
or  all  four  of  the  members  of  the  horse  at  one  time.  This  anomaly  consists  in  the 
abnormal  and  almost  complete  development  of  the  internal  digit,  which,  in  ordi- 
nary conditions,  is  simply  represented  by  the  corresponding  but  aborted  meta- 
tarsal  or  metacarpal  bone. 

The  external  digit  occurs  much  more  rarely.  Professor  R.  S.  Huidekoper 
has  observed  a  very  remarkable  case  in  a  Texas  horse.  The  animal  had,  in  all, 
ten  hoofs,  three  on  each  anterior  member  and  two  on  each  posterior.  The  an- 
terior supernumerary  digits  were  formed  each  of  three  phalanges ;  their  hoofs 
descended  almost  to  the  ground.  The  supernumerary  digits  on  the  posterior 
members  existed  only  on  the  internal  side ;  their  phalanges  were  rudimentary 
and  their  horny  covering  only  reached  to  the  middle  of  the  pastern.2 

Role  and  Action  of  the  Canon. — The  canon  is  a  locomotory 
lever  which  plays  a  most  important  role  in  progression,  station,  and 
impulsion.  Let  us  examine  it  rapidly  from  these  diverse  relations. 

It  is  primarily  the  seat  of  two  principal  movements,  flexion  and 
extemion. 

The  first,  much  more  pronounced  in  the  anterior  member,  elevates 
the  foot  and  places  the  canon  in  a  favorable  position  to  accomplish  the 
second,  which  it  is  desirable  should  be  as  extensive  as  possible.  The 
length  of  the  forearm  and  that  of  the  tibia  are,  as  we  know,  in  relation 
with  the  amplitude  of  these  displacements. 

The  movement  of  the  canon  in  the  two  members  is  of  an  inverse 
order,  on  account  of  the  opposite  positions  of  the  articular  angles. 
When  that  in  the  anterior  member  is  extended,  it  simply  passes  over 
the  ground,  places  itself  in  prolongation  with  the  radius,  arrives  thus 
on  the  soil,  and  preserves  this  attitude  as  long  as  the  foot  remains  on 
the  ground.  In  the  posterior  member,  its  extension  commences  a  little 
before  the  foot  is  in  station,  and  continues  during  the  whole  period  that 

1  Supernumerary  digits  constitute  simply  an  example  of  the  law  of  reversion  to  the  penta- 
dactylous  or  five-toed  type  of  the  foot  of  the  ancestral  forms  of  the  horse,  as  the  eo-hippus,  in 
which  four  digits  exist.    (Harger.) 

2  R.  Huidekoper,  Note  communique^. 


282  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  foot  is  on  the  soil  in  such  a  manner  that,  at  its  termination,  when 
the  foot  is  elevated,  the  tibia  and  the  metatarsus  are  in  a  straight  line. 
It  is  apparent  from  this  that  the  anterior  canon,  in  this  action,  is  espe- 
cially utilized  as  an  organ  of  support,  whilst  the  posterior  becomes  a 
veritable  agent  of  impulsion. 

This  region,  however,  only  fulfils  a  passive  role  in  locomotion.  It 
is  an  inert  lever  having  no  influence  in  itself  upon  the  movements 
which  follow  or  precede  it,  since  it  is  traversed  in  its  length  only  by 
tendinous  cords,  organs  of  transmission,  and  not  by  contractile  muscles. 
It  is  the  same  during  station  :  its  vertical  direction  and  its  inertia 
make  it  a  veritable  column  of  support  for  the  weight  of  the  body, 
whose  total  pressure  accumulates  •  upon  it.  It  is  therefore  very  appro- 
priately disposed  to  fulfil  this  end.  Besides  being  vertical,  it  also  has 
an  almost  cylindrical  form ;  its  median  bone  has  parietes  of  great 
thickness ;  the  tissue  which  constitutes  it  is  extremely  compact ;  finally, 
by  the  concurrence  of  the  rudimentary  bones  attached  to  its  lateral 
faces,  it  augments  the  area  of  the  superior  articular  surface  and  serves 
as  an  important  apparatus  of  breaking  concussion  in  virtue  of  the 
double  articulation  which  is  found  there  and  the  obscure  movements 
which  are  produced  there. 

Its  tendinous  cords,  even,  and  the  posterior  ligament,  from  their 
peculiar  relations,  present  a  special  disposition  to  serve  with  .efficacy  as 
an  apparatus  of  support.  The  carpal  or  tarsal  check  tendon  relieves 
the  former  by  displacing  a  large  share  of  the  weight  upon  the  bones, 
while  the  obscurely  muscular  nature  and  the  mode  of  intercrossing 
of  the  fibres  of  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock 1  make  this  lig- 
ament a  veritable  elastic  brace,  which  disperses  the  effects  of  the  weight 
in  such  a  measure  as  to  render  them  compatible  with  the  resistance  and 
integrity  of  the  tissues. 

Finally,  the  action  of  the  canon  in  relation  to  the  impulsion  is  not 
the  same  in  the  two  members.  This  function,  as  we  have  seen,  is  more 
particularly  imparted  by  the  posterior  members.  The  extensor  mus- 
cles of  the  metatarsus  are  also  provided  with  more  powerful  lever- 
arms.  The  calcaneus,  by  its  length  and  by  the  prominence  which  it 
forms  above  and  behind  the  centre  of  the  tibio-tarsal  articulation, 
places  these  muscles  in  very  favorable  conditions  relative  to  the  inten- 
sity of  force  and  the  rapidity  of  speed. 


1  From  the  point  of  view  of  comparative  anatomy,  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock 
is,  in  fact,  only  a  modified  muscle  which  has  its  full  development  in  the  species  whose  hand  and 
foot  approach,  by  the  number  of  their  digits,  the  conformation  which  is  observed  in  man.  Thus, 
it  occurs  in  quadrumana,  carnivora,  rodents,  and  many  of  the  insectivora. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  283 

Form. — The  canon  is  subdivided  into  four  faces :  an  anterior,  a  posterior, 
and  two  lateral.  They  offer  some  slight  differences  according  as  they  are  examined 
in  the  anterior  or  in  the  posterior  biped. 

Viewed  from  in  front,  the  region  is  rectilinear  in  its  length,  rounded  trans- 
versely, and  widest  towards  its  extremities. 

The  lateral  faces  are  flat,  and  leave  the  parts  under  the  skin,  which  we 
already  recognize,  tangible  to  the  eye  and  finger, — namely,  in  front,  the  borders 
of  the  principal  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bone;  behind  and  above,  under  _the 
hock  or  the  knee,  the  eminence -of  the  corresponding  rudimentary  bone  ;  below 
and  a  little  above  the  fetlock,  the  button  of  this  bone ;  posteriorly  and  in  the 
middle  part,  a  groove  augmenting  in  depth  and  width  down  to  the  fetlock,  which 
separates  the  suspensory  ligament  from  the  principal  canon  bone ;  it  is  in  this 
groove  that  hernise  or  dilatations  of  the  synovial  membrane  of  the  metacarpo- 
or  metatarso-phalangeal  articulations  appear ;  more  posteriorly,  the  suspensory 
ligament  of  the  fetlock,  whose  prominence  increases  from  above  to  below ;  then  a 
second  groove,  less  deep  than  the  preceding,  separating  this  ligament  from  the 
flexor  tendons,  and  lodging  the  synovial  dilatations  of  the  great  sesamoid  sheath ; 
finally,  the  cord  of  the  flexors,  known  in  the  exterior  under  the  name  of  tendon, 
strong  and  resisting,  which  falls  perpendicularly  from  the  supra-carpal  bone  or  the 
calcaneus  upon  the  fetlock. 

The  tendon,  an  eminence  rectilinear  from  above  to  below,  narrow 
and  round  from  side  to  side,  forms  exclusively  the  posterior  face. 

The  skin  of  the  canon,  as  well  as  the  layer  of  the  subcutaneous 
connective  tissue,  is  more  or  less  thick,  according  to  the  fineness  of  the 
race.  These  minute  but  important  details  which  we  have  described 
are  not  observed  in  all  subjects.  They  are  the  characteristics  of  horses 
of  fine  breeding  and  of  good  qualities. 

The  hairs  on  the  posterior  face  are  always  longer,  more  abundant, 
and  coarser  than  the  others,  except  in  animals  of  the  finer  races,  the 
Aryan  or  the  English  thoroughbred,  for  example. 

Coarse,  sluggish,  and  lymphatic  horses  are  remarkable,  on  the  con- 
trary, for  the  abundance  and  the  length  of  these  hairs,  which  are  only 
the  origin  of  those  of  the  footlocJc.  Horsemen  and  many  horse-owners 
have  the  habit  of  cutting,  clipping,  or  singeing  them,  in  the  preparation 
of  the  animal  for  sale,  in  order  to  give  to  the  members  an  appearance 
of  fineness  and  of  good  qualities  ;  they  are  spared  in  draught-horses  to 
make  the  limbs  appear  more  voluminous.  We  will  again  have  occasion 
to  return  to  this  practice  in  discussing  the  toilet. 

Beauties  and  Defects. — The  canon,  in  order  to  be  beautiful, 
must  be  vertical,  short,  wide,  thick,  fine,  and  neat  of  outline  ;  its  pos- 
terior part,  or  the  tendon,  must  also  be  fine,  unblemished,  firm,  and  well 
detached.  It  is  defective  in  opposite  conditions. 

Direction. — We  have  only  one  word  to  say  on  the  subject  of  the 
direction  of  the  canon,  which  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  ground 


284  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE 

in  order  to  duly  sustain  the  body-weight,  particularly  in  the  anterior 
members,  in  view  of  their  function  and  their  closer  situation  to  the 
centre  of  gravity.  The  least  displacement  forward,  backward,  out- 
ward, or  inward  makes  the  horse  appear  deficient  in  the  axes;  its 
articulations  in  certain  regions  are  surcharged  ;  their  constituent  parts 
and  the  ligaments  which  unite  them  show  signs,  in  the  long  run,  of 
the  concussions,  of  the  violent  tractions,  a  necessary  consequence  of 
the  mode  of  superposition  of  the  locomotory  segments.  Finally,  the 
muscles  themselves,  supposing  that  the  articulations  are  sound,  are 
obliged  to  display  more  force  in  order  to  maintain  the  bones  in  a  good 
direction,  which  in  normal  conditions  claim  but  little  of  their  co-opera- 
tion to  preserve  their  equilibrium.  The  deviations  of  the  canon  are 
less  prejudicial  to  the  integrity  of  the  locomotory  apparatus  when  they 
are  confined  only  to  the  posterior  members;  the  animal  is  not  less 
defective  for  this  reason;  only  the  effects  of  these  alterations  are 
slower  in  manifesting  themselves.  We  will  return  to  all  these  facts 
when  we  discuss  the  direction  of  the  axes. 

Length. — The  absolute  length  of  the  canon  merits  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  the  case  of  rapid  motors.  It  has  not  much  im- 
portance in  the  draught-horse. 

In  well-formed  subjects,  whatever  may  be  the  race  to  which  they 
belong,  the  metatarsus  is  always  longer  than  the  metacarpus.  We  will 
say  that,  all  things  being  equal,  the  latter  are  constantly  longer  in 
animals  of  speed,  when  compared  in  this  relation  to  those  of  the 
draught-horse.  With  equality  of  form,  the  canon  of  the  draught- 
horse  is  shorter  than  that  of  the  thoroughbred;  the  body  of  the 
former  is  nearer  to  the  ground  and  more  voluminous  than  that  of  the 
latter,  which,  to  use  the  comparison,  appears,  to  a  certain  degree, 
mounted  on  stilts.  It  is  easy  to  verify  this  statement  by  measure- 
ments which  we  ourselves  have  been  careful  to  make  before  abandoning 
the  classical  opinion  which  claims  that  race-horses  have  their  hocks  as 
low  as  possible.  We  see,  then,  all  proportions  being  of  course  consid- 
ered, that  their  canons  are  always  longer  than  is  believed.  Hence 
these  animals  possess  more  speed,  for  necessarily  they  embrace  at  each 
step  a  longer  expanse  of  space. 

The  relative  length  of  the  canon  should  be  studied  with  regard  to 
the  region  which  surmounts  it,  the  leg  or  the  forearm. 

We  know  already  that  the  length  of  the  broken  radio-metacarpal 
or  tibio-metatarsal  lever  in  rapid  motors  is  due  to  the  development  of 
the  superior  bone,  the  radius  or  the  tibia.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the  canon  be  in  such  cases  short.  When  it  is  thus,  we  know  that 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


285 


FIG.  94. 


the  muscles  experience  less  fatigue  and  contract  to  better  advantage. 
A  short  canon  is  less  heavy,  oscillates  more  freely,  unfolds  itself  more, 
and  does  not  necessitate  the  same  elevation  of  the 
member  above  the  ground  to  reach  the  limit  of 
its  movements.  Hence  it  is  advisable  to  seek, 
in  the  pendulum  under  examination,  a  great  ex- 
tent for  the  display  of  what  we  have  already 
designated  its  active  function  ;  in  its  passive  func- 
tion the  canon  is  inert,  being  incapable  of  accel- 
erating or  slackening  the  movement  which  is 
communicated  to  it.  (See  Forearm  and  Leg.) 

Width  and  Thickness.— The  width  of 
the  canon  is  measured   from  before  to  behind, 
considering  the  animal  in  profile.     It  proceeds 
from  the  separation  of  the  principal  bone  of  this 
region  from  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  phalanges, 
which  procured  also  to  the  latter  the  designation 
well  detached  (Fig.  94).     It  is  due,  in  the  ante- 
rior members,  to  the  volume  of  the  antibrachial 
muscles ;   in  the  posterior,  to  the  width  of  the 
hock,  which  carries  the  summit  of  the  calcaneus  more  behind.     In  each 
of  the  members  it  results,  besides,  from  a  more 
or   less   marked   prominence   of  the   sesamoid 
bones  behind  the  fetlock  articulation. 

Is  it  necessary  to  say  now  that  this  width 
is  an  absolute  quality  for  all  kinds  of  services  ? 
Evidently  not,  since  it  is  itself  derived  from 
other  good  points  which  we  have  already  de- 
scribed, such  as  the  volume  of  the  muscles,  the 
width  of  the  articulations,  and  the  length  of 
the  lever-arm.  If,  however,  in  theory,  the 
width  of  the  canon  in  the  anterior  member 
coincides  generally  with  that  of  the  fetlock,  it  is 
possible,  notwithstanding  the  development  of  the 
latter,  that  the  former  may  be  deficient  from  ex- 
cessive narrowness  at  its  superior  part. 

The  flexor  tendons,  being  then  too  strongly 
tensed  in  the  fold  of  the  knee  by  the  tarsal 
sheath,  descend  obliquely  upon  the  sesamoids 
by  gradually  separating  from  the  metatarsus,  a 
vice  of  conformation  which  renders  the  tendons  weak,  less  effective 


FIG.  95. 


286  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

(Fig.  95).  The  horse  affected  with  this  fault  appears  slender  in  its 
build,  which,  in  fact,  lacks  strength.  Horse-dealers,  in  order  to  con- 
ceal it,  leave  the  hairs  at  the  upper  part  of  the  canon  in  arranging  the 
toilet,  while  below  they  cut  them  off  very  closely,  a  deceitful  procedure 
which  it  is  easy  to  detect. 

The  tendon  in  the  posterior  members  is  never  weak,  thanks  to  the 
particular  disposition  of  the  tarsal  sheath. 

The  thickness  of  the  canon  is  measured,  on  the  contrary,  from 
side  to  side,  viewing  the  parts  either  in  front  or  behind.  This  dimen- 
sion, which  indicates  the  transverse  development  of  the  principal  bone, 
and,  consequently,  that  of  the  regions  between  which  it  is  placed,  is 
always  greater  in  the  fore-limbs,  columns  of  support,  than  in  the  hind, 
agents  of  impulsion.  This  is  a  fortunate  adaptation  of  a  part  of  the 
locomotory  apparatus  destined  to  fulfil  such  different  functions. 

A  thick  canon,  therefore,  constitutes  an  absolute  beauty,  which 
denotes  great  strength  of  the  members ;  and  because  this  is  not  the 
same  in  the  well-bred  as  in  the  common  horse  of  equal  forms,  because 
the  meagreness  of  the  canon  in  the  former  is  not  indicative  of  any  weak- 
ness, it  does  not  follow,  as  several  authors  have  advanced,  that  such  a 
conformation  is  not  to  be  taken  into  account.  H.  Bouley  has  very 
forcibly  elucidated  how  unwise  this  theory  is,  by  saying,  "  The  bones 
of  the  canon  should  be  developed  proportionately  to  the  mass  which  they 
support"  This  conception  is  important.  The  slenderness  of  this 
region  not  only  implies  its  feebleness  of  support,  but  it  also  involves 
that  of  the  adjoining  bones  and  of  the  tendinous  apparatus  which  is 
annexed  to  it.  A  slender  canon  means  a  narrow  knee  ;  the  phalanges, 
the  sesamoids,  and  the  tendons  lack  proper  development.  In  these  con- 
ditions, the  members  wear  away  in  a  very  short  time,  and  so  much 
more  quickly  as  the  body  is  heavier,  as  the  animal  is  endowed,  from 
his  race,  with  greater  energy.  It  is  common  to  meet  this  defect  in 
horses  of  poor  conformation  which  are  the  product  of  injudicious 
selections  or  crosses.  (H.  Bouley.) 

When  the  region  lacks  width  and  thickness,  the  canon  is  called 
meagre,  narrow,  slender  ;  when  to  these  characters  is  added  an  excessive 
length,  the  animal  is  said  to  be  mounted  upon  matches;  finally,  this 
same  horse  has  nothing  under  his  knee  when  the  tendons  are  not  suffi- 
ciently developed,  while  the  member  is  qualified  well  cast  when  the 
tendons  of  the  flexors  are  strong  and  well  separated  from  the  bones 
which  constitute  its  lever-arm. 

Fineness. — The  fineness  of  the  canon  is  characterized  by  the 
thinness  of  the  skin  and  the  spareness  of  subjacent  connective  tissue, 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  287 

which  expose  to  external  view,  in  all  their  details,  the  bones,  the  sus- 
pensory ligament*  the  tendons,  and  the  blood-vessels.  This  state  indi- 
cates a  noble  ancestry ;  it  is  found  in  horses  of  the  distinguished  races 
and  those  of  their  race  which  show  their  lineage. 

This  quality  can  habitually  be  perceived  by  a  glance  of  the  eye  ; 
but  many  also  endeavor  to  appreciate  it  by  passing  the  hand  over  the 
lateral  faces  of  the  region,  a  manner  of  procedure  which  has  primarily 
the  advantage  of  betraying  the  existence  of  blemishes.  It  is  necessary 
to  attract  the  animal's  attention  before  practising  this  manipulation 
upon  the  posterior  members,  in  order  to  avoid  his  kicking  or  biting. 

In  common  subjects,  even  in  the  best,  the  skin  is  thick  and  the 
connective  tissue  abundant.  When  carried  to  the  extreme,  these  char- 
acteristics cause  the  canon  to  be  spoken  of  as  round  and  the  tendons  as 
fleshy,  defects  essentially  prejudicial  in  pleasure-horses,  in  which  the 
distinctness  of  the  lines  and  the  fineness  of  their  extremities  are  the 
indispensable  conditions  of  their  value,  while  in  draught-horses  no 
importance  is  attached  to  them. 

Density. — The  firmness  of  the  tendons  denotes  the  density  of  the 
tissues,  the  energy,  the  quickness  of  movement,  the  blood,  the  race, 
and  the  resistance  of  the  constitution.  This  is  ascertained  by  the  sense 
of  touch  and  not  by  striking  the  cord  of  the  flexors  with .  the  foot, 
which  some  persons  practise  to  judge  of  it  as  well  as  of  the  solidity 
of  the  member.  It  is  easy  to  comprehend  that  such  a  method  can  give 
no  positive  information,  since  it  is  the  surprise  and  not  the  weakness 
of  the  parts  which  causes  the  horse  to  flex  the  limbs. 

Neatness  of  Outline. — This  neatness — that  is  to  say,  the 
absence  of  blemishes — is  the  most  important  qualification  to  be 
realized  in  the  examination  of  the  canon.  It  is  indispensable  that  to 
the  inspection  and  to  the  touch  the  outline  should  be  normal ;  that  the 
ridges  and  grooves  of  this  region,  which  we  have  described,  should 
be  quite  marked  without  any  alteration. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — First  among  these  are  skin  wounds  resulting 
from  contusions  and  kicks  given  or  received  by  the  animal.  When  these  are  the 
result  of  the  repeated  contact  and  friction  of  thie  opposite  feet  during  locomotion 
they  receive  the  name  speedy-cut,  and  the  animal  is  said  to  overreach  himself, 
strike  himself,  cut  himself.  We  will  again  return  to  them  when  treating  of  the 
defects  of  the  gaits. 

It  is  not  rare,  either,  to  see  blood-tumors,  hot  abscesses,  and  inflammatory 
enlargements  of  the  subcutaneous  tissue  or  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  on  the  internal 
face  of  the  canon.  Lymphangitis  of  a  malignant  type,  often  symptomatic  of  a 
glandero-farcinous  diathesis,  has  a  favorite  seat  in  this  region.  Let  us  also  indi- 
cate the  enormous  indurations  of  the  skin  and  the  subjacent  connective  tissue, 


288  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

very  common  upon  the  posterior  members  and  completely  deforming  the  regions 
between  the  hock  and  the  hoof.  These  indurations,  known  under  the  name  of 
fibrous  elephantiasis  (Trasbot)  on  account  of  their  analogy  with  elephantiasis  in 
man  and  of  the  aspect  which  they  give  to  the  members,  are  sometimes  compli- 
cated by  lesions  of  the  bones.  In  spite  of  their  hardness,  their  volume,  and  the 
pressure  exercised  on  the  organs  which  they  cover,  they  do  not  occasion  very 
great  inconvenience  in  walking  and  permit  the  utilization  of  the  animal  at  a 
slow  pace.  They  are  rebellious  to  all  treatment,  and  the  very  means  employed 
to  combat  them  have  no  other  result,  in  most  instances,  than  the  development 
of  an  activity  analogous  to  that  which  is  observed  in  similar  cases  in  the  forma- 
tion of  neoplasms,  which  may  have  with  them,  according  to  our  colleague, 
Professor  Trasbot,  a  closely-related  origin. 

We  will  also  cite  the  hard  and  indolent  enlargement  of  the  tibial  aponeurosis 
at  the  point  where  it  terminates  on  the  tendons  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the 
phalanges.  This  induration,  which  is  located  at  about  the  superior  third  of  the 
anterior  face  of  the  hind  canon,  is  susceptible  of  ulceration  under  the  influence 
of  friction,  and  seems  more  particularly  confined  to  English  thoroughbred  and 
other  horses  of  great  speed. 

Eczema  (grease,  water  in  the  legs},  a  chronic  affection  of  the  skin,  somewhat 
scarce  to-day,  consisting  of  an  abundant  and  fetid  exudation  on  the  very  lowest 
part  of  the  member,  may  ascend  to  the  posterior  region  of  the  canon  when  it  is 
of  long  standing.  Although  not  disabling  the  animal  from  work,  this  should 
nevertheless  be  considered  serious,  from  the  uncleanliness  which  it  engenders 
and  the  care  which  it  necessitates. 

Contusions  and  ruptures  of  the  tendons  of  the  canon  are  frequent  in  the 
anterior  members,  while  in  the  posterior  they  are,  so  to  speak,  at  least  from  our 
own  experience,  almost  unknown. 

Designated  under  the  name  over-stretching,  or,  better,  strains  of  the  tendon, 
they  result  from  traction  or  partial  lacerations  of  the  tendinous  fibres  during  the 
violent  efforts  of  locomotion  at  great  speed.  This  alteration  of  the  tendons  or 
of  the  structures  situated  more  deeply  (check  tendon)  is  followed  by  a  more  or 
less  acute  inflammation  accompanied  at  the  beginning  by  a  severe  lameness  and 
succeeded  soon  by  an  enlargement,  which  renders  the  organs  knotted  and  always 
very  sensitive.  The  symptoms,  at  the  end  of  a  certain  period,  ameliorate,  but 
the  swelling  and  the  lameness  persist,  while  the  contraction  of  the  tendons 
and  the  consecutive  deformity  of  the  angle  of  the  fetlock  take  place.  For  these 
reasons,  over- stretching  is  a  grave  accident.  It  depreciates  so  much  more  the 
value  of  the  animal  as  he  is  intended  for  pleasure  and  parade,  and  as  it  is  neces- 
sary to  employ  the  most  energetic  means  of  treatment  against  it,  such  as  tenot- 
omy  or  the  actual  cautery,  whose  indelible  traces  have  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  most  permanent  blemishes. 

It  is  vulgarly  said  of  the  hippodrome  horse  which  meets  with  the  accident 
on  the  race-course,  that  he  has  snapped  a  tendon  or  that  he  is  broken  down. 

The  most  common  blemish  of  the  canon,  involving  the  bones  themselves, 
manifests  itself  by  the  presence  of  osseous  tumors,  known  under  the  name  of 
splints. 

These  exostoses,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  have  their  seat  on  the  interosseous 
ligament  which  unites  the  rudimentary  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  to  the  principal 
bone  of  the  canon.  Those  which  exist  on  the  anterior  face  of  the  latter  are  the 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  289 

result  of  contusions  and  have  little  gravity ;  they  are  in  most  instances  absorbed 
spontaneously,  are  much  more  rare,  and  only  appear  accidentally  at  all  periods 
of  life. 

Splints  occur  more  often  upon  the  anterior  members  than  upon  the  posterior, 
and  on  the  internal  side  than  the  external.  This  is  due  to  their  cause  of  develop- 
ment. They  proceed,  in  fact,  from  tractions  exerted  on  the  interosseous  ligament 
under  the  influence  of  the  vertical  pressure  which  is  exercised  on  the  head  of  the 
splint  bones  during  rapid  locomotion.  As  long  as  these  small  bones  axe-not 
soldered  to  the  principal  bone  in  consequence  of  the  normal  ossification  of  their ' 
ligament  of  union,  they  tend  to  glide  up  and  down  in  a  measure  proportional  to 
the  weight  which  they  sustain.  Whence  results  rupture  of  the  ligamentous 
fibres,  which  is  propagated  to  the  periosteum,  irritates  the  latter,  and  causes  a 
periostitis  with  the  appearance  of  one  or  more  tumors  upon  the  tract  of  the 
rnetacarpal  or  metatarsal  synarthrodial  articulations. 

It  is  easily  understood  from  this  that  tne  formation  of  splints  is  a  disease 
more  frequent  in  young  horses  used  too  young,  and  without  moderation,  for 
heavy  work,  than  in  old  horses,  in  which  the  process  of  co-ossification  of  the 
bones  of  the  canon  has  already  been  completed.  It  can  also,  without  difficulty, 
be  perceived  that  they  should  be  more  common  on  the  anterior  limbs,  nearer  to- 
the  centre  of  gravity,  which  receive,  more  especially,  the  effect  of  the  quantity 
of  movement  at  great  speed.  Finally,  it  is  equally  easy  to  explain  their  habitual 
presence  upon  the  internal  side  if  we  only  recall :  first,  that  the  weight  of  the 
body  presses  more  upon  the  internal  side  of  the  articulation ;  second,  that  the 
pressure  sustained  by  the  bones  is  proportional  to  the  area  of  compressed  sur- 
faces. Now,  in  this  connection,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that,  all  proportions  being 
considered,  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  internal  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones 
are  larger  than  their  homologues  of  the  external  side;  whence  it  follows  that 
these  bones  are  more  disposed  to  glide  against  the  median  piece  which  supports 
them  than  the  external,  and,  consequently,  to  lacerate  their  interosseous  ligament. 

Splints,  the  volume  of  which  varies  from  that  of  a  small  hazel-nut  to  that 
of  a  hen's  egg,  are  characterized  externally  by  the  relief  which  they  form  under- 
neath the  skin,  and  by  a  sensation  of  hardness  which  is  conveyed  to  the  hand  on 
palpation.  They  are  readily  perceived  if  the  canon  be  viewed  from  in  front.1 

Their  disposition  is  very  variable :  sometimes  only  one  exists  (simple  splint) ; 
sometimes  there  are  two,  situated  almost  on  the  same  level  on  each  side  of  the 
region  (pegged  splints) ;  at  other  times  there  are  several  in  succession  from  above 
downward,  upon  the  same  face,  and  of  an  almost  uniform  volume  (chain  splints) ; 
finally,  there  are  some  which,  in  relation  to  size,  form  a  decreasing  series  from 
above  downward,  on  the  one  side  or  the  other  (spindle-shaped  splints). 

Whatever  may  be  their  form,  these  tumors  are  more  grave  as  they  are  situ- 
ated towards  the  carpal  or  the  tarsal  articulations,  or  are  developed  in  the  posterior 
gutter  destined  to  lodge  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock.  In  this  case  they 
cause  an  evident  constraint  and  induce  too  often  a  persistent  lameness.  Most 
ordinarily  a  splint  lames  a  horse,  only  at  the  first,  when  the  inflammatory  process 
of  the  periosteum  is  still  in  full  activity.  The  lameness  disappears  as  soon  as 
the  tumor  is  quite  developed.  * 

1  The  buttons  of  the  rudimentary  metatarsal  or  metacarpal  bones  should  not  be  mistaken 
for  splints. 

19 


290  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Fractures  of  the  canon,  though  rather  common,  are,  so  far  as  our  study  is 
concerned,  absolutely  deprived  of  interest.  We  should,  nevertheless,  mention 
some:  they  are  those  of  the  rudimentary  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones. 
Kesulting  from  traumatisms,  they  give  rise  to  a  complication,  similar  to  the  for- 
mation of  a  splint,  at  the  point  of  union  of  the  two  osseous  segments. 

As  to  the  synovial  dilatations  of  the  canon,  they  properly  belong  to  either  of 
the  regions  between  which  the  canon  is  situated.  The  superior  have  already 
been  pointed  out  with  the  knee  ;  they  are  due  to  an  abnormal  distention  of  the 
carpal  sheath.  The  inferior,  known  under  the  name  of  windfalls,  consist  of  a 
hydropsy  of  the  synovial  membrane  of  the  metacarpo-phalangeal  articulation,  or 
of  the  great  sesamoid  sheath,  and  will  be  studied  with  the  fetlock. 

Finally,  there  are  also  found,  along  the  length  of  the  canon,  traces  of  actual 
cautery  of  varying  area  and  configuration,  which  indicate,  according  to  their  situ- 
ation, that  the  animal  has  been  treated  for  disease  of  the  osseous  apparatus,  the 
tendons,  or  the  synovial  membranes.  In  spite  of  these  markings,  the  alterations 
of  which  they  are  the  evidence  may  not  have  disappeared,  and  it  is  wise,  conse- 
quently, to  submit  the  member  which  presents  them  to  a  minute  examination. 
In  any  case,  the  horse  has  none  the  less  lost  at  least  a  part  of  his  value,  for  he 
is  blemished,  and  so  much  more  gravely  as  the  treatment  to  which  he  has  been 
subjected  has  been  less  efficacious. 


G.— The  Fetlock. 

Situation ;  Limits ;  Anatomical  Base. — The  fetlock  is  situ- 
ated between  the  canon  and  the  pastern.  It  supports,  at  its  posterior 
part,  a  horny  production,  the  ergot,  and  a  tuft  of  hair  to  which  has  been 
given  the  name  of  footlock. 

It  has  for  its  anatomical  base  the  metacarpo-  or  the  metatarso-phalangeal 
articulation,  which  results  from  the  apposition  of  the  inferior  extremity  of  the 
principal  bone  of  the  canon  and  the  superior  extremity  of  the  first  phalanx, 
complemented  behind  by  the  great  sesamoid  bones  (Fig.  96). 

These  bones  are  united  by  numerous  ligaments :  an  anterior  or  capsular  ;  two 
lateral  funicular,  a;  a  posterior,  the  suspensory  of  the  fetlock,  which  has  already 
been  mentioned,  and  whose  two  branches  terminate  upon  the  sesamoid  bones,  a 
(Fig.  97);  finally,  the  group  of  inferior,  b  (Fig.  97),  and  lateral,  b  (Fig.  96), 
sesamoid  ligaments,  short  and  strong,  which  fix  these  bones  to  the  first  phalanx 
and  the  canon.  The  two  sesamoid  bones  are,  moreover,  intimately  united  to 
each  other  by  means  of  a  fibre-cartilaginous  mass  which  transforms  their  poste- 
rior face  into  a  pulley,  c  (Fig.  97),  upon  which  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  phalanges 
glide. 

This  ligamentous  apparatus,  of  great  strength,  is,  in  addition,  reinforced  by 
the  extensor  tendons  of  the  phalanges  in  front,  and  by  the  flexor  tendons  behind, 
which  also  fulfil  the  role  of  suspensors  like  the  superior  sesamoid  ligament, 
fdiose  function  they  supplement. 

Three  distinct  synovial  membranes  exist  in  the  region  of  the  fetlock :  one 
articular  and  two  tendinous. 

The  first,  firmly  maintained  in  front  and  on  the  sides,  can  become  dilated 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


291 


behind  and  above,  between  the  canon  bone  and  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the 
fetlock ;  behind  and  below,  upon  the  sides  of  the  first  phalanx. 

The  largest  of  the  tendinous  synovials,  posterior  to  the  articulation,  subserves 
the  gliding  of  the  tendons  against  the  sesamoid  pulley ;  it  is  known  by  the  name 


FiG.  96. 


FIG.  97. 


of  great  sesamoid  sheath.  Extending  from  the  inferior  third  of  the  canon  to  the 
superior  part  of  the  second  phalanx,  and  unequally  sustained  by  the  surrounding 
tissue,  it  sometimes  forms  a  dilatation  on  each  side,  above  the  fetlock,  between 
the  suspensory  ligament  and  the  flexor  tendons.  It  presents,  also,  along  the 
length  of  the  pastern,  two  weak  points,  of  which  we  will  only  make  mention, 
and  whose  enlargement  is  always  much  less  marked  than  that  of  the  preceding. 

The  second  and  the  smallest  of  the  tendinous  synovials  is  found  in  front, 
underneath  the  tendons  of  the  extensors  of  the  phalanges,  and  permits  their 
gliding  upon  the  anterior  face  of  the  capsular  ligament.  It  is  extremely  rare 
that  it  communicates  with  the  articular  synovial  membrane.  It  is  susceptible  of 
becoming  distended  over  its  whole  periphery,  unsustained  by  the  tendons,  and 
even  of  rupturing  its  parietes  into  the  surrounding  connective  tissue  under  the 
influence  of  internal  pressure. 

Mechanism  of  the  Articulation  of  the  Fetlock. — By  rea- 
son of  the  oblique  direction  of  the  first  phalanx  and  of  its  superior 
articular  surface,  which  play,  with  regard  to  the  weight  of  the  body, 
the  role  of  an  inclined  plane,  the  principal  bone  of  the  canon  constantly 


292 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  98. 


tends  (Fig.  98)  to  press  on  the  sesamoid  bones,  A,  and  tends  to  effect 
a  closing  of  the  angle  PEC. 

The  ligamentous  apparatus,  however,  and  the  tendons  which  exist 

behind  this  angle,  constantly  re- 
sist this  tendency  and,  by  their 
tenacity  as  well  as  their  elas- 
ticity, transform  the  articular 
joint  into  a  veritable  elastic 
spring  admirably  adapted  to  the 
sustentation  of  the  body,  the 
dispersion  of  the  reactions,  and 
the  impulsion  of  the  mass. 

The  suspensory  ligament  of 
the  fetlock,  being  resisting  and 
elastic,  thanks  to  the  few  mus- 
cular fasciculi  which  enter  into 
Its  composition,  yields  more  or 
less,  according  to  the  intensity 
of  traction  which  it  undergoes, 
to  the  lowering  of  the  great  sesa- 
moids,  and  through  its  attach- 
ments upon  the  bones  of  the  canon  distributes  upon  the  latter  a  portion 
of  the  pressure  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  in  such  a  measure  as  is 
compatible  with  their  integrity. 

As  to  the  cord  T,  of  the  flexor  tendons,  though  much  less  elastic, 
it  acts  in  the  same  manner  upon  the  extremity  of  the  lever-arm  AB, 
in  order  to  limit  to  some  extent  the  movement  of  descent  of  the  fet- 
lock and  prevent  the  elasticity  of  its  suspensory  ligament  from  being 
strained  beyond  its  limits.  But  as  it  is  continuous,  superiorly,  with 
the  fleshy  portion  of  the  corresponding  muscles,  and  as  an  intermission 
in  the  action  of  all  these  contractile  organs  is  necessary,  there  exists, 
behind  and  below  the  carpal  and  the  tarsal  articulations,  a  strong  lig- 
amentous band  emanating  from  the  posterior  capsular  ligaments  of  the 
latter,  which  permits  the  flexor  tendons  to  perform  the  role  of  passive 
organs  of  suspension,  by  giving  them  a  function  completely  independent 
of  their  respective  muscular  portions.  The  carpal  and  the  tarsal  check 
ligaments  therefore  transfer  to  the  superior  part  of  the  canon  bone  the 
remaining  pressure  of  the  body-weight  which  has  not  been  completely 
overcome  by  the  elasticity  of  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock. 
Hence  their  force  of  resistance  is  in  relation  with  the  intensity  of  the 
tractions  which  they  must  support,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  293 

carpal  check  tendon  always  has  a  greater  volume  than  its  homologue 
in  the  posterior  member. 

The  function  of  the  fetlock  is  deduced  from  the  preceding  consid- 
erations. It  is  a  veritable  elastic  mechanism  or  spring,  which  consti- 
tutes, for  the  weight  of  the  body,  an  apparatus  of  sustentation  and  an 
apparatus  of  dispersion ;  it  relieves  the  muscles  charged  with  the  sup- 
port of  the  body,  at  the  same  time  that  it  prevents,  by  its  elasticity, 
the  effects  of  the  concussion  of  the  latter  against  the  ground. 

External  Form. — Viewed  in  front,  the  fetlock  forms  a  spheroidal 
relief  circumscribed  laterally  by  two  convex  lines  which  are  continuous 
above  and  below  with  the  lateral  faces  of  the  canon  and  of  the  fetlock. 
Viewed  in  profile,  it  is  limited,  on  the  contrary,  in  front  by  a  concave 
curve  which  continues  symmetrically  the  profile  of  the  anterior  face 
of  the  adjoining  regions,  while,  behind,  it  presents  a  salient  angle 
whose  superior  branch  is  tangent  to  the  tendons,  and  whose  summit 
corresponds  to  a  tuft  of  hairs,  the  footlock,  containing  in  its  centre  the 
horny  production  called  the  ergot.  A  fine  skin  with  short  hairs  covers 
it  and,  to  a  certain  point,  enables  one  to  conjecture  its  anatomy  in 
highly-bred  horses.  In  horses  of  the  common  races,  on  the  contrary, 
the  external  details  are  more  or  less  masked  in  consequence  of  the 
thickness  of  the  integument  and  the  quantity  and  coarseness  of  the 
pilous  production.  The  region  is  also,  in  such  cases,  the  object  of 
special  care  on  the  part  of  dealers,  which  consists  in  removing  the  hairs 
of  the  footlock  in  order  to  give  to  the  animals  an  appearance  of  fineness 
and  distinction  which  they  do  not  in  reality  possess.  We  will  again 
return  to  this  in  the  chapter  on  the  toilet. 

Beauties. — The  fetlock,  like  all  the  articulations,  in  order  to  be 
beautiful,  should  be  wide,  thick,  well  directed,  fine,  and  free  from 
blemishes.  • 

Width. — The  width  is  given  by  the  extent  of  the  antero-posterior 
diameter,  and  is  appreciated,  consequently,  by  examining  the  horse  in 
profile.  It  depends  upon  two  elements :  the  volume  of  the  inferior 
extremity  of  the  canon  and  that  of  the  sesamoid  bones  (Fig.  98) ;  whence 
it  is  apparent  that  it  should  be  ample,  for  it  is  proportional  to  the  firm- 
ness of  contact  of  the  members,  to  the  extent  of  the  movements,  and, 
finally,  to  the  length  of  the  arm  of  the  lever  AB,  whose  development 
favors  the  action  of  the  suspensory  apparatus  of  the  tendons  and  of 
the  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock.  When  the  articulation  is 
narrow,  the  tendon  is  close  to  the  canon,  the  animal  has  little  firmness 
of  step,  lacks  force,  and  is  ruined  all  the  quicker  as  the  members  are 
weaker  as  columns  of  support  in  relation  to  the  body. 


294  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Thickness. — The  thickness  is  the  transverse  diameter.  It  indi- 
cates the  large  development,  from  side  to  side,  of  the  inferior  extremity 
of  the  canon  and  of  the  corresponding  part  of  the  first  phalanx.  It  is 
needless  to  insist  upon  the  advantages  of  these  peculiarities ;  it  stands 
to  reason  that  they  denote  large  articular  surfaces,  and  firmness  and 
sureness  of  the  step,  important  conditions  to  exact  whatever  may  be 
the  service. 

The  fetlock  which  is  deficient  by  lack  of  width  and  thickness,  by 
lack  of  volume,  in  a  word,  is  called  small,  round ;  the  animal  is  also 
said  to  have  thin,  light  wrists,  to  be  wanting  in  the  wrists,  to  have  weak 
pins,  etc. 

Direction. — To  the  two  preceding  qualities  it  is  important  to  add 
a  third, — that  is,  the  good  direction  of  the  segments  which  concur  to 
the  formation  of  this  articulation.  We  know  already  that  one  of  them, 
the  canon,  should  be  vertical ;  as  to  the  other,  it  implies  a  certain 
obliquity  which  we  will  determine  when  we  treat  of  the  pastern. 
Suffice  it  to  say  for  the  present,  that  this  obliquity  would  be  greatly 
exaggerated  if  it  attained  only  40  or  45  degrees  with  the  horizon ;  in 
any  well-conformed  horse  it  attains  at  least  55  degrees. 

When  the  branches  of  the  spring  represented  by  the  fetlock 
straighten  themselves  one  upon  the  other,  their  angle  becomes  more 
and  more  obtuse  and  even  tends  to  become  effaced.  The  animal  is 
then  said  to  be  straight  in  the  members,  in  the  fetlocks.  In  certain  cases, 
however,  the  deviation  of  the  segments  is  such  that  their  obliquity 
takes  place  in  a  sense  inverse  to  that  which  they  normally  affect ;  the 
summit  of  the  articular  angle  is  directed  forward  while  its  sine  looks 
backward.  This  is  a  somewhat  common  deformity  to  which  the  name 
knuckling  has  been  given.  We  will  treat  of  this  with  the  pastern  and 
the  axes  of  the  members. 

At  other  times,  an  accidental,  momentary  deviation  results  from 
fatigue,  and  exists  only  in  the  fetlock  of  the  posterior  members,  which 
are  suddenly  projected  forward  when  the  animal  stands  still  and 
reassurae  their  proper  situation  as  soon  as  he  steps  out  again.  This 
singular  attitude,  which  is  manifested  also  in  the  stable,  is  expressed  by 
saying  that  the  horse  is  at  roost. 

Finally,  when  this  deviation,  instead  of  being  parallel  to  the  median 
plane,  in  front  of  or  behind  the  axis  of  the  member,  is  situated  in  an 
oblique  plane,  outward  or  inward,  in  relation  to  the  median  plane  of 
the  body,  the  horse  is  qualified  splay-footed  or  parrot-toed.  It  is  a  vice 
of  the  axes  of  the  members  which  we  will  study  in  a  future  chapter. 

Fineness. — The  fineness  or  dryness  of  the  fetlock  implies  a 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  295 

delicacy  of  the  skin  and  of  the  hairs  which  cover  it,  spareness  of  the 
subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  and  the  precise  and  clean  delimitation 
of  all  its  parts.  It  is  considered  as  an  index  of  quality,  temperament, 
energy,  and  vigor.  When  it  is  not  thus  the  region  is  called  puffy.  In 
this  respect,  horses  of  the  finer  races  approach  those  of  the  common 
races  according  to  the  condition  they  are  kept  in.  We  have  known  a 
rather  large  number  which,  working  in  low  and  moist  countries,  or-npon 
muddy  and  filthy  soil,  had  in  the  long  run  acquired  long  and  abundant 
hairs  and  more  or  less  thickened  extremities. 

Absence  of  Blemishes. — The  fetlock  is  dean  when  it  is  exempt 
from  blemishes  and  from  diseases.  The  rationale  of  this  beauty  will 
be  apparent  from  what  follows. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — From  the  situation  which  the  fetlock 
occupies,  numerous  diseases,  acute  and  chronic,  as  well  as  accidents, 
may  affect  it,  which  depreciate  the  animal  in  different  ways. 

The  skin,  first,  is  often  the  seat  of  excoriations,  contusions,  and  wounds,  most 
frequent  on  the  inner  side,  and  resulting  generally  from  injuries  which  the  sub- 
ject inflicts  on  himself  during  locomotion.  It  is  then  said  that  the  horse  over- 
reaches, interferes,  cuts  himself,  strikes  himself;  he  is  usually  affected  with  a  defec- 
tive axis  of  the  parts,  and  ordinarily  has  an  ungraceful  gait.  (See  Defects  of  the 
Gaits.) 

Like  the  knee,  the  fetlock  becomes  more  or  less  gravely  lacerated  on  its 
anterior  face  in  consequence  of  falls  upon  hard  and  irregular  soil. 

At  other  times  it  presents  cicatrices,  callosities,  or  traces  of  the  actual  cautery 
in  points  or  in  lines  of  a  variable  extent  and  configuration. 

The  integument  sometimes,  but  more  rarely,  offers  an  abundant,  fetid  exuda- 
tion, which  transudes  from  warty  excrescences  called  fid,  and  agglutinates  the 
scattered  hairs  over  the  diseased  surface.  This  disease,  known  under  the  names 
of  water  in  the  legs,  grapes,  fid,  and  grease,  etc.,  is  an  index  of  a  soft  constitution 
and  a  lymphatic  temperament,  dependent  most  often  upon  bad  hygiene.  It  is 
regarded  as  grave  on  account  of  its  chronic  state,  its  tendency  to  ascend  into  the 
region  of  the  canon  or  descend  towards  that  of  the  foot,  of  the  putrid  odor  which 
it  gives  off,  and  of  the  tenacity  which  it  offers  against  all  means  of  treatment. 

The  connective  tissue  is  frequently  the  seat  of  oedema,  cysts,  hcematoma, 
(blood-tumors),  abscesses,  lymphangitis,  fistulous  wounds,  etc.,  occasioned  by  very 
diverse  causes,  to  concern  ourselves  with  which  would  be  beyond  our  province, 
the  acute  character  of  all  these  affections  being  given. 

It  is  not  the  same,  however,  with  cystic  tumors,  which  are  met  either  on  the 
internal  or  on  the  anterior  face,  and  which  proceed  nearly  always  from  repeated 
contusions  during  locomotion.  The  cyst  on  the  anterior  face,  sometimes  very 
voluminous,  produces  an  abnormal  convexity  of  the  region,  when  it  is  viewed 
in  profile.  This  swelling  is  indolent,  uniformly  fluctuating  and  somewhat  tense, 
whatever  may  be  the  attitude  of  the  member,  which  permits  it  to  be  diagnosed 
from  a  synovial  dilatation.  It  is  not  serious,  but  constitutes  a  decided  blemish 
in  pleasure-horses,  in  consequence  of  the  deformity  which  it  entails. 


296  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  cyst  on  the  internal  face,  always  much  smaller,  lies  upon  the  tract  of 
the  internal  lateral  ligament  of  the  metacarpo-  or  metatarso-phalangeal  articula- 
tion. Its  symptoms  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  preceding,  but  the  blemish 
which  it  occasions  is  less  grave. 

A  propos  of  the  canon,  we  have  spoken  of  the  enormous  indurations  of  the 
subcutaneous  connective  tissue  which  Professor  Trasbot  designates  under  the 
name  of  fibrous  elephantiasis  of  the  members.  In  the  region  of  the  fetlock  they 
acquire  at  times  colossal  dimensions.  H.  Bouley  *  has  seen  some  that  extended 
from  the  inferior  half  of  the  canon  to  the  hoof,  which  they  enveloped  like  a 
hood.  Measuring  more  than  a  metre  in  circumference,  they  touched  the  ground 
behind,  with  the  foot  in  station,  and  rubbed,  in  walking,  against  the  opposite 
member,  into  which  they  had  made  a  deep  cut.  Two  tumors  of  this  nature,  of 
which  Prudhomme'2  has  given  the  description,  weighed  twenty-one  kilos,  and 
twenty-seven  kilos,  respectively.  The  deep  base  of  these  enlargements  is  ordi- 
narily formed  by  extremely-developed  vegetations  from  the  periosteum. 

The  most  common  lesions  of  the  fetlock,  those  which  indicate  at  a  glance 
the  excessive  function  of  this  articulation  and  the  premature  wearing  away  of 
the  member,  are  without  doubt  the  tendinous  or  articular  synovial  dilatations, 
which  have  received  the  generic  name  windgalls. 

One  of  these  dilatations,  however,  that  of  the  synovial  bursa,  facilitates  the 
gliding  of  the  extensor  tendons  over  the  superficial  surface  of  the  anterior  cap- 
sular  ligament  of  the  articulation,  and  could  with  equal  propriety  be  called 
anterior  windgall.  In  relation  to  its  development,  it  is  absolutely  identical  with 
the  others. 

It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  anterior  cyst,  of  which  we  have  spoken 
above.  Like  the  latter,  it  determines  an  abnormal  swelling  upon  this  region 
according  to  the  degree  of  the  synovial  hydropsy ;  but  what  will  always  permit  it 
to  be  differentiated  from  the  preceding  is  its  relative  situation  with  the  tendon. 
In  the  first  case,  the  tendon  is  never  located  upon  the  surface  of  the  tumor ;  in 
the  second,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  most  usually  the  reverse,  unless,  under  the  effect 
of  extreme  distention,  the  somewhat  weak  parietes  of  the  synovial  membrane 
allow  some  of  the  contents  to  escape  into  the  interspaces  of  the  surrounding 
connective  tissue.  Before  things  have  gone  so  far,  however,  over  the  middle  of 
the  anterior  face  of  the  tumor  is  seen  a  vertical  gutter  which  renders  it  bilobed, 
and  which  is  due  to  the  compression  exercised  by  the  anterior  extensor  tendon 
of  the  phalanges.  Rarely  does  the  anterior  windgall  of  the  fetlock  communicate 
with  the  articular  synovial.  Still,  such  a  communication  may  be  present  (Kigot), 
and  it  is  easy  of  appreciation,  for  other  lateral  dilatations  will  be  found  coexist- 
ing with  it,  pressure  on  which  is  integrally  transmitted  to  the  former  (Bouley). 

The  true  windgalls  are  of  two  varieties :  articular  and  tendinous.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  be  able  to  distinguish  them. 

Articular  windgalls  appear  above  the  fetlock  in  the  form  of  two  small,  round 
tumors,  one  on  each  side,  tense  when  the  member  is  in  station,  and  softer  when 
it  is  elevated.  They  are  situated  exactly  in  the  angular  space  comprised  between 
the  border  of  the  principal  canon  bone  and  the  corresponding  branch  of  the 
suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock.  It  is  only  when  they  have  attained  a  large 


1  H.  Bouley,  loo.  cit,  p.  580. 

2  Prudhomme,  Hecueil  de  mexlecine  vSterinaire,  1844,  p.  589. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  297 

volume  that  there  appears,  against  the  first  phalanx,  in  the  fold  of  the  pastern 
and  on  each  side,  the  outline  of  two  other  tumors,  always  much  smaller,  whose 
fluctuations  are  transmitted  to  the  preceding.  We  have  seen  that  these  are  the 
points  of  the  synovial  membrane  which  are  only  feebly  supported. 

Tendinous  windgalls,  formed  within  the  great  sesamoid  sheath,  are  more 
voluminous  and  ascend  higher  than  the  articular,  behind  which  they  are  located. 
Their  exact  position  is  the  space  comprised  on  each  side  between  the  suspensory 
ligament  and  the  tendons  ;  it  is  the  point  which  corresponds  to  the  superior,  culs- 
de-sac  of  the  sheath  in  question.  Below  the  fetlock  there  are  two  other  smaller 
tumors,  in  the  fold  of  the  pastern  and  along  the  latter  border  of  the  flexor 
tendons ;  they  communicate  with  the  superior,  but  are  only  visible  in  a  state  of 
extreme  dilatation  of  the  sheath. 

The  parietes  of  windgalls  in  time  become  thickened,  indurated,  and  ossified. 
The  accumulation  of  a  large  quantity  of  synovia  in  their  interior  renders  the 
movements  less  easy,  and  occasions  painful  pressure  upon  the  surrounding 
tissues;  and,  in  consequence,  the  articulation  itself  becomes  deviated  from  its 
normal  direction  owing  to  the  mechanical  restraint  which  it  experiences  and  the 
pain  which  it  causes  during  station. 

The  tendinous  cords,  relieving  themselves  instinctively,  so  to  speak,  from 
their  habitual  tension,  retract  and  tend  to  produce,  little  by  little,  a  more  or  less 
complete  eifacement  of  the  angle  of  the  fetlock,  a  complication  always  grave  by 
reason  of  the  vicious  axis  of  the  members  which  it  occasions,  knuckling.  It  is 
then  that  the  articular  extremities,  deprived  of  their  apparatus  of  dispersion, 
manifest  the  violence  of  the  concussions  which  they  experience  during  locomo- 
tion by  the  appearance  of  osseous  formations  upon  their  periphery.  The  exos- 
toses,  whose  formation  is  excited  under  the  influence  of  these  causes  on  the 
anterior  and  the  lateral  faces  of  the  fetlock,  have  received  the  name  osselets. 

Generally  speaking,  the  chronic  diseases  of  the  region,  which  we  have 
enumerated,  are  compatible  with  the  normal  function  of  the  joint.  But  the  hard 
indurations  of  the  tissues  and  the  formation  of  osseous  vegetations  around  the 
articular  margins  produce  a  certain  restraint  of  the  movements.  In  spite  of  the 
variable  stiffness  of  the  members,  the  animal  is  still  utilizable.  A  decided  lame- 
ness, save  in  exceptional  cases,  appears  only  after  a  long  time,  when,  for  example, 
the  synovial  membranes  are  very  distended  and  the  articular  surfaces  notably 
altered. 

H.— The  Footlock  and  the  Ergot. 

The  footlock  is  a  tuft  of  hairs  situated  behind  the  fetlock,  around 
the  ergot.  Properly  speaking,  it  merits  but  little  attention  when  a 
horse  is  examined  for  soundness.  It  is  small  and  formed  of  hairs  of 
fine  texture  in  the  finer  races,  while  in  the  common  races,  whose  pilous 
system  at  the  inferior  part  of  the  member  is,  in  general,  thick,  coarse, 
and  very  extensive,  especially  if  the  subjects  inhabit  low  and  damp 
localities,  it  presents  the  opposite  characters.  It  is  not  rare  to  see,  in 
these,  the  hairs  of  the  footlock  touch  the  soil  and  often  ascend  to  the 
posterior  part  of  the  knee. 

Many  horse-merchants,  in  doing  up  the  hairs,  do  not  fail  to  cut  the 


298  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

footlock  to  the  form  of  that  in  the  English  thoroughbred,  in  order  to 
give  to  their  horses  an  appearance  of  fineness  and  quality  which  they 
do  not  really  possess. 

The  ergot  is  a  more  or  less  voluminous  horny  production,  which 
occupies  the  posterior  part  of  the  fetlock  in  the  middle  of  the  hairs  of 
the  footlock. 

In  relation  to  comparative  anatomy,  by  reason  of  its  situation,  its 
connections,  and  the  structures  which  form  its  base  in  some  species,  it 
is  considered  as  the  vestige  of  an  aborted  digit.  It  is,  however,  with- 
out interest  from  an  external  point  of  view. 

Like  the  footlock,  it  acquires  quite  a  great  length  in  common 
horses.  It  is  sometimes  seen  to  divide  under  the  influence  of  desicca- 
tion, and  in  the  end  is  shed  off1.  When  it  is  too  voluminous,  it  is  cut 
when  the  hairs  of  the  footlock  are  being  arranged,  a  useless  practice  in 
well-bred  animals,  for  with  them  it  always  has  very  feeble  dimensions. 

The  ergot,  in  spite  of  its  apparent  insignificance,  plays  none  the  less 
a  certain  rdle  of  protection,  in  locomotion  at  great  speed,  in  relation  to 
the  posterior  part  of  the  fetlock,  which  the  violence  of  the  reactions 
tends  to  lower  to  the  ground.  It  is  common  to  see  on  the  race-course, 
after  a  race,  horses  whose  ergots  are  covered  with  blood  from  their  use, 
an  evident  proof  that  the  fetlock  must  go  down  to  the  ground  at  each 
time  of  the  contact.  It  is  always,  in  this  case,  the  diagonal  biped 
upon  which  the  horse  gallops  that  is  most  injured,  a  result  easy  of  ex- 
planation, since  the  feet  which  constitute  this  biped  support,  in  succes- 
sion and  singly,  all  the  weight  of  the  body  multiplied  by  the  velocity 
of  the  locomotory  movements. 

I.— The  Pastern. 

Situation ;  Limits. — The  pastern  is  situated  between  the  fet- 
lock and  the  coronet;  it  is  the  narrowest  part  of  the  member  of  the 
horse,  and  owes  without  doubt  to  this  characteristic  the  name  wrist,  by 
which  it  is  also  designated  in  ordinary  language. 

Anatomical  Base. — Its  osseous  base  is  formed  by  the  first  pha- 
lanx, which  gives  to  it,  consequently,  its  oblique  direction  from  above 
downward  and  behind  forward.  We  have  made  mention  above  (see 
Fetlock)  of  all  the  mechanical  advantages  which  depend  upon  the 
inclination  of  the  superior  articular  surfaces  of  this  bone ;  others  will 
be  noticed  when  we  discuss  the  obliquity  of  its  great  axis.  We  will 
also  revert  to  them  in  describing  the  function  of  the  pastern  as  an 
inclined  plane  receiving  the  weight  of  the  body  and  transmitting  it  to 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  299 

the  hoof,  besides  disseminating  it  in  part  upon  the  environing  reten- 
tive apparatus. 

The  first  phalanx  is  united  behind  to  the  sesamoid  bones ;  above,  to  the 
principal  bone  of  the  canon  through  the  medium  of  ligaments  which  we  have 
already  enumerated.  (See  Fetlock.)  Inferiorly,  it  is  firmly  articulated  with  the 
second  phalanx  by  the  lateral  ligaments,  e,  c  (Fig.  96),  which  are  common  also 
to  the  articulation  of  the  foot. 

These  means  of  union  are  completed,  anteriorly,  by  the  tendon  of  the  ante- 
rior extensor  of  the  phalanges  ;  posteriorly,  by  the  cord  of  the  flexors,  separated 
from  the  inferior  sesamoid  ligaments,  b,  b,  b  (Fig.  97),  by  the  inferior  cul-de-sac 
of  the  great  sesamoid  sheath. 

Movements. — The  pastern  is  the  seat  of  two  movements,  flexion 
and  extension.  Each  of  these  modifies  the  opening  of  the  metacarpo- 
or  metatarso-phalangeal  angle,  which,  in  a  state  of  repose,  can  be  con- 
sidered as  in  an  attitude  of  extreme  extension.  They  have,  however, 
not  the  same  value.  Almost  insurmountable  anatomical  obstacles,  as 
we  have  seen,  hinder  a  greater  extension ;  these  reside  in  the  presence 
of  the  suspensory  ligament  and  the  flexor  tendons  upon  the  summit  of 
this  angle ;  a  fortunate  disposition,  in  virtue  of  which  the  bones  main- 
tain their  function  in  sustaining  the  body,  without  being  exposed  to  too 
violent  effects  from  the  tractions  of  the  extensive  displacements  of  the 
latter.  The  flexion  of  the  pastern,  on  the  contrary,  has,  so  to  speak, 
no  definite  limits.  The  articular  movement  is  capable  not  only  of 
causing  a  disappearance  of  the  primitive  angle,  but  even  of  giving  it 
a  disposition  inverse  to  that  which  it  occupied  at  first.  In  this  case, 
the  obstacle  to  the  closing  of  the  new  angle  is  entirely  mechanical ;  it 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  sesamoid  bones  and  the  soft  tissues,  which 
interpose  their  thickness  between  the  canon  and  the  phalangal  segment. 

At  the  moment  of  the  contact,  when  the  body-weight  is  thrown 
on  the  member,  the  fetlock  is  pushed  backward  and  downward,  and 
the  pastern  tends  to  become  horizontal.  It  then  gradually  becomes 
straightened  upon  the  canon  until  towards  the  termination  of  this 
phase.  The  two  segments  are  now  almost  in  a  straight  line.  The 
pastern  then  becomes  strongly  flexed,  elevates  the  foot,  and  is  finally 
placed  in  prolongation  with  the  canon  to  commence  again  the  phase 
of  contact  with  the  ground.  These  diverse  attitudes  have  been  accu- 
rately recorded  by  MM.  Marey  and  Pages  by  means  of  instantaneous 
photographs.1 

Form. — The  anterior  face  of  the  pastern  is  slightly  constricted  in 
its  middle,  particularly  in  horses  in  which  this  region  is  somewhat 

1  Marey  et  Pages,  Analyse  cin£matique  des  allures  du  cheval,  in  Comptes-Rendus  des 
stances  de  1' Academic  des  sciences,  Paris,  27  Septembre,  1866. 


300  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

long ;  the  posterior  face,  less  extensive,  and  known  under  the  name 
fold  of  the  pastern,  is  the  centre  of  the  movement  of  flexion  of  the 
hoof  upon  the  phalanges ;  finally,  the  two  lateral  faces,  almost  subcu- 
taneous, are  crossed  from  above  downward,  and  from  before  backward, 
by  a  ligament  of  constraint  which  the  suspensory  of  the  fetlock  sends 
to  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor  of  the  digit.  The  skin  which 
covers  this  region  is  more  or  less  thick  according  to  the  race ;  the  hairs 
also  have  a  variable  abundance  and  texture. 

Beauties. — The  pastern  should  be  wide,  thick,  of  medium  length, 
well  directed,  fine,  and  free  from  blemishes. 

Width  and  Thickness. — The  width  is  measured  in  an  antero- 
posterior  sense,  viewing  the  animal  in  profile ;  the  thickness,  on  the 
contrary,  is  appreciated  from  side  to  side,  examining  the  subject  in 
front. 

Great  importance  is  attached  to  the  development  of  both  of  these 
dimensions.  The  width  gives  the  measure  of  the  volume  of  the  first 
phalanx  and  of  the  tendons  which  pass  over  its  two  faces.  The  thick- 
ness indicates  the  transverse  development  of  the  articular  surfaces, 
which,  we  know,  is  correlative  to  that  of  the  fetlock  and  that  of  the 
coronet.  Now  the  principal  condition  to  be  realized  in  the  solidity  of 
the  members  of  the  horse  is  the  volume  of  the  bones  and  the  ligaments 
which  unite  them,  in  order  to  maintain  their  locomotory  angles ;  we 
judge  of  it,  therefore,  in  relation  to  the  body,  as  a  whole,  keeping  in 
view  the  thickness  of  the  segment  and  the  abundance  of  the  hairy 
productions  which  cover  them. 

Length. — -To  assign  an  absolute  length  to  the  pastern  would 
oblige  us  to  enter  into  too  many  minute  details,  as  the  excess  or  the 
deficiency  of  this  element  can  be,  and  quite  frequently  is,  compensated 
by  a  more  or  less  oblique  direction  of  the  phalanges  under  the  canon. 
The  various  differences  in  this  respect  can  be  quickly  recognized  by  the 
practised  eye.  We  will  therefore  refer  to  them  only  to  show  the 
advantages  and  the  disadvantages  dependent  upon  these  variations, 
with  regard  to  the  particular  service  which  a  horse  is  destined  to 
perform. 

A  horse  whose  pasterns  are  too  long  is  called  long-jointed;  he  is 
short-jointed  in  an  opposite  sense.  Each  of  these  conformations  is 
regarded  as  an  absolute  defect,  if  it  be  not  compensated,  in  part  at 
least,  by  a  proper  direction,  as  we  shall  see  farther  on. 

Until  now,  and  for  convenience  of  demonstration,  the  phalangal 
segment  was  considered  as  an  almost  rigid  column  extending  from  the 
fetlock  to  the  ground. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


301 


This  view,  too  absolute  in  its  character,  has  been  recently  opposed 
by  our  colleague,  M.  Pader,1  who  has  pointed  out  with  reason  the 
articulation  of  the  foot — that  is  to  say,  the  last  inter-phalangal  artic- 
ulation, and  not  the  hoof — as  the  centre  of  the  movements  of  rotation 
of  the  phalangal  lever  upon  the  soil. 

This  statement  being  made,  the  phalangal  segment  may  be  repre- 
sented schematically,  during  station,  by  the  angular  lever  A  OB  (Fig. 
99),  which  rests  by  its  point, 
B  (fixed  point),  upon  the 
third  phalanx,  and  receives 
at  0  (fetlock)  the  weight  of 
the  body,  OR,  transmitted 
through  the  canon,  OC. 

The  muscular  action, 
M,  exercised  upon  the  sesa- 
moid  bones,  A,  must  there- 
fore, at  each  instant  of  the 
contact,  in  order  to  main- 
tain the  equilibrium,  an- 
tagonize the  force,  J?,  and 
counterbalance  it,  so  that 
the  fetlock,  0,  where  it  is 
applied,  may  remain  in  its 
normal  situation. 

Let  us  now  draw,  from  the 
point  of  support,  B,  the  per- 
pendiculars BF  and  BE  upon 
the  direction  of  the  two  forces, 
M  and  R;  these  lines,  it  is 
seen,  are  the  respective  lever-  FIG.  99. 

arms  of  each  of  these  forces, 

and  it  will  be  seen  that  here,  as  in  all  levers  of  the  second  class,  the  arm,  Bf\  of 
the  power  overcomes  that,  BE,  of  the  resistance. 

It  is  known,  besides,  that  a  lever  is  in  equilibrium  when  the  movements  of 
the  two  forces  are  equal. 

Whence,  since  equilibrium  does  exist,  we  have  the  following  formula :  M  X 
BF  (mom.  of  the  force  M)  =  EX  BE  or  ///(mom.  of  the  force  K). 

This  being  laid  down,  let  us  now  lengthen  the  pastern,  and  make  it  OD,  for 
example. 

The  new  arms  of  the  lever  will  be  DG  and  DL  Both  will  be  lengthened  by 
the  same  quantity,  HD,  which  will  necessarily  disturb  the  equilibrium,  for  the 
arm  of  resistance  will  have  augmented,  relatively,  by  a  greater  quantity  than  that 


1  Pader,  De  la  ferrure  normale,  in  Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  cent,  de  raed.,  vet.  annee,  1888,  p.  497. 


302 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


of  the  power.  The  absolute  augmentation,  however,  being  equal  for  both,  the 
preservation  of  the  equilibrium  will  demand  that  the  power  or  the  muscular 
contraction  be  more  intense  to  counterbalance  the  resistance,  or  the  weight  of 
the  body,  whose  arm  has  lengthened  beyond  the  limits  required  by  the  mechanism 
of  the  parts. 

Whence  it  follows  that  the  elongation  of  the  pastern  increases  the 
force  R  at  the  expense  of  the  force  M,  because  its  effect  is  to  lengthen 
the  arm  of  the  lever  by  the  same  quantity,  instead  of  in  an  inverse 
ratio  to  the  forces  which  move  them. 

During  locomotion,  when  the  foot  has  reached  the  ground,  it  is  no 
longer  the  first  two  phalanges  that  constitute  the  phalangal  segment, 

as  M.  Pader1  believes,  but 
it  is  the  entire  digital  re- 
gion, the  hoof  included. 

These  form,  it  is  true, 
a  broken  lever  composed 
of  two  pieces  (1st,  the  first 
two  phalanges ;  2d,  the 
hoof),  but  their  successive 
movements,  always  in  the 
same  direction,  are  so  closely 
associated  as  to  give  to  the 
total  displacement  a  unity 
analogous  to  that  produced 
by  a  rigid  lever,  OB  (Fig. 
100),  extending  from  the 
soil,  B,  to  the  fetlock,  0. 

With  a  quantity  of 
movement  that  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  weight  of 
the  body  and  the  velocity 
of  the  gait,  the  extremity,  B, 
of  this  segment  comes,  at 
each  step,  in  contact  with 

the  ground,  xy,  which  necessarily  reacts  in  proportion  to  the  action 
which  it  communicates  to  the  hoof.  It  is  easy  to  convince  ourselves 
that  this  action  is  also  modified  by  the  variations  in  the  length  of  the 
digital  region. 

Let  the  line  BH  represent  the  force  which,  acting  at  the  extremity,  B,  of  the 
lever,  BOA,  tends  to  rotate  it  around  the  point  0,  and,  consequently,  to  close  the 


FIG.  100. 


Pader,  loc.  cit. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  303 

angle  BOO,  by  antagonizing  the  muscular  action,  M,  which  is  exercised  at  the 
extremity,  A,  of  the  same  lever.  In  this  case,  the  fetlock  becomes  the  fixed  point 
or  fulcrum  and  the  lever  belongs  to  the  first  class. 

Let  us  determine,  as  above,  the  arms  of  the  lever  of  the  forces,  BH  and 
AM,  by  inserting  from  the  fixed  point  a  line  perpendicular  to  their  direction; 
these  arms  evidently  are  OH  and  OA. 

Now  let  us  lengthen  the  lever  OB  to  OD,  and  we  will  see  that  the  arm  of 
the  force,  Bff,  becomes  01,  while  that  of  A  M  will  always  remain  OA. 

Thus,  the  longer  the  pastern  the  more  the  reaction  of  the  soil 
against  the  weight  of  the  body  augments  and  fatigues  the  tendons  and 
the  ligaments  which  are  inserted,  at  A,  upon  the  sesamoid  bones.  The 
causes  which  tend  to  augment  the  length  of  the  phalangal  region  are 
very  significant,  exception  being  made,  of  course,  of  the  dimensions  of 
the  bones. 

First  among  these  we  will  place  the  elongation  of  the  hoof,  re- 
sulting from  the  normal  growth  of  the  horn  in  a  horse  whose  shoe 
is  not  sufficiently  often  reset ;  secondly,  the  error  of  the  farrier  in 
not  sufficiently  paring  the  foot;  finally,  the  tendency  which  farriers 
or  proprietors  have,  according  to  their  interests,  of  applying  too 
thick  a  shoe  in  order  not  to  have  the  trouble  or  the  expense  of  re- 
setting them  at  proper  intervals,  as  often  as  the  state  of  the  hoof  re- 
quires it. 

Deficiency  of  the  length  of  the  pastern  evidently  has  inverse  draw- 
backs. The  short-jointed  horse  surcharges  his  bones  beyond  measure ; 
he  lacks  suppleness  in  consequence  of  the  insufficiency  of  the  fetlock 
as  an  apparatus  of  dispersion,  and  has,  from  this  fact,  hard  reactions  ; 
besides,  he  is  more  predisposed  to  osseous  blemishes  of  the  bones  of  the 
members,  as  ring-bones. 

The  inconveniences  of  the  long  joints  and  the  short  joints  have  not, 
by  far,  the  same  importance  in  the  anterior  as  in  the  posterior  mem- 
bers, on  account  of  their  unequal  distance  from  the  centre  of  gravity. 
It  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  anterior  extremities,  incomparably  more 
loaded  than  the  posterior  in  the  sustentation  of  the  body,  show  more 
quickly  and  more  gravely  the  injurious  consequences  of  these  defects. 
In  fact,  experience  has  demonstrated  this ;  blemishes  of  the  anterior 
members  are  more  common  than  those  of  the  posterior,  and  the  part 
which  the  pastern  takes  is  more  marked  in  the  former,  this  region 
being  always  longer  in  the  fore  than  the  hind  limbs,  and  also  more 
oblique,  doubtless  on  account  of  their  proximity  to  the  centre  of 
gravity. 

Direction.— The  direction  of  the  pastern  is  intimately  allied  to 
its  length, — that  is  to  say,  a  long  pastern  is  in  most  cases  too  horizontal, 


304 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  101. 


FIG.  102. 


while  it  becomes  more  vertical  when  it  is  too  short.  In  the  first  case, 
the  horse  is  low-jointed  ;  in  the  second,  he  is  qualified  straight- jointed 
(Fig.  101  and  Fig.  102). 

The  close  relationship  which  associates  long-jointedness  with  low- 
jointedness  is  easy  of  comprehension,  the  pastern  becoming  less  and 

less  a  column  of  support,  and 
more  and  more  an  elastic  spring 
in  proportion  as  its  length  in- 
creases. We  have  seen  above 
that  the  arm  of  the  lever  of 
resistance  (weight  of  the  body) 
elongates  and  imposes  greater 
eiforts  upon  the  muscles  and  the 
ligaments.  A  spring  also  gives 
all  the  more  as  it  is  more  elastic 
and  as  the  pressure  which  it  sup- 
ports is  greater.  This  is  precisely  what  takes  place  in  a  long-jointed 
pastern,  which  is  at  the  same  time  nearly  always  low-jointed,  because  it 
is  relatively  weak  and  flexible  under  the  weight  and  the  reactions  of 
the  body. 

Some  horses,  nevertheless,  are  exceptions.  Either  from  the  great 
resistance  of  the  fibrous  ligaments  or  the  tendons  to  traction,  the  mode 
of  articulation  of  their  bones,  a  greater  energy  of  their  muscles,  an 
intensity  of  action  which  is  more  effective  from  the  length  of  the  arm 
of  the  lever  and  the  perpendicular  incidence  of  insertion,  or,  finally, 
for  some  other  cause,  these  animals  redeem  the  excess  of  the  length  of 
the  pastern,  and  mitigate  the  evil  effects  by  a  less  oblique  direction. 
These  instances,  however,  are  rare,  which  is  nothing  but  natural,  as  we 
have  just  seen. 

Most  authors  who  define  the  direction  of  this  region  estimate  it  at 
about  40  to  45  degrees,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  with  the  fetlock  an 
angle  of  130  to  135  degrees.  Vallon  and  M.  Lemoigne  are  the  only 
ones,  to  our  knowledge,  who  seem  to  have  measured  this  inclination  with 
some  care  upon  the  living  horse  or  upon  the  skeleton.  Aside  from  the 
purely  theoretical  idea  that  the  pastern  should  have  a  direction  inter- 
mediary between  the  absolutely  vertical  and  the  horizontal,  it  has  been 
believed  to  be  good  logic  to  recommend  a  mean  obliquity  of  45  degrees, 
without  perceiving  that  this  argument  is  faulty,  first  of  all,  in  its 
premises,  since  it  is  not  based  upon  facts. 

The  mean  obliquity,  in  our  opinion,  oscillates  around  60  degrees 
upon  the  horizon,  in  the  anterior  members,  and  65  degrees  in  the  pos- 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER. 


305 


terior,  which  are  always  more  vertical  to  the  fetlocks.  An  inclina- 
tion of  45  degrees  is  not  observed  in  well-formed  horses  provided 
with  good  axes ;  it  constitutes,  on  the  contrary,  a  low-jointedness  quite 
marked. 

Let  us  now  see  the  disadvantages  which  accrue  from  an^excess  or 
an  insufficiency  of 
obliquity ;  they  are 
of  the  same  nature 
as  those  which  fol- 
low an  excess  or 
an  insufficiency  of 
length.  There  are 
several  ways  of  ex- 
plaining this : 

Let  us  first  re- 
gard the  pastern  as 
an  inclined  plane 
of  surface  and  of 
segment  in  the  de- 
composition of 
forces  parallel  to 
the  weight. 

Suppose  OS 
and  OD  (Fig.  103) 
are  two  pasterns 
of  the  same  length, 
but  unequally  in- 
clined upon  the 

canon  OC.  From  the  fact  of  this  inclination,  the  weight  of  the  body, 
which  we  will  represent  in  quantity  and  direction  by  the  line  OR,  is 
decomposed,  at  the  level  of  the  fetlock  O,  into  two  forces,  one  of 
which  is  parallel  to  the  phalangal  region,  and  is  overcome  by  its  own 
resistance ;  the  other  is  perpendicular  to  the  preceding.  The  latter  is 
exerted  upon  the  sesamoid  bones,  and  tends  to  lower  the  angle  of  the 
fetlock  against  the  summit  of  which  the  tendons  are  applied. 

These  two  components  of  the  resultant  OR  are,  by  constructing  the  parallelo- 
gram of  forces :  for  OB,  Oe  and  Of;  for  OD,  Og  and  OD.  They  indicate,  for 
each  inclination,  the  role  which  is  intrusted  to  the  bones  and  the  muscles.  The 
sole  inspection  of  the  figure  shows  that  with  the  pastern  OB  (straight-jointed), 
the  component  Of  exceeds  Oe,  and  therefore  likewise  OD,  which  corresponds  to 
it  in  the  other  case. 

20 


FIG.  103. 


306 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Therefore  the  straight  joint  surcharges  the  bones  and  relieves  the 
muscles  AM,  which  antagonize  the  force  Oe,  while  the  long  joint  favors 
the  bones  at  the  expense  of  the  tendons  which  it  exhausts. 

The  pastern  plays  a  no  less  important  part  as  a  lever,  whatever  way 
we  examine  it. 

Being  still  given  the  two  pasterns  OB  and  OD  (Fig.  104),  of  the  same 
length,  but  unequally  inclined  upon  the  canon  OC:  They  form  with  the  great 


FIG.  104. 


FIG.  105. 


sesamoids,  A,  two  angular  levers,  A  OB  and  AOD,  of  the  second  class,  whose 
point  of  contact  or  fulcrum  is  on  the  ground  at  B  and  D,  whose  resistance,  R, 
is  at  0,  and  whose  power,  M,  is  at  A. 

It  is  apparent  that  by  drawing  the  perpendiculars  BF  and  DE  from  the 
points  of  contact  upon  the  direction  of  the  force  R, — that  is  to  say,  the  arms  of 
the  lever  of  resistance  for  each  of  these  inclinations, — this  force  will  act  at  the 
extremity  of  an  arm  longer  in  the  case  of  the  low-jointed  pastern  than  in  that 
of  the  straight-jointed  one. 

The  obliquity  of  the  phalangal  lever,  therefore,  obliges  the  mus- 
cles AM,  whose  lever-arm  remains  invariable,  to  make  more  energetic 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  307 

contractions,  in  order  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  fetlock  which 
receives  the  weight  of  the  body,  whose  lever-arm  has  augmented. 

Finally,  the  results  are  identical  when  the  animal  machine,  moving 
at  great  speed,  strikes  the  ground  at  each  step  of  the  gait. 

When  the  levers  AOB  and  AOD  (Fig.  105)  are  of  the  second  class,  the 
power  is  always  applied  at  A,  the  fulcrum  is  at  0,  while  the  resistance  becomes 
the  reactions,  DE,  BFy  of  the  soil  against  the  weight  of  the  body,  whichTare  per- 
ceived at  the  points  B  and  D.  By  drawing  the  perpendiculars  OF  and  OE  from 
the  fulcrum,  or  point  of  relation,  upon  the  direction  of  the  vertical  forces  BF 
and  DE,  it  is  found,  as  in  the  preceding  figure,  that  the  greater  the  inclination 
of  the  pastern  the  more  the  lever-arms  OE  and  OF  augment  at  the  expense  of 
the  arm,  OA,  of  the  muscles,  AM. 

This  implies  that  the  obliquity  of  the  phalangal  region  renders  the 
reactions  of  the  soil  against  the  quantity  of  movement  with  which  the 
body  is  animated  at  great  speed  more  laborious  and  fatiguing  for  the 
tendons. 

It  results  from  the  preceding  that  the  inconveniences  of  low-jointed- 
ness  are  of  the  same  value  as  those  of  long-jointedness,  and  hence  it 
follows  that  they  will  be  superadded  to  each  other  in  horses  suffering 
simultaneously  from  these  two  defects.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
straight  and  the  short-jointed  pastern. 

These  conformations,  nevertheless,  do  not  offer  the  same  gravity  in 
all  services.  The  long  and  oblique  pastern  renders  the  horse  more 
supple  and  more  pleasant  to  ride ;  it  enables  him  to  disperse  more 
easily  the  violent  reaction  of  locomotion  at  great  speed,  and  it  would 
be  very  desirable  in  the  saddle-horse,  the  driving-horse,  and  the  race- 
horse, were  it  not  a  source  of  danger  to  the  integrity  of  the  tendons. 
The  short  and  straight  pastern  is  strong ;  it  has  no  very  prejudicial 
influences  against  heavy-draught  services,  but  it  renders  the  reactions 
hard  and  jeopardizes  thereby  the  integrity  of  the  osseous  apparatus ; 
hence  it  unfits  a  horse  for  the  riding-school  or  for  fast  riding. 

To  recapitulate,  numerous  disadvantages  and  sometimes  advantages 
may  accrue  from  a  pastern  erring  in  its  length  and  in  its  direction. 
If  both  sides  be  compared,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  injudicious  to  extol 
too  much  any  one  of  these  conformations  in  preference  to  that  which 
we  have  indicated  as  the  beautiful :  the  long,  low,  straight,  and  short 
joints  will  always  constitute  defects. 

Neatness  of  Outline  and  Freedom  from  Blemish. — The 
pastern  is  called  neat  when  its  skin  is  thin,  the  subcutaneous  connec- 
tive tissue  rather  scarce,  the  hairs  delicate  and  short ;  the  bones  and 
the  tendons  are  then  apparent  in  their  special  form  and  direction. 


\ 
308  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Here,  also,  neatness  is  a  characteristic  of  quality  and  distinction, 
which  the  thoroughbred  horse  presents  in  the  highest  degree.  Com- 
mon horses,  like  the  draught-horse,  have  this  region  more  or  less 
thick,  and  the  hairs  of  the  footlock  almost  cover  its  posterior  face.  It 
is  the  custom  to  cut  these  hairs  in  the  lighter  variety  of  horses  which 
are  somewhat  lymphatic  and  lack  in  breeding,  so  as  to  make  the  mem- 
bers appear  more  slender  and  render  the  form  and  outline  of  the 
extremities  more  apparent.  This  procedure  is  not  practised  in  heavy 
horses,  in  which  these  hairs  fulfil  the  rdle  of  protecting  organs  against 
mud  and  dust. 

The  neatness  of  outline  of  the  pastern  implies,  as  in  the  other 
regions,  the  absence  of  diseases  and  blemishes. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes. — Many  diseases  are  observed  upon  the  pastern 
or  extend  there  from  other  regions :  such  are  contusions,  excoriations,  superficial 
wounds  of  the  skin,  cuts,  fissures,  collosities,  redema,  abscess,  grease,  lymphangi- 
tis, fibrous  elephantiasis,  etc.  We  will  only  mention  them  in  passing. 

However,  there  are  some  diseases  and  blemishes  whose  seat  is  entirely 
confined  to  the  pastern. 

Let  us  cite  first  the  effects  of  halter-cast,  a  transverse  or  oblique  wound  which 
is  occasioned  in  the  fold  of  the  pastern  by  the  friction  of  too  long  a  strap  fasten- 
ing the  horse  to  the  manger.  This  accident  is  produced  when  the  animal,  in 
endeavoring  to  rub  the  mane  with  one  of  the  posterior  bipeds,  or  the  pastern  of 
one  of  these  with  the  teeth,  carries  the  posterior  member  forward,  which  then 
becomes  entangled  in  the  halter-strap.  The  latter,  strongly  tensed  by  the  inverse 
actions  of  the  neck,  which  is  straightened,  and  of  the  foot,  which  is  carried 
backward,  moves  to  and  fro  over  the  skin,  whence  result  more  or  less  profound 
wounds.1  Sometimes  the  animal  loses  his  equilibrium,  falls  down,  and  twists  the 
neck,  which  determines  a  permanent  deviation  of  the  latter.2  Such  a  mishap 
can  also  be  produced  under  other  circumstances,  when,  for  example,  the  horse  is 
tied  to  a  post,  or  to  a  cord  with  a  fetter  fixed  to  one  of  the  anterior  pasterns  ; 
when  he  is  cast  for  the  purpose  of  undergoing  a  surgical  operation ;  when  he  is 
obliged  to  eat  from  the  ground,  and  being  in  harness,  accidentally  entangles  one 
of  the  members  in  the  reins,  etc.  The  symptoms  and  the  gravity  of  this  accident 
vary  according  to  the  qualities  of  the  rubbing  body,  its  hardness,  the  intensity 
of  the  friction,  and  the  nature  of  the  lesions.  We  will  not  expatiate  on  these. 
Let  us  merely  say  that  a  cicatrix  follows  these  lesions,  which,  in  most  instances, 
is  permanent,  and  upon  which  the  hairs  are  not  replaced.  At  times,  the  cica- 
tricial  tissue  is  so  abundant  that  the  region  remains  permanently  enlarged  and 
deformed  ;  the  movement  of  flexion  of  the  foot  is  rendered  less  easy  and  the  skin 
is  much  more  sensitive  to  causes  capable  of  irritating  and  excoriating  it. 
Finally,  there  are  cases  in  which  cicatrization  never  follows,  and  the  wound  con- 


1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  dictionnaire  de  m^decine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  ve"te>inaires,  t.  v. 
p.  662. 

2  This  accident,  caused  by  the  struggles  of  the  animal,  often  gives  rise  to  wryneck  or  partial 
luxation  of  the  cervical  vertebrae. 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  309 

tinues  to  discharge.  The  latter  is  then  converted  into  an  incurable  fissure,  often 
with  an  eczematous  condition  of  the  surrounding  parts. 

Fissures  on  the  pastern  are  more  grave  than  in  any  other  region  by  reason 
of  the  movements  and  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  the  wound  which  they 
occasion  in  a  proper  state  of  cleanliness. 

The  soft  tumors  which  are  observed  here  are  synovial  dilatations  belonging 
to  the  great  sesamoid  sheath,  or  to  the  articulation  of  the  fetlock.  They  appear 
on  each  side  of  the  flexor  tendons,  but  usually  do  not  acquire  a  large-volume. 
However  it  may  be,  they  accompany  windgalls,  and  only  show  themselves  when 
the  latter  are  largely  developed. 

Linear  cicatrices  are  met  on  the  lateral  planes  of  the  pastern,  indicating  that 
the  animal  has  been  subjected  to  neurotomy  for  a  chronic  disease  of  the  organs 
contained  in  the  hoof,  or  for  osseous  tumors  of  the  coronary  region.  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  ascertain  if  the  malady  against  which  the  treatment  has  been 
employed  has  disappeared. 

Exostoses  of  the  first  phalanx  receive  the  name  of  osselets.  Some  incor- 
rectly call  them  ring-bones,  this  appellation  being  reserved  for  the  osseous  tumors 
of  the  coronet  or  of  the  complementary  fibro-cartilages  of  the  third  phalanx. 
The  osselets  may  or  may  not  cause  lameness,  according  to  the  restraint  which  is 
experienced  by  the  tendons  or  the  articulation ;  they  generally  result  from  hard 
usage,  and  occur  more  frequently  upon  the  anterior  members,  upon  short  and 
straight  pasterns  oftener  than  upon  any  others.  Sometimes  they  result  from 
blows,  and  are  even  the  consequence  of  fractures  of  the  first  phalanx,  accom- 
panied by  the  formation  of  a  callus. 

Finally,  let  us  mention  traces  of  actual  cautery,  in  points  or  in  lines,  used  as 
a  means  of  treatment  against  osseous  tumors,  indurations  of  the  skin,  or  all  other 
chronic  affections  of  this  region.  These  blemishes  are,  however,  in  most  in- 
stances, only  an  extension  of  those  which  are  dependent  upon  the  cauterization 
of  the  fetlock  or  the  coronet.  When  they  are  present,  it  is  imperative  to  examine 
with  care  the  adjoining  parts  of  the  member  in  order  to  assign  to  these  blemishes 
their  just  value  in  the  depreciation  they  cause  to  the  animal. 


J.— The  Coronet. 

Situation;  Limits;  Anatomical  Base.— The  coronet,  a 
region  rather  difficult  to  delimitate,  is  situated  between  the  pastern  and 
the  hoof. 

Its  anatomical  base  is  that  part  of  the  second  phalanx  not  contained  in  the 
horny  case,  covered  anteriorly  by  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor  muscle  of 
the  phalanges,  posteriorly  by  that  of  the  deep  flexor,  and  laterally  by  the  supe- 
rior portion  of  the  complementary  fibro-cartilage  of  the  third  phalanx  as  well  as 
by  the  glomes  of  the  plantar  cushion. 

Rounded  from  side  to  side  on  its  anterior  face,  wider  below  than  above  in 
consequence  of  the  presence  of  the  coronary  band,  and  depressed  on  its  posterior 
face  at  the  level  of  the  concavity  which  separates  the  two  bulbs  of  the  aforesaid 
cushion,  the  coronet  also  presents  on  each  side  the  tuberosities  which  give  attach- 
ment to  the  lateral  ligaments  of  the  first  inter-phalangal  articulation.  It  is 


310  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

covered  by  a  thick  skin  provided  with  hairs  more  or  less  abundant  and  coarse, 
according  to  the  fineness  of  the  animal. 

Before  presenting  a  pleasure-horse  for  sale,  they  usually  clip  his 
hairs  in  order  to  give  to  the  members  a  certain  appearance  of  lightness. 
But  neither  horses  of  the  finer  races  nor  heavy-draught  horses  are,  as 
a  rule,  subjected  to  this  practice,  because  in  the  former  the  hairs  are 
short  and  fine,  and  in  the  latter  they  constitute  an  apparatus  of  pro- 
tection of  which  it  is  unjust  to  deprive  the  horse. 

In  the  army  it  is  prohibited  to  dress  the  hairs  over  the  parts  cor- 
responding to  the  pastern,  in  order  to  protect  them  as  much  as 
possible  against  the  injuries  so  frequent  during  the  manoeuvres. 

Beauties. — The  only  points  of  this  region  are  the  width,  the  fine- 
ness, and  the  freedom  from  blemishes. 

The  first  implies  a  correlative  width  of  the  phalanges  and  the 
firmness  of  the  member.  The  second  consists  in  the  thinness  of  the 
skin  and  the  delicacy  of  the  hairs ;  it  indicates  the  ancestry,  the  tem- 
perament, the  energy,  and  the  vigor  of  the  horse.  As  to  the  third,  it 
implies  a  perfect  regularity  of  the  parts  and  the  absence  of  diseases 
and  blemishes. 

Diseases  and  Blemishes.— The  coronet,  like  all  the  other  infe- 
rior regions  of  the  members,  shows  numerous  alterations  which  involve 
either  the  skin  and  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  the  tendons,  or 
the  bones.  Their  gravity  necessarily  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
lesions,  their  location,  their  period  of  existence,  and  the  interference 
which  they  offer  to  the  locomotory  function. 

These  are  first  calks,  deep  wounds  of  the  skin,  of  a  variable  extent,  which 
result  from  the  contact  of  the  feet  in  some  circumstances,  as  on  the  race-course 
or  in  leaping  over  obstacles,  for  example. 

Grease  or  water  in  the  legs,  already  cited  in  the  description  of  the  canon,  the 
fetlock,  and  the  pastern,  often  begins  at  the  coronet,  whose  hairs  it  agglutinates 
into  small  pencils  of  a  bristly  aspect  which  is  quite  peculiar,  and  which  is  vulgarly 
compared  with  a  comb. 

Contusions  and  other  traumatisms  produce,  at  times,  deep  alterations  of  the 
lateral  cartilages,  the  tendons,  the  glomes  of  the  plantar  cushion,  or  even  the 
skin,  and  give  rise  to  a  partial  necrosis  of  these  structures,  known  under  the 
generic  name  quitter.  A  quitter  may  be  tendinous,  cartilaginous,  or  cutaneous, 
according  to  the  tissue  involved.  In  general,  they  should  be  considered  as  being 
grave,  for  they  incapacitate  the  animal  from  service  for  a  long  time  and  com- 
promise his  very  life  by  the  complications  which  accompany  them.  (See  Foot.) 

The  anterior  face  of  the  coronet  is  sometimes  the  seat  of  an  affection  called 
crapaudine,  which  is  characterized  by  a  peculiar  modification  of  the  secretory 
function  of  the  coronary  band,  which  becomes  fissured  and  cracked  after  the 
manner  of  the  bark  of  an  old  tree.  (See  Foot.) 


POSTERIOR    MEMBER.  311 

The  osseous  tumors  of  the  region  have  received  the  name  ring-bone,  and  are 
located  on  the  anterior  and  the  lateral  faces.  Clinically,  they  are  distinguished 
as  coronary  and  cartilaginous,  according  as  they  are  developed  upon  the  second 
phalanx  or  in  the  thickness  of  the  lateral  cartilages  of  the  foot.1 

They  are  usually,  to  whichever  variety  they  may  belong,  the  consequence  of 
violent  percussions  received  by  the  bones  during  locomotion,  or  of  contusions  of 
the  cartilages.  They  also  follow  inflammatory  conditions  of  a  diverse  nature,  such 
as  abscesses  of  the  coronet,  tendinous  or  cartilaginous  quitter,  the  prick_of  a  nail, 
etc. ;  finally,  they  are  frequently  sequelae  to  fractures,  in  which  case  it  is  observed 
they  are  persistent.  Short-jointed  horses,  young  horses  with  a  precocious  consti- 
tution, which  are  subjected  to  laborious  work,  and  full-grown  horses  which  are 
employed  in  severe  labor  on  the  pavements  of  large  cities  are  much  more  pre- 
disposed to  such  formations  than  others.  The  influence  of  heredity  has  been 
recognized  for  a  long  time  ;  certain  families  of  horses,  from  injudicious  selections 
or  crossing,  invariably  transmit  these  blemishes  to  their  descendants. 

Ring-bones  are  recognized  by  a  hard,  resisting  tumefaction,  which  covers  the 
anterior  or  lateral  faces  of  the  coronary  region,  and  manifests  itself  as  an  abnor- 
mal convexity  when  the  animal  is  examined  from  in  front  or  in  profile.  Although 
the  enlargement  is  most  often  apparent  to  the  eye,  it  is  sometimes  concealed  by 
the  thickness  of  the  integument  and  the  abundance  of  the  hairs ;  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  complete  the  examination  by  the  use  of  the  hand,  especially  in 
horses  whose  coronet  is  not  very  distinct  in  its  outlines. 

A  ring-bone  most  usually  at  its  beginning  occasions  lameness ;  but  when  the 
tumor  is  once  formed  the  lameness  disappears,  unless  the  exostosis  has  reached 
the  contour  of  the  articular  surfaces. 

Knuckling  also  appears  as  a  complication  of  old  ring-bones ;  to  this  symptom 
may  be  added  contraction  of  the  hoof,  due  to  the  deviation  of  the  coronary  band. 

These  exostoses  always  constitute  a  serious  blemish,  but  the  degree  of  the 
gravity  nevertheless  varies.  It  is  clear  that  the  depreciation  of  the  value  of  the 
animal  is  greater  as  he  is  one  of  luxury  or  a  rapid  motor,  and  as  the  interference 
with  the  locomotory  functions  is  more  pronounced.  Many  horses  are  but  little 
depreciated  even  by  a  voluminous  ring-bone  which  is  not  accompanied  by  lame- 
ness, or  whose  lameness  does  not  interfere  with  their  utility  as  draught-horses. 
It  is  entirely  different  with  pleasure-horses,  in  which  the  perfectness  of  conforma- 
tion and  the  cleanness  of  the  members  form  one  of  the  essential  conditions  of 
their  acquisition.  Finally,  these  exostoses  are,  from  their  hereditary  tendency, 
an  absolute  reason  for  condemning  such  horses  as  are  destined  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  coronet  rather  frequently  presents  on  its  surface  traces  of  the  actual 
cautery  in  points  or  in  lines.  We  will  repeat  here  the  advice  we  have  so  often 
given  in  such  cases :  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  by  a  minute  examination  that 
the  diseased  processes  against  which  this  treatment  has  been  employed  have 
really  disappeared.  Certain  horse-dealers,  indeed,  have  applied,  with  fraudulent 
intent,  the  actual  cautery  upon  the  member  for  the  concealment  of  a  lameness 
whose  seat  is  more  or  less  distant  from  the  cauterized  parts. 

Let  us  remark,  in  terminating,  that  there  is  a  particular  variety  of  scabies  or 
mange  affecting  the  inferior  extremities  of  the  members  of  the  horse ;  it  is  qual- 
ified symbiotic  or  chorioptic  mange,  because  it  is  caused  by  an  acarus  named  sym- 

1  These  are  ordinarily  called  side-bones. 


312  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

biotes  or  chorioptes  spathiferus.  It  resides  in  the  coronary  band,  the  fold  of  the 
pastern,  and  the  footlock,  which  are  soon  covered  by  an  abundant  scurfy  desqua- 
mation  of  the  epidermis  and  gradually  deprived  of  their  hairs.  This  mange  is 
benign,  in  consequence  of  its  very  slow  spreading  and  the  little  tendency  of  the 
acarus  towards  migration ;  it  passes  easily  from  one  anterior  or  posterior  mem- 
ber to  the  other,  whilst  it  is  more  rarely  seen  to  be  communicated  from  one 
anterior  member  to  the  corresponding  posterior.  However  it  may  be,  this  variety 
of  mange  occasions  decided  itching,  which  prevails  during  the  night  or  after 
work  and  induces  the  animal  to  rub  and  bite  himself.  From  this  symptom,  it 
disturbs  their  rest,  worries  them  unnecessarily,  and  exposes  them  to  wounds 
which  are  to  be  dreaded  on  account*  of  their  situation.  It  is  only  contagious 
from  horse  to  horse,  and  not  at  all  from  horse  to  man. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    FOOT. 

Definition. — The  foot,  in  its  relation  to  comparative  anatomy,  is 
all  that  part  of  the  member  which  is  below  the  forearm  or  the  leg. 

This  definition,  on  the  contrary,  much  more  limited  so  far  as  the 
exterior  is  concerned,  is  here  applied  only  to  the  extremity  of  the 
members  which  rests  upon  the  ground,  the  nail,  properly  so  called,  the 
horny  box,  vulgarly  known  under  the  name  of  the  hoof,  which  contains 
and  protects  living,  sensitive  tissues  of  variable  texture  and  properties. 

Distinction. — Four  in  number,  the  feet  are  qualified  fore  or 
hind,  according  to  their  relative  situation  with  the  centre  of  gravity. 
All  have  the  same  general  organization;  they  differ,  nevertheless,  in 
several  external  characters  which  we  will  soon  explain. 

In  each  biped,  anterior  or  posterior,  they  are  distinguished  as  right 
and  left';  their  conformation  otherwise  is  absolutely  identical. 

A. — Organization  of  the  Foot. 

The  foot  has  always  been  considered  as  one  of  the  most  important 
regions  to  study.  This  will  be  the  better  appreciated  when  we  learn 
the  part  it  plays  in  station  and  in  locomotion,  the  influence  of  its 
beauties  and  defects  upon  the  aptitude  of  the  animal  for  diverse 
services,  and,  finally,  the  gravity  of  its  diseases. 

More  than  twenty-two  centuries  ago,  Xenophon  said  that  the  mem- 
bers are  the  very  first  parts  to  be  examined  in  the  horse :  "  A  house 
cannot  serve  any  purpose,  however  perfect  it  may  be  in  its  superior 


THE    FOOT.  313 

parts,  if  it  has  not  a  good  foundation ;  it  is  the  same  with  a  war- 
horse  ;  he  will  be  good  for  nothing  if,  being  perfect  otherwise,  he  has 
bad  legs  (members) ;  for  he  is  unable  to  use  whatever  good  points  he 
may  have. 

"  In  the  examination  of  the  legs,  look  first  at  the  foot !"  l 

This  is  the  same  idea  which  is  reproduced,  in  our  days,  in  the  forms 
of  aphorisms  in  all  treatises  on  the  exterior : 

"  No  foot,  no  horse  !"  said  Lafosse. 

"  No  foot,  no  horse  !"  repeat  the  English. 

Bracy-Clark  has  only  translated  the  thought  of  Xenophon  when 
he  said,  "  Incerta  basis  instabile  sedificium  !" 

The  foot  is  formed  by  a  certain  number  of  internal  parts,  covered 
by  a  modified  skin  admirably  adapted  to  its  special  functions,  as  well 
as  by  a  horny  envelope  known  under  the  name  hoof.  Let  us  examine 
them  rapidly. 

i.    Internal  Parts  of  the  Foot. 

These  parts  are  complex  and  numerous ;  their  relation  can  be  clearly  recog- 
nized in  a  vertical  and  antero-posterior  section  of  the  organ  (Fig.  106). 

Three  bones  form  its  osseous  base  and  permit  it  to  accomplish  its  various 
movements.  These  are :  the  third  phalanx  or  pedal  bone  (a) ;  the  second  phalanx, 
or  coronary  bone  (b) ;  finally,  the  navicular,  or  small  sesamoid  bone  (c),  situated 
behind  the  preceding  and  complementing  the  articulation  which  the  other  two 
form. 

Short,  strong  ligaments  consolidate  the  joint  on  the  sides,  while  two  wide 
fibre-cartilaginous  plates,  lateral  cartilages  of  the  third  phalanx,  intimately  united 
to  this  bone,  seem  like  two  elastic  and  diverging  springs,  placed  on  the  outside 
and  on  the  inside  of  this  bone,  to  prevent  it  from  descending  or  rocking  too  sud- 
denly in  the  hoof  at  the  moment  when  the  latter  strikes  the  ground. 

Two  strong,  expanded  tendons  terminate  upon  the  third  phalanx :  the  anterior 
(d)  carries  it  into  extension;  the  posterior  (e)  permits,  on  the  contrary,  the  flexion 
of  this  bone  upon  the  os  coronse  ;  it  glides  over  the  inferior  face  of  the  navicular 
bone  by  means  of  a  synovial  sheath  designated  under  the  name  small  sesamoid 
sheath  (better  called  the  navicular  sheath). 

Finally,  a  voluminous  fibro-elastic  cushion  (g),  called  the  plantar  cushion, 
bifurcated  behind  and  pointed  in  front  (Fig.  107,  B :  c?),  is  placed  under  the  flexor 
tendon,  to  which  it  serves  as  a  flexible  buffer  when  the  foot  has  reached  the 
ground.  All  pressure  upon  the  hoof  from  below  upward  tends  to  depress  it  and 
force  it  against  the  lateral  parts,  where  it  is  maintained  by  the  two  elastic  carti- 
lages indicated  above. 

Cutaneous  Envelope  of  the  Foot. — This  is  the  skin,  modified  in  its 
functions  and  external  characters,  which  covers  the  surface  of  all  these  organs. 
The  proof  of  this  can  be  easily  obtained  by  maceration  of  the  hoof,  or  the  arti- 
ficial removal  of  the  hoof  and  the  hairs  of  the  digital  extremity,  in  order  to  see 

1  X6nophon,  De  1'Equitation,  traduction  du  baron  de  Curnieu,  chap.  i.  p.  7.    Paris,  1840. 


314 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


the  integuments  in  direct  continuity  with  the  living  parts  which  might,  at  first 
sight,  be  mistaken  for  tissues  consisting  of  an  entirely  different  organization. 
Let  Fig.  107  represent,  by  A,  the  normal  foot  before  maceration ;  by  B,  the  same 


FIG.  106.— Longitudinal  and  median  section  of  the  foot. 

foot  after  prolonged  soaking  in  water.    The  epidermic  productions,  the  horn  and 
the  hairs,  naturally  detached,  leave  the  cutaneous  covering  intact. 

The  latter,  vulgarly  known  under  the  name  fleshy  envelope,  flesh  of  the  foot, 
is  remarkable  for  its  great  vascularity  and  the  abundance  of  its  nerves.  Hence 
it  is  very  susceptible  of  congestion  and  inflammation  as  soon  as  the  hoof,  which 
surrounds  it,  has  lost  its  physiological  properties.  All  its  lesions,  of  whatever 
nature  they  may  be,  are  always  accompanied  by  intense  pain,  the  tumefaction  of 
the  living  parts  becoming  impossible,  incased  as  they  are  in  a  resisting,  almost 
inextensible,  envelope. 


THE    FOOT. 


315 


The  cutaneous  envelope  of  the  foot,  also  called  the  keratogenous  membrane, 
is  subdivided  into  three  important  regions.  These  are : 

a.  The  coronary  band  or  cutidure  (Fig.  107,  B :  a)  is  an  enlarged,  cir- 
cular band  or  ridge,  crowning  superiorly  the  living  parts  and  terminating  behind 

B  A 


FIG.  107.— A.  The  normal  foot  before  maceration.    B   The  foot  after  maceration. 


by  a  continuity  with  the  glomes,  c,  of  the  plantar  cushion.  It  offers  along  the 
entire  length  of  its  superior  border  a  much  smaller  secondary  convexity,  known 
under  the  name  of  perioplic  band,  to  which  are  intrusted  special  functions. 

It  is  covered  over  the  remainder  of  its  surface  by  a  multitude  of  filamentous 
prolongations,  papillae,  easily  perceived  when  immersed  in  water.  These  pene- 
trate, by  so  many  foramina,  the  superior  border  of  the  wall.  Endowed,  physio- 
logically, with  the  elaboration  of  the  latter,  the  cutidure  constitutes  also,  by  its 
villosities  or  papillae,  very  rich  in  nerve  filaments,  a  veritable  organ  of  tactile  sen- 
sation for  the  horse,  which  can  thus  recognize,  with  all  the  perfection  desirable, 
the  quality  of  the  surface  upon  which  his  foot  rests. 

b.  The  podophyllous,  laminated,  or  lamellar  tissue  (Fig.  107,  B:b) 
comprises  the  whole  periphery  of  the  cutaneous  envelope  situated  below  the  coro- 
nary band.  This  tissue,  which  owes  its  name  to  the  numerous  laminae  or  longi- 
tudinal leaves  which  it  presents,  also  forms  a  whitish,  soft  horn,  composed  of 


316 


THE    EXTERIOR    CF    THE    HORSE. 


laminae  intimately  united  to  the  horn  which  descends  from  the  coronary  band. 

This  adherence  of  the  two  horny  productions  is  so  strong  that  it  resists  the  most 

prolonged  maceration.  Behind,  the  lam- 
inae are  reflected  into  each  of  the  lateral 
lacunae  of  the  plantar  cushion,  and  are 
in  relation  with  that  part  of  the  parietes 
of  the  hoof  which  is  called  the  bars. 

c.  The  villous  or  velvety  tissue 
(Fig.  107,  B :  d),  whose  aspect  approaches 
that  of  a  bushy  sod,  in  consequence  of 
the  innumerable  villosities  over  its  sur- 
face, covers  the  whole  of  the  plantar  sur 
face  of  the  third  phalanx  and  the  plantar 
cushion  or  fleshy  frog.  Like  those  of  the 
cutidure,  these  papillae  are  received  into 
the  numerous  foramina  of  the  subjacent 
horn  which  is  produced  by  the  most 
superficial  layer  of  the  velvety  tissue. 

2.  The  Hoof. 

The  hoof,  as  we  know,  is  the  exter- 
nal horny  envelope  of  the  foot,  or,  more 
properly  speaking,  the  nail  of  the  horse. 
Its  form  is  that  of  a  cone  with  its  base 
downward  and  the  summit  truncated 
obliquely  from  above  to  below  and  from 
before  to  behind  (Fig.  108).  Its  conical 
disposition,  however,  being  always  very 
slight,  is  only  very  apparent  when  it  is 
examined  from  in  front  or  behind. 
Viewed  in  profile,  it  has  more  the  form 
of  a  cylinder,  as  has  been  remarked  by 
Bracy-Clark l  (Fig.  109). 

Concave  below,  cleft  behind,  and 
bordered  superiorly  by  the  skin  of  the 
coronet,  the  hoof  is  composed  of  three 
distinct  pieces  intimately  united  to  one 
another.  These  pieces  can  be  separated 
the  one  from  the  other  by  prolonged 

maceration  or  boiling;  they  are  designated  under  the  names  watt,  sole,  and 
frog.  We  must  enter  into  a  special  study  of  each  in  order  to  understand  the 
mechanism  well. 

a.  The  Wall. — The  wall  or  paries  forms,  as  its  name  indicates,  the  circum- 
ference of  the  hoof,  and  includes  all  that  portion  of  the  horny  case  which  is  visi- 
ble when  the  foot  rests  upon  the  soil.  It  represents  a  large  crescent  of  horn, 
curved  on  itself  (Fig.  110),  placed  against  the  anterior  face  of  the  foot  on  which 


FIG.  108.— Foot  viewed  in  front. 


1  Bracy-Clark,  Recherches  sur  la  construction  du  sabot  du  cheval. 


THE    FOOT. 


317 


it  is  moulded,  and  folded  from  behind  forward  at  its  extremities.  The  latter  ter- 
minate in  a  point, 
converge  towards 
each  other  by  en- 
circling the  frog, 
and  unite  at  the 
point  of  the  lat- 
ter.1 

The  wall  is 
divided  into  sev- 
eral important  re- 
gions bearing  vari- 
ous names  (Figs. 
109  and  111). 

The  toe,  a,  is 
the  median  and  anterior  fifth  of  the  circumference. 

The  mammas,  b,  include  the  fifth  on  each  side  of  the  toe. 

The  quarter,  c,  also  double,  constitutes  the  posterior  fifth  of  the  lateral  sur- 


FIG.  109.— Profile  of  the  hoof. 


1 


FIG.  111.—  Inferior  face  of  the  hoof. 


k 


face,    immediately  behind 
the  preceding.  x 

The  heel,  d,  situated 
altogether  behind,  corre-  c 
sponds  to  the  point  where 
the  wall  becomes  inflected 
inward  to  constitute  the 
bars. 

Finally,  the  bar  or  stay, 
e  (Fig.  Ill),  visible  only  on 
the  raised  foot,  is  the  re- 
flected portion  representing 
the  extremities  of  the  wall, 
placed  between  the  frog 
and  the  sole. 

The  wall  offers  for  study,  also,  besides  these  subdivisions,  two  faces  and  two 
borders. 

The  faces,  distinguished  as  external,  e  (Fig.  109),  and  internal,  q  (Figs.  112 
and  113),  diminish  gradually  in  height  from  the  toe  to  the  extremity  of  the  bars. 


1  This  statement  is  entirely  erroneous,  because  the  bars  do  not  extend  beyond  tbe  posterior 
two-thirds  of  the  lateral  faces  of  the  frog,  which  I  have  repeatedly  observed.    (Harder.) 


318 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


The  first,  convex  transversely,  rectilinear  from  above  to  below,  is  smooth, 
polished,  and  shiny.  It  is  more  oblique  anteriorly  than  on  the  sides,  which  are 
themselves  unequally  inclined  and  incurvated.  The  internal  quarter  is  always 
more  straight  and  less  round  than  the  external. 

The  second,  concave  from  side  to  side,  is  covered  by  numerous  longitudinal 
laminae,  q,  of  white  horn  (ker  aphyllous  tissue),  which  are  solidly  dovetailed  into 
those  of  the  podophyllous  laminae  on  the  pedal  bone. 

As  to  the  borders,  the  inferior  (Fig.  Ill),  the  longest,  rests  upon  the  ground, 

whose  friction  and  wear  it 
sustains,  particularly  at  the 
toe  and  the  mammae,  in  the 
unshod  foot.  On  the  con- 
trary, bearing  upon  the 
superior  face  of  the  shoe  in 
the  domesticated  horse,  this 
border  is  removed  by  the 
farrier  at  each  shoeing ;  and 
the  latter  should,  in  this 
connection,  endeavor  to 
imitate  the  natural  condi- 
tions of  wear  and  tear. 

Its  thickness  diminishes  from  the  toe  to  the  heels,  and  then  augments  sud- 
denly at  this  point  to  form  the  bars.  Finally,  it  is  intimately  united  along  its 
whole  periphery  to  the  contour  of  the  sole. 

The  superior,  thin  and  oblique,  shorter  than  the  preceding,  and  bounded  ex- 
teriorly by  the  periople,  p  (Figs.  109  and  117),  is  transformed,  inwardly,  into 

a  semi-cylindrical  gutter,  g  (Figs. 
112  and  113),  which  traverses  its 
entire  length  and  lodges  the  cor- 
onary band.  It  is  at  the  region 
of  this  gutter,  called  the  cutigeral 
cavity,  which  becomes  effaced 
towards  the  region  of  the  bars, 
that  the  parietal  horn  is  elabo- 
rated by  the  cutaneous  thicken- 
ing in  question. 

b.  The  Sole. — The  sole  is  a 
large  horny  plate  (Fig.  Ill), 
deeply  notched  behind  for  the 


FIG.  112. — Antero-posterior  and  vertical  section  of  the 
hoof  (internal  face). 


in     D 


FIG.  113.— Transverse  section  of  the  hoof  (anterior 
part). 


reception  of  the  frog,  which  oc- 
cupies the  inferior  face  of  the 
foot.  Concave  inferiorly  and 

convex  superiorly,  it  fills  the  interval  which  exists  between  the  inferior  border 

of  the  wall,  the  bars,  and  the  point  of  the  frog. 

Its  superior  or  internal  face  (Fig.  114,  a)  is  studded  with  porosities  in  which 

are  embedded  the  numerous  papillae  of  the  velvety  tissue,  and  receives  the 

pressure  of  the  third  phalanx. 

The  inferior,/ (Fig.  Ill),  excavated,  arch-like,  and  in  contact  only  with  the 

inequalities  of  the  ground  in  the  wild  horse,  is  hard,  dry,  and  scaly. 


THE    FOOT. 


319 


Of  the  two  borders,  the  external  or  anterior  describes  almost  a  semi-circum- 
ference, and  unites  intimately  with  the  inferior  border  of  the  wall.  The  internal 
or  posterior,  on  the  contrary,  much  less  extensive,  simulates  a  re-entering  angle, 
like  the  letter  V,  whose  sides  are  adherent  to  the  bars  and  the  frog. 

c.  The  Frog. — The  frog  is  a  wedge  or  pyramid  of  soft  horn,  which  covers 
the  plantar  cushion,  whose  form  it  reproduces.  Lodged  in  the  angle  formed  by 
the  bars  and  the  posterior  border  of 
the  sole,  it  is  seen  to  be  single  in 
front  and  bifid  behind;  two  faces 
and  two  extremities  are  thus  assigned 
to  it. 

The  superior  or  internal  face, 
b  (Fig.  114),  is  the  reverse  of  the  in- 
ferior face  of  the  plantar  cushion; 
it  presents,  consequently,  a  marked 
relief  on  the  median  line,  known 
under  the  name  frog-stay,  m  (Figs. 
113  and  115),  and  on  each  side  two 
gutters,  n,  n,  converging  in  front, 
which  respond  to  the  branches  of 
the  plantar  cushion.  Like  the  sole, 
it  is  covered  by  a  large  number  of 
perforations,  which  receive  the  cor- 
responding villosities  of  the  velvety 
tissue. 

The  inferior  or  external  face 
(Figs.  Ill  and  116),  much  more 

important  with  regard  to  the  exterior,  is  hollowed  in  its  middle  by  a  cavity,  h, 
called  the  median  lacuna,  separating  the  two  branches,  i,  i}  from  each  other. 
Between  each  branch,  i,  and  the  bar  are 
the  lateral  lacunae,  j,j  (Figs.  Ill,  113,  and 
115) ;  finally,  the  body  of  the  frog  is  the 
point  of  juncture  of  its  two  branches. 

In  the  wild  state,  the  inferior  face  of 


FIG.  114.— Interior  of  the  hoof. 


e    j        i         h         i       j     e 

FIG.  115.— Transverse  section  of  the  hoof  (posterior 
part). 


FIG.  116.— Frog  and  periople. 


the  furuncular  branches,  in  conditions  of  nature,  is  upon  the  same  level  as  that 
of  the  heels  and  the  bars;   it  consequently  rests  upon  the  ground,  as  can  be 


320 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


readily  observed  by  the  examination  of  the  transverse  sections  represented 

in  Figs.  113  and  115,  practised  upon  unshod  feet. 

The  frog,  at  its  anterior 
extremity,  terminates  in  a 
point  (Figs.  Ill  and  116), 
which  is  lodged  in  the  sum- 
mit of  the  re-entering  angle 
of  the  sole. 

Its  posterior  extremity 
bifurcates  and  terminates  by 
two  enlargements,  o,  o  (Figs. 
109,  116,  and  117),  called 
the  glomes,  which  overhang 
the  heels  and  become  con- 
tinuous along  the  superior 
border  of  the  wall  by  a 
thin,  soft,  flexible  band  of 
horn,  jo,  little  pervious  to 
water.  "The  latter  produc- 
tion, known  under  the 

name  of  periople,  and  secreted  by  the  perioplic  band  of  which  we  have  already 


FIG.  117.— Hoof  whose  perioplic  band  is  detached. 


FIG.  118.— Fore-foot. 
A'  Profile.          B.  Posterior  view.          C.  Inferior  face. 

spoken,  is  nothing  else  than  the  prolongation  of  the  cutaneous  epidermis  upon 


THE    FOOT.  321 

the  hoof,  for  which  it  forms  a  sort  of  protective  varnish  against  the  variations  of 
dryness  and  moisture. 

Such  is,  in  a  summary  manner,  the  anatomical  construction  of  the 
foot  of  the  horse.  Let  us  now  see  the  peculiarities  concerning  this 
organ  if  it  be  examined  in  the  two  sorts  of  members. 

Differences  between  the  Fore-  and  Hind-Feet ;  the  Left 
and  the  Bight. — These  differences  are  secondary,  altogether  super- 
ficial, and  do  not  modify  the  preceding  details  which  bear  on  the 
general  organization. 

The  fore-foot  (Fig.  118,  A,  B,  C)  is  more  round,  more  spread 
out,  less  concave,  and  a  little  wider  than  the  hind;  the  heels  are  less 
separated ;  the  wall,  in  profile,  is  more  oblique ;  the  frog  is  less  long, 
but  more  voluminous,  thicker,  and  closer  to  the  ground. 


B  A 

FIG.  119.— Hind-foot. 
A.  Profile.          B.  Posterior  view.          C.  Inferior  face. 

The  hind-foot  (Fig.  119,  A,  B,  C),  on  the  contrary,  is  oval,  con- 
cave, with  higher  and  more  separated  heels,  and  a  more  vertical  wall ; 
the  branches  of  the  frog  are  less  thick  and  more  separated ;  the  bars, 
finally,  are  somewhat  stronger. 

Nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  distinguish  a  left  from  a  right  foot, 

21 


322  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

whether  they  belong  to  the  anterior  or  the  posterior  biped  :  the  external 
side  of  the  wall  is  constantly  more  inclined  and  more  convex  than  the 
internal ;  also,  the  inferior  border  of  the  wall  is  always  rounder  and 
stronger  on  this  side  than  on  the  other. 

B.— Properties  and  Mechanism  of  the  Foot. 

The  foot  of  the  horse,  such  as  we  have  described,  is  an  organ  which 
enjoys  certain  properties  inherent  both  to  the  nature  and  disposition 
of  the  tissues  which  compose  its  internal  parts  and  to  these  same 
qualities  possessed  by  the  horny  envelope.  It  is  on  account  of  these 
properties  that  the  foot  can  fulfil,  with  all  the  desirable  perfection,  the 
important  functions  which  devolve  upon  it. 

The  Horn :  Properties. — The  horn  is  a  hard,  compact,  resisting, 
elastic,  and  tenacious  substance,  which  is  softened  by  contact  with 
water  or  the  influence  of  dampness,  and  hardens  by  evaporation.  It 
is  very  combustible,  and  gives  origin,  when  burning,  to  abundant 
fumes  of  a  characteristic  odor  and  a  carbonaceous  adherent  matter 
which  protects  the  living  tissues  against  the  action  of  the  heat. 

a.  Origin. — The  diverse  regions  of  the  cutaneous  envelope  (kerato- 
genous  membrane,  flesh  of  the  foot)  of  the  foot  do  not  contribute  in 
the  same  manner  to  the  formation  of  the  horn.     As  our  colleague, 
M.  Arloing,1  judiciously  remarked,  some  are  keratogenous  and  others 
keratophorous.     Upon  the  first  (coronary  band,  velvety  tissue,  perioplic 
ring)  is  imposed  the  elaboration  of  the  nail,  properly  so  called ;  upon 
the  second  (podophyllous  tissue)  more  particularly  devolves  the  role  of 
support,  consolidation,  and  union.     Analogous  to  a  sort  of  physiologi- 
cal cement,  the  latter  establishes  the  relation  and  adherence  between  the 
horn  and  the  living  parts.     Its  production  is  represented  for  this  pur- 
pose by  the  white,  horny  laminse  situated  on  the  deep  face  of  the  wall, 
to  which  we  have  made  reference  above  under  the  name  keraphyllous 
tissue. 

Thus  the  wall,  the  sole,  and  the  frog  are  formed  by  the  keratogenous 
regions  of  the  ungual  matrix. 

b.  Structure. — Under  the  microscope,  the  horn  appears  consti- 
tuted by  a  great  number  of  parallel  tubes,  rectilinear  (wall,  sole)  or 
undulating  (frog),  which  originate  from  the  vascular  papillae  of  the 
cutidure  or  the  velvety  tissue  by  enveloping  them  in  the  most  intimate 
manner.     Altogether  comparable  to  hairs  of  a  large  calibre  placed  side 
by  side,  these  tubes  are  composed  of  a  multitude  of  horny  (epithelial) 


i  S.  Arloing,  Foils  et  Ongles,  these  d'agre"gation,  1880,  p.  111. 


THE    FOOT.  323 

cells,  disposed  concentrically  around  the  axis  in  numerous  layers  in  an 
imbricated  manner.  The  most  superficial  of  these  layers  affect  a  dif- 
ferent disposition :  the  cells  become  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of 
the  tube  instead  of  remaining  parallel,  and  in  this  manner  is  formed 
the  intertubular  horn,  a  veritable  cement  substance  which  agglutinates 
the  hair  cylinders  to  one  another. 

c.  Color. — The  horn  cells,  being  epithelial  in  nature  and  jformed 
from  the  cells  of  the  epidermis  of  the  skin,  the  hoof  assumes  a  white 
or  black  coloration  according  as  the  parts  which  form  it  are  or  are  not 
provided  with  pigment.     When  the  skin  of  the  coronary  band  is  red, 
the  wall  is  white  for  an  equal  extent ;  in  the  opposite  case,  it  remains 
black.     The  same  considerations  are  applicable  to  that  of  the  sole  and 
the  frog.  , 

d.  Consistency. — The  consistency  of  the  nail  is  in  direct  rela- 
tion with  the  degree  of  humidity  of  the  horn,  and  this  humidity  is 
obtained  by  the  foot  either  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere  or  from 
its  own  tissues. 

The  temperature  of  the  soil,  the  quality  of  the  pasture,  the  hygro- 
metric  state  of  the  air,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  nature  of  the 
climate,  are  so  many  causes  whose  influence  is  evident  and  which  it  is 
needless  to  dwell  upon. 

Likewise,  the  horn  becomes  more  supple  and  softer  as  it  is  exam- 
ined closer  to  the  living  tissues ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  more  resisting, 
brittle,  and  difficult  to  cut  as  it  is  more  distant.  The  superficial  parts 
of  the  frog,  the  sole,  and  the  wall,  the  inferior  border  of  the  latter, 
are  always  excessively  dry  compared  to  the  deeper  parts  of  these 
structures. 

These  diverse  conditions  of  the  hoof,  when  existing  in  extremes, 
offer  serious  evils  from  the  double  point  of  view  of  the  preservation 
of  the  foot  and  the  use  of  the  animal.  We  will  revert  to  this  in  the 
chapter  on  defects. 

Growth  and  Wear  of  the  Hoof. — New  layers  of  horn  are 
incessantly  secreted  at  the  level  of  the  villous  papillae  of  the  kerato- 
genous  apparatus,  pushing  down  the  older  layers  to  repair  the  loss 
occasioned  by  use.  It  is  clear  that  each  portion  of  the  hoof  grows 
according  to  the  direction  of  its  own  fibres :  the  wall  in  its  height,  the 
sole  and  the  frog  in  the  sense  of  their  thickness. 

This  growth  is  effected  slowly.  It  requires  about  eight  months 
for  the  production  of  a  completely  new  hoof.  All  loss  of  substance  to 
the  wall  is  therefore  reproduced  very  slowly ;  whence  the  lesson  is 
taught  that  we  should  avoid  this  loss  as  much  as  possible. 


324  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

In  the  wild  horse  the  continual  growth,  always  compensated  by  a 
proportional  loss  from  wear,  does  not  induce  a  deformity  of  the  nail  • 
but  the  case  is  different  in  horses  which  we  utilize  as  motors,  on 
account  of  the  shoe,  which  restrains  the  elasticity  of  the  foot  and 
disturbs  the  normal  growth  of  the  hoof.  In  such  cases  the  wall  may 
acquire  an  excessive  length  if  the  farrier  does  not  take  the  care  to 
shorten  the  whole  extent  of  its  inferior  border  to  the  limits  required  by 
the  natural  wear.  As  to  the  sole  and  the  frog,  their  mode  of  exfoliation 
is  such  that  their  thickness  never  becomes  excessive  ;  they  become  dried, 
cracked,  and  peel  off  spontaneously  in  more  or  less  voluminous  scales. 

The  secretion  of  the  horn  is  exaggerated  by  certain  influences,  as 
the  external  temperature,  the  state  of  health  or  of  disease,  the  nourish- 
ment, etc.  We  know  that  the  process  is  more  active  in  wTarm  than  in 
cold  countries,  in  summer  than  in  winter,  in  the  healthy  animal,  abun- 
dantly nourished,  than  in  the  diseased  animal,  suffering  from  bad 
hygiene  and  an  insufficient  alimentation.  This  is  so  true  that  the  hoof 
itself  often  testifies,  by  the  unequal  zones  of  which  it  is  the  seat,  of  the 
physical  conditions  or  suffering  which  the  horse  has  endured. 

Certain  rammy  or  circled  hoofs  have  in  most  instances  no  other 
origin. 

Elasticity  of  the  Foot. — The  digital  extremity  of  the  equidse, 
below  the  pastern,  is  disposed  so  as  to  disperse  or  break  the  con- 
cussions and  the  pressure  which  it  receives  during  locomotion  at 
the  moment  when  the  body,  at  great  speed,  comes  in  contact  with 
the  ground.  Not  only  is  the  quantity  of  movement  with  which  the 
body  is  animated  dispersed  and  decomposed  by  the  inclined  planes  of 
surface  and  of  segment,  but  it  is  destroyed  also  by  the  intervention  of 
the  elasticity  of  several  organs  which  we  will  recognize.  It  is  there- 
fore already  considerably  lessened  when  it  arrives  at  the  hoof,  where 
it  meets  several  elastic  apparatus,  whose  mode  of  functional  activity 
we  must  rapidly  review.  These  apparatus  are  :  the  perforans  tendon, 
the  lateral  cartilages,  the  plantar  cushion,  and  the  diverse  parts  of  the 
nail  (the  wall,  the  sole,  and  the  frog). 

The  first  effect  of  the  contact  of  the  foot  Avith  the  soil  is  the  dis- 
placement of  the  third  phalanx  from  above  to  below  in  the  interior  of 
the  horny  covering  (Fig.  106).  This  movement  of  the  bone  is  coun- 
teracted by  the  mechanical  action  of  three  very  evident  causes :  ante- 
riorly and  peripherally,  by  the  adherence  of  the  podophyllous  and 
keraphyllous  tissues ;  above  and  laterally,  by  the  resistance  of  the 
lateral  cartilages ;  finally,  below,  by  the  presence  of  the  plantar  apo- 
neurosis  and  the  plantar  cushion. 


THE    FOOT.  325 

The  remarkably  solid  union  between  the  hoof  and  the  sensitive 
tissues  is  due,  above  all,  to  the  intimate  dovetailing  of  the  sensitive 
laminae  with  the  horny  laminae.1 

These  two  sets  of  laminae,  however,  are  not  simply  placed  in  juxta- 
position in  a  parallel  manner,'  but  they  interdigitate  with  one  another 
by  the  numerous  secondary  prolongations  which  they  offer  on  their 
lateral  faces  and  which  are  disposed  after  the  manner  of  the  barbs  of  a 
feather  upon  its  stalk.  This  construction  admits  of  a  very  slight 
gliding  of  the  keraphyllous  laminae  of  the  wall  upon  those,  soft  and 
flexible,  of  the  podophyllous  tissue,  whence,  in  consequence,  the  first 
decomposition  of  force  at  their  level. 

Besides,  the  wedge  formed  by  the  third  phalanx  not  only  descends 
parallel  to  the  wall,  but  describes  a  sort  of  vertical  rotation,  from  the 
pressure  transmitted  by  the  second  phalanx  to  the  navicular  bone. 
This  pressure  is  first  exercised  upon  the  plantar  aponeurosis,  e,  which 
maintains  the  articular  angle,  and,  secondly,  upon  the  elastic  plantar 
cushion  situated  immediately  below.  Following  this,  there  exist  also 
at  this  place  two  new  structures  whose  elasticity,  now  called  into 
activity  at  the  moment  of  the  contact,  notably  diminishes  the  intensity 
of  the  reactions. 

But  the  phenomena  do  not  cease  here.  The  plantar  cushion, 
strongly  compressed  from  above  to  below  by  the  weight  of  the  body, 
tends  to  depress  the  plantar  arch  at  the  same  time  that  it  elongates 
transversely,  where  it  is  maintained  by  the  two  lateral  cartilages.  The 
latter,  flat,  wide,  supple,  and  very  elastic,  overlap  behind  the  superior 
border  of  the  wall  and  sensibly  separate  from  each  other  under  the 
influence  of  the  eccentric  pressure  which  they  receive  from  the  plantar 
cushion.  They  are  therefore  opposed,  in  their  turn,  to  the  rotation  of 
the  third  phalanx  in  the  interior  of  the  hoof. 

Thus,  little  by  little,  the  internal  parts  of  the  foot  decompose  the 
reactions  of  the  weight,  by  changing  their  form  and  relative  situation, 
and,  finally,  by  concentrating  their  action  upon  the  diverse  parts  of  the 
hoof,  especially  the  frog,  the  quarters,  and  the  sole. 

The   sole  is   flattened   and  becomes  less   concave   inferiorly ;    its 


1  M.  Fader  has  recently  called  attention  to  the  remarkable  manner  in  which  the  horny  case 
is  attached  to  the  living  parts.  According  to  him,  in  a  horse  of  medium  form,  the  laminae  of  the 
foot  being  supposed  to  have  an  area  of  a  square  decimetre,  the  total  surface  of  the  principal  and 
secondary  laminae,  which  he  has  had  the  patience  to  compute,  should  attain  about  one  square 
metre  !  It  can  then  be  readily  understood  how  this  system  of  dovetailing  of  the  laminae  is  cal- 
culated to  insure  the  intimate  union  of  the  horn  and  the  flesh,  to  decompose  the  concussion,  at 
times  enormous,  which  the  ungual  extremity  receives,  and  to  distribute  uniformly  the  pressure 
upon  the  whole  of  the  internal  face  of  the  wall. 

(See,  for  more  details,  Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  cent,  de  med.  vet<§r.,  annee  1888,  p.  494.) 


326  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

peripheral  border  expands  more  and  presses  against  the  wall,  whose 
thin  and  narrow  extremities  are  thus  feebly  separated  from  each  other. 

The  frog  is  depressed  to  the  same  degree;  its  median  lacuna 
enlarges;  its  branches  are  forced  outward  and  press  against  the  bars 
propped  against  them  after  the  manner  of  two  springs. 

Finally,  the  wall  reacts  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  simultaneous 
pressure  of  the  lateral  cartilages,  the  sole,  and  the  frog.  Its  superior 
border  and  its  quarters  expand. 

The  elasticity  of  the  hoof  is  manifested,  therefore,  by  a  slight 
movement  of  separation  and  approximation  of  its  heels,  whose  ampli- 
tude is  the  greater  in  proportion  as  the  frog  is  larger  and  more  related 
(frog  pressure)  to  the  ground,  conditions  always  realized  in  a  state  of 
nature  (Figs.  97  and  99). 

Hence  rational  shoeing  should  never  be  an  obstacle  to  the  opening 
of  the  posterior  cleft  of  the  foot  at  the  moment  of  the  contact  and  to 
its  closing  during  the  elevation. 

The  farrier,  when  paring  the  foot,  must  imitate  the  natural  usage 
and  respect  that  which  nature  spares :  it  strongly  rounds  and  shortens 
the  toe,  and  the  mammae  a  little  less ;  it  affects  the  sole  only  at  its 
anterior  circumference,  without  weakening  too  much  its  union  with 
the  wall ;  it  rounds  more  outwardly  than  inwardly  the  sharp  border 
of  the  latter ;  removes  from  the  sole,  the  frog,  and  the  bars  only  that 
which  is  eliminated  spontaneously.  The  foot  which  has  undergone 
natural  usage  has  been  adapted  to  locomotion,  and  bears  flatly  from 
the  mammae  to  the  heels.1 

Preservation  of  the  Form  of  the  Hoof.— The  hoof,  in  a 
state  of  nature,  the  Commission  d' hygiene  hippique2  also  says,  preserves 
its  form  and  its  qualities  under  the  following  conditions : 

1st.  Its  elasticity  is  complete  when  the  frog  is  in  full  relation  with 
the  ground. 

2d.  Its  constant  use  maintains  a  proper  length  and  a  regular 
axis. 

3d.  The  sole  has  all  its  thickness,  all  its  strength,  and  prevents 
contraction  of  the  heels. 

4th.  The  hairs  of  the  coronet  cover  and  protect  the  cutidure ;  the 
varnish  of  the  wall  (periople)  protects  the  horn  against  alterations  of 
dryness  and  humidity. 

5th.  Finally,  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  the  dew,  and  the  freshness 

1  Manuel  de  marSchalerie,  r£dige  par  les  soins  de  la  Commission  d'hygiene  hippique,  p.  105. 
Paris,  1876. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  55. 


THE    FOOT.  327 

of  the  pasture  maintain  it  in  a  state  of  humidity  favorable  to  the 
preservation  of  its  form. 

C. — Beauties  of  the  Foot. 

The  volume  of  the  foot  is  susceptible  of  variation  in  notable  pro- 
portions without  being  necessarily  considered  defective. English 

horses,  as  well  as  those  of  Algeria  and  Central  France,  generally  have 
a  small,  hard,  and  resisting  foot.  Those  of  the  common  races,  and  of 
a  lymphatic  temperament,  raised  in  low  and  damp  districts,  on  the 
contrary,  have  this  region  more  voluminous.  It  should,  in  all  cases, 
be  proportional  to  the  height  of  the  horse,  his  weight,  his  conforma- 
tion, and  his  special  aptitudes.  The  width  of  the  hock,  measured  from 
the  point  to  the  bend  of  this  articulation,  equals  that  of  the  hoof  from 
the  toe  to  the  heel,  or  at  least  very  nearly,  in  a  beautiful  draught-horse. 
It  is  always  more  considerable  in  pleasure-horses,  whose  feet  are  never- 
theless well  formed. 

"  The  unshod  foot  of  a  horse  bred  on  favorable  soil  and  sufficiently 
exercised  is  a  type  of  beauty  and  perfection.  Compared  to  the  foot 
that  has  been  shod,  it  is  large,  strong,  as  wide  as  long,  and  in  proper 
equilibrium  ;  it  constitutes  a  solid  support. 

"Viewed  in  front,  it  is  narrower  above  than  below,  more  expanded 
externally  than  internally,  and  of  equal  height  at  its  quarters. 

"  Viewed  in  profile,  the  line  of  the  toe  has  a  mean  inclination  ; l  the 
height  of  the  heels  is  equal  to  at  least  one-half  of  the  height  of  the 
toe. 

"Viewed  from  behind,  the  heels  of  the  standard  foot  are  well 
separated,  equal,  of  the  same  height,  and  fall  vertically  to  the  ground, 
especially  the  internal,  which  is  sensibly  more  vertical  than  the 
external. 

"  Viewed  from  below,  its  sole  is  hollow  and  thick,  the  frog  strong, 
healthy,  and  quite  hard ;  the  bars  neither  too  straight  nor  too  much 
inclined ;  the  toe  and  the  mammae  of  the  wall  and  the  sole  are  percep- 
tibly worn  from  usage. 

"  The  horn  of  the  standard  foot  is  black  or  dark  gray ;  the  wall, 
smooth  and  shiny,  shows  its  fibrous  structure." 2 

Such  are  the  characters  of  the  virgin  foot  which  we  have  repre- 
sented in  the  text.3 


1  About  50  degrees  for  the  front  feet  and  60  for  the  hind. 

2  Commission  d'hygiene  hippique,  loc.  cit.,  p.  56. 

3  See,  for  more  details,  Mathieu,  De  la  face  inf&rieure  du  sabot,  chez  le  cheval  vierge  de 
ferrure,  in  Recueil  de  m6decine  v£t6rinaire,  annee  1876,  p.  761. 


328  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


D. — Defects  of  the  Foot. 

Most  authors  have  unnecessarily  increased  the  list  of  defects  of  the 
foot,  by  comprising  in  it  a  certain  number  of  conformations  which  are 
nothing  else  than  the  expression  of  a  diseased  state  very  common  and 
very  variable  in  its  manifestations  :  contraction  of  the  hoof. 

The  foot  of  the  horse  may  be  defective  under  four  different  condi- 
tions which  receive  special  appellations  : 

,    1.  By  Defect  of  Volume  and  of  Proportion:  Foot  large, 
small,  narrow,  and  unequal. 

2.  By  Defect  of  Conformation :  Foot  flat,  full,  pumiced,  with 
bunions,  with  high,  low,  sloping  heels. 

3.  By  Defect  of  Axis :  outbow-foot,  cross-foot,  club-foot,  crooked 
foot,  pincard  foot. 

4.  By  Defect  of  Quality  of  the  Horn :  Foot  soft,  dry,  brittle, 
with  weak  heels. 

Let  us  rapidly  examine  each  one  of  these  defects  in  particular. 

i.    Defects  of  Volume  and  of  Proportion. 

Large  Foot. — An  excess  of  the  volume  of  the  foot  has 
serious  inconveniences  in  the  fast  horse  on  account  of  its  weight,  its 
width,  and  the  weight  of  the  shoe. 

The  step  is  heavy  and  awkward ;  the  reactions  upon  the  ground 
are  too  violent.  The  horse  is  liable  to  stumble,  pull  the  shoes,  and 
interfere ;  he  is  more  predisposed  to  contusions  of  the  sole  and  con- 
gestion and  inflammation  of  the  vascular  tissues;  the  horn  is  often 
brittle  and  retains  the  nails  poorly.  Finally,  a  large  foot  is  a  character- 
istic of  slow,  lymphatic  horses,  and  always  indicates  the  absence  of 
fine  breeding  and  good  qualities. 

These  objections  disappear  in  the  slow  draught-horse,  which,  from 
the  nature  of  the  pace,  is  firmer  on  his  feet,  and  jeopardizes  to  a  less 
degree  the  integrity  of  the  apparatus  of  support. 

He  must  have  a  wide-webbed  shoe,  with  the  toe  well  elevated, 
without  garniture  on  the  inner  side  (not  projecting  beyond  the  wall), 
and  slightly  projecting  on  the  outer  side. 

Small  Foot.— A  foot  too  small,  in  spite  of  its  neatness  and 
lightness,  is  chiefly  defective  from  the  excessive  reduction  which  it 
causes  in  the  width  of  the  base  of  support.  Its  horn  is  thin  and 
ordinarily  dry  and  brittle.  The  foot  is  easily  bruised,  contracted  at 
the  heels,  becomes  painful  after  prolonged  exercise,  and  is  always  more 


THE    FOOT.  329 

or  less  sensitive.  It  is  particularly  seen  in  the  meridional  races,  upon 
very  active  and  energetic  subjects.  It  is  the  more  defective  as  it  is 
more  disproportionate  with  the  volume  of  the  body  and  the  height  of 
the  animal. 

A  semi-covered  shoe  with  a  good  garniture — that  is  to  say,  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  border  of  the  wall  more  than  usual  externally  and 
internally — eases  the  foot  much.1 

Narrow  Foot. — This  variety  of  foot  differs  from  the  preceding 
by  the  meagre  development  of  its  transverse  diameter  as  compared  to 
its  antero-posterior  diameter.  Its  toe  acquires  an  exaggerated  length, 
which  augments,  consequently,  that  of  the  pastern  to  the  detriment  of 
the  tendons,  as  we  have  already  seen.  (See  Pastern,  page  301.)  It 
is  also,  like  the  small  foot,  subject  to  contraction, — that  is  to  say,  ap- 
proximation or  narrowing  of  its  posterior  parts ;  its  shoeing  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  small  foot. 

Unequal  Feet. — The  inequality  of  the  volume  of  the  feet 
would  be,  without  doubt,  more  rationally  studied  in  the  chapter  on  the 
diseases,  for  it  is  rarely  congenital.  Be  it  as  it  may,  such  a  conforma- 
tion should  be  considered  grave  by  reason  of  its  cause.  It  is  always 
the  smallest  foot  which,  in  this  case,  is  the  first  to  become  diseased  on 
account  of  its  relative  weakness.  Among  the  diseases  of  which  it  may 
be  the  seat,  contraction  of  the  quarters  and  the  heels  occupies,  without 
contradiction,  the  first  rank.  It  can  be  obviated  in  a  certain  measure 
by  applying  a  more  covered  (wider- webbed)  but  lighter  shoe  to  which  is 
given  garniture  proportional  to  the  reduction  of  the  volume  of  the 
hoof;  it  will  be  advisable  to  employ  small  nails. 

2.     Defects  of  Conformation. 

Flat  Foot. — This  foot  is  thus  named  on  account  of  the  flatness  of 
its  plantar  surface.  It  is  ordinarily  large,  spreading,  with  an  oblique 
wall,  low  heels,  very  inclined  bars,  and  a  voluminous  frog.  It  offers 
more  difficulties  in  shoeing  than  one  is  tempted  to  believe.  The  farrier 
should  apply  a  covered  shoe  sufficiently  light  and  concave,  in  order 
that  it  may  not  press  on  the  sole,  always  very  little  arched ;  he  will 
spare  the  heels  and  dress  the  frog  only  superficially ;  the  toe  should  be 
well  raised  up  and  the  heel  flat,  never  thickened ;  besides,  the  farrier 
should  drive  the  nails  at  a  suitable  inclination,  so  that  they  may  not  be 


1  The  French  system  of  shoeing  is  entirely  different  from  and,  it  would  seem,  inferior  to 
the  American. 


330  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

too  shallow  or  enter  the  vital  parts ;  two  conditions  which  require  great 
tact  on  his  part. 

For  the  pleasure-horse,  the  Charlier  shoe,  the  English  shoe,  or  the 
French  shoe  adjusted  after  the  English  manner,  with  a  plate  of  leather 
or  India-rubber  under  the  sole  to  protect  it,  should  be  employed. 

The  flat  foot  is,  indeed,  predisposed  to  contusions  of  the  heels,  the 
sole,  and  the  frog ;  it  is  unsightly  from  its  form  and  its  volume  ;  its 
great  width  causes  the  horse  to  interfere ;  it  takes  a  bad  grip  of  the 
pavement. 

Full  Foot. — This  defect  is  only  an  exaggeration  of  the  preceding. 
Here,  the  sole  does  not  have  the  least  concavity ;  it  is  almost  a  perfect 
plane  over  its  whole  surface.  This  foot  is  also  more  exposed  to  con- 
tusions, and  requires  a  very  wide  shoe  applied  with  small  nails  in  order 
to  avoid  pressing  on  or  pricking  the  sensitive  tissue. 

Pumiced  Foot. — In  the  pumiced  foot,  not  only  is  the  sole  not 
a  plane  surface,  but  it  is  bulging  inferiorly,  and  surpasses  the  inferior 
border  of  the  wall  almost  over  its  entire  periphery.  The  difficulties 
of  properly  shoeing  such  a  foot  increase  proportionally  with  the  degree 
of  the  defect.  The  farrier,  in  fitting  the  shoe,  if  he  is  not  very  skilful, 
alters  the  axis  of  the  member,  deforms  the  axis  of  the  foot  and  dimin- 
ishes the  security  of  its  contact  with  the  ground. 

This  vice  of  conformation  does  not  consist  in  a  simple  defect  of  the 
hoof  alone ;  it  extends  also  to  the  third  phalanx,  whose  inferior  face  is 
plane  or  convex.  A  horse  with  pumiced  feet  can  doubtless  render 
good  service,  but  as  soon  as  the  shoes  are  removed  he  cannot  perform 
labor,  the  plantar  surface  not  being  protected  from  the  incessant  contu- 
sions which  are  produced  by  the  roughnesses  of  the  soil.  He  should 
therefore  be  reserved  for  the  farmer  or  for  soft  roads. 

Foot  with  Bunions.— The  foot  is  thus  designated  (though 
incorrectly)  wrhen  there  exists  upon  its  inferior  face,  at  the  level  of  the 
quarters,  more  or  less  voluminous  eminences  (bunions),  due  to  an 
abnormal  conformation  of  the  third  phalanx  in  the  corresponding 
region.  This  defect  most  often  accompanies  full  and  pumiced  feet, 
and  is  more  frequently  observed  on  the  internal  side  than  on  the  external. 
It  predisposes  the  sole  to  bruises  from  the  convexity  of  which  the 
latter  is  the  seat,  and  exacts  the  most  accurate  and  careful  shoeing. 
The  web  of  the  shoe,  indeed,  should  be  wide  and  so  adjusted  in  regard 
to  the  tumor  that  it  can  be  protected  with  tar  and  oakum  maintained 
by  a  plate  of  leather.  If  the  animal  lose  the  shoe  on  the  road  he  will 
soon  fall  lame. 

Feet  that  are  fiat,  full,  pumiced,  and  with  bunions  are  peculiar  to 


THE    FOOT.  331 

the  anterior  members ;  the  sole  of  the  posterior  supports  less  weight 
and  is  always  more  concave. 

Foot  with  High  Heels.— This  conformation  (Fig.  120),  com- 
mon in  some  horses  in  meridional  France  (also  in  the  so-called  Arabian 
horses),  does  not  result,  as  might  be  believed,  from  an  excessive  height 
of  the  wall  at  the  heels.  The  sole  here  is  hollow  and  the  frog  elevated 
from  the  ground.  The  pastern,  from  the  fact  of  this 
bad  direction  of  the  foot,  becomes  straight,  renders 
the  animal  straight-jointed,  and  displaces  most  of  the 
weight  on  the  toe.  Many  horses  are  high-heeled  from 
the  neglect  of  the  farrier  to  lower  the  heels  before 
resetting  the  shoe,  and  hence  in  the  long  run  they  be-  FIG.  120. 

come  hoof-bound.      Such   cases  are  not  difficult  to 
remedy ;  it  suffices  to  pare  off  the  heels  regularly  and  give  them  a 
proper  height.     If  the  defect  is  congenital,  we  must  content  ourselves 
with  the  foot  such  as  it  is,  and  only  endeavor  to  prevent  the  increase 
of  the  defect  in  the  shoeing,  by  employing  a  shoe  thin  at  the  heels. 

Foot  with  Low  Heels.— This  form  of  the  foot  (Fig.  121)  is 
open  to  objections  of  an  inverse  order.     The  weight  of  the  body  bears 
upon  the  heels,  which,  ordinarily  weak  and  sensi- 
tive, are  thus  easily  bruised  and  contused.     There 
results,  besides,  a  more  marked  inclination  of  the 
pastern,  which  fatigues  the  tendons,  and  this  so 
much  more  as  the  toe  is  longer  and  the  horse 
longer-jointed.     The  shoeing,  in  this  case,  should  FlG.  12i. 

aim  at  restoring  the  foot  to  its  normal  axis  and, 
at  the  same  time,  protect  the  posterior  part  of  the  heels.  It  is  with 
this  object  in  view  that  we  recommend  a  semi-covered  wide-heeled  shoe ; 
nor  should  the  heel  ever  be  thickened,  as  is  the  usual  tendency  to 
recommend.  It  is  better  to  raise  the  heels  by  interposing  between 
them  and  the  shoe  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  leather,  of  India-rubber, 
or  again,  by  the  application  of  the  English  patents ;  in  a  word,  of 
elastic  pads  incapable  of  producing  contusions.  If  the  frog  is  well 
developed,  it  will  be  judicious  to  alternate  the  covered-heel  shoe  with 
the  bar  shoe. 

Foot  with  Sloping  Heels.— The  heels  in  this  conformation 
are  much  inclined  forward  and  acquire  an  abnormal  length,  a  disposi- 
tion which  leads  to  all  the  evil  results  of  a  low-  and  long-jointed 
pastern. 

The  indication,  therefore,  is  to  shorten  the  foot  over  its  whole  area, 
particularly  towards  the  toe  and  the  mammse.  Precaution  in  paring  it 


332  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

must,  however,  be  employed,  for  the  toe  is  not  as  long  as  it  might 
appear.  The  latter  should  be  shortened  as  much  as  possible.  The 
shoe  should  be  closely  fitted  at  the  toe  and  well  sunk  into  the  wall  at 
this  point ;  its  extremities  also  must  be  kept  somewhat  long.  Plates 
of  leather  under  the  heels  or  the  English  patents,  by  tilting  the  hoof 
forward,  will  contribute  to  re-establish  its  normal  axis. 

Low  and  sloping  heels  are  phenomena  peculiar  to  the  fore-feet. 

3.     Defects  of  the  Axis. 

Outbow-footed. — The  outbowed  foot  is  that  in  which  the 
toe  is  turned  outward ;  it  is  more  frequently  observed  in  the  posterior 
members  than  in  the  anterior.  We  have  already  seen  that  this  confor- 
mation is  associated  in  most  instances  with  a  deviation  of  the  part  of 
the  member  below  the  knee  or  the  hock ;  but  it  may  also  be  due  to  a 
mere  change  in  the  axis  of  the  foot.  In  either  case  the  hoof  will  soon 
show  the  effects  of  this  vicious  direction  of  its  axis.  The  internal 
quarter,  pressed  towards  the  median  line,  and  consequently  more  sur- 
charged, has  a  tendency  to  contract  and  press  upon  the  living  tissues 
below.  The  animal,  besides,  almost  invariably  strikes  the  opposite 
member  with  this  quarter,  as  is  well  known.  This  is  the  principal 
accident  which  the  farrier  is  called  upon  to  prevent.  Paring  the 
external  quarter  more  will  ease  the  internal,  which  is  always  weaker ; 
the  axis  will  thus  be  regulated  in  the  greatest  measure  possible.  The 
shoe  must  not  project  beyond  the  wall  at  the  external  mamma  or  at 
the  internal  quarter ;  the  heels  should  be  of  equal  length  and  width. 
It  is  only  after  several  shoeings  that  certain  feet  may  be  straightened.1 

Parrot-toed  Foot,  Cross-footed. — This  is  a  defect  diametri- 
cally opposed  to  the  preceding,  and  has  inverse  deformities.  Here  it 
is  the  toe  which  is  turned  inward,  and  much  more  frequently  in  the 
fore-  than  in  the  hind-foot,  The  internal  quarter  is  stronger  and  rela- 
tively more  prominent  than  the  external,  the  heel  of  which  is  contracted 
and  bruised  quite  easily.  The  horse,  in  this  case,  interferes  with  the 
mamma.  Hence,  before  the  shoe  is  adjusted,  the  internal  mamma  and 
the  anterior  part  of  the  corresponding  quarter  must  be  well  rasped  off, 
so  as  to  lower  that  side  of  the  foot.  The  shoe  will  have  to  be  close- 
fitting  on  the  inside,  well  "  garnished"  and  slightly  covered  on  the  out- 
side ;  the  garniture  of  its  heels  should  be  equal  on  both  sides. 

Crooked  Foot.— The  crooked  foot  is  that  in  which  the  hoof  is 


1  This  defect  is  so  obstinate  to  treatment  by  shoeing  because  it  is  often  dependent  upon 
anatomical  alterations  of  the  phalanges  and  their  articular  surfaces,  which  cannot  be  modified. 


THE    FOOT.  333 

inclined  to  the  one  side  or  to  the  other.  This  defect,  rarely  congenital, 
depends  rather  upon  improper  shoeing.  In  the  first  case,  it  is  caused 
by  a  vicious  axis  of  the  superior  parts  of  the  member,  and  very  often 
accompanies  the  outbowed  and  the  parrot-toed  foot.  At  other  times  it 
is  observed  in  a  horse  simply  too  close  or  too  open  in  front  or  behind. 
In  the  second  case,  it  is  due  to  excessive  paring  by  the  farrier  of  one 
of  the  two  quarters. 

However  it  may  be,  the  evil  effects  remain  the  same;  the  lower 
side  bears  the  most  weight;  the  soft  parts  here  are  compressed  and 
bruised,  and  the  quarter  becomes  tilted  to  one  side.  The  shoeing 
should  endeavor  to  re-establish  gradually  the  normal  axis,  by  sparing 
the  deformed  quarter,  protecting  it  with  the  wide-heeled,  projecting 
shoe,  if  this  be  possible,  and,  finally,  by  lowering  the  normal  quarter. 

Foot  Pincard  or  Rampin  (Fig.  122). — Some  make  a  difference 
between  the  pincard  and  the  rampin  foot.  Still,  these 
two  are  only  degrees  of  the  same  defect,  characterized 
especially  by  the  foot  touching  the  ground  only  with  the 
toe.  This  disposition  allows  the  heels  to  acquire  a 
great  height.  This  defect  is  peculiar  to  the  hind  feet, 
where  it  is  in  reality  only  an  exaggeration  and  contin- 
uation of  the  attitude  which  these  members  affect  pIG.  122. 
during  the  efforts  of  violent  traction.  It  often  coexists 
with  a  low-jointed  pastern.  The  rampin  horse  wears  his  shoe  very 
rapidly,  but  only  at  the  toe ;  his  shoeing  is  expensive,  and  he  is 
exposed  to  fissures  of  the  wall  called  toe-cracks,  on  account  of  the 
excess  of  weight  which  this  region  of  the  foot  must  support.  We 
believe,  with  Lecoq,  that  most  of  the  corrective  measures  resorted  to  in 
the  shoeing  only  aggravate  this  defect.  Let  us  say,  nevertheless,  that 
we  are  in  the  habit,  in  order  to  cure  it,  to  save  the  heels  and  employ 
the  pincard  shoej  with  corks  on  the  heels,  whose  length  is  in  relation 
with  the  distance  of  the  foot  from  the  ground. 

Club-Foot. — "  There  is  not  much  accord,"  says  Lecoq,1  "  upon 
the  true  meaning  of  this  word  as  applied  to  the  foot  of  the  horse. 
Some,  comparing  this  malformation  to  the  same  species  of  deformity 
existing  in  the  human  subject,  designate  by  the  term  club-foot  any  foot 
that  is  strongly  deviated  outward  or  inward.  This  is  a  very  rare  con- 
dition, since,  as  Girard  has  observed,  a  horse  thus  conformed,  not  being 
able  to  render  any  service,  is  promptly  sacrificed.  Others  designate 
under  the  name  club-foot  all  the  deformities  of  the  horse's  foot  in 

1  F.  Lecoq,  Ext6rieur  du  cheval,  p.  175,  5e  6d.,  Paris,  1876. 


334  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

which  the  coronet  as  well  as  the  fetlock  are  strongly  displaced  forward, 
from  the  retraction  of  the  ligaments  and  the  tendons  primarily,  and 
the  elongation  of  the  heels  secondarily.  This  defect  sometimes  exists 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  anterior  face  of  the  wall  touches  the  ground 
at  each  step. 

"  When  a  club-foot  is  of  long  standing,  a  modification  of  the  artic- 
ular surfaces  of  the  phalanges  takes  place,  and  the  disease  is  then 
incurable.  If,  however,  the  accident  is  recent  and  due  especially  to 
contraction  of  the  flexor  tendons,  the  horse  still  has  some  value,  for  the 
operation  of  tenotomy  can  sometimes  straighten  the  foot,  though  the 
member  may  not  entirely  regain  its  original  strength." 


4.     Defects  of  Quality  of  the  Horn. 

Soft  Foot. — The  foot  is  thus  characterized  when  the  horn  is  soft, 
without  consistency,  and  yielding  to  pressure.  The  wall  and  the  sole, 
•in  spite  of  the  large  volume  of  the  hoof,  are  thinner  than  in  ordinary 
conditions.  Hence  such  a  foot  is  difficult  to  shoe. 

The  clinches  of  the  nails  easily  tear  through  the  soft  horn  and  will 
not  hold  the  shoe.  The  foot  is  easily  pricked  in  driving  the  nail,  on 
account  of  the  thinness  of  the  wall.  Finally,  the  horse  is  subject,  for 
the  same  reason,  to  contusions  of  the  sole,  contusions  which  are  so 
much  more  frequent  as  the  foot  is  heavy  and  the  knee-action  high. 
The  shoeing  consists  of  a  light,  semi-covered  shoe,  to  be  nailed  on  with 
thin  nails. 

Dry  Foot. — The  dry  foot  is  one  whose  horn  is  hard,  dry,  and 
brittle.  The  latter  grows  slowly  and  breaks  readily  when  the  foot  is 
unshod  or  when  too  heavy  nails  are  employed  in  fastening  the  shoe. 
Exposed  to  the  same  accidents  as  the  soft  foot,  it  must  be  dealt  with  in 
the  same  cautious  way. 

Broken  Foot. — The  foot  is  called  broken  when  more  or  less 
extensive  areas  of  the  wall  along  its  plantar  border  are  broken  or 
chipped  off,  so  as  to  interfere  with  the  regular  distribution  of  the  nails. 

In  the  unshod  horse,  the  best  hoof  is  susceptible  of  breaking  acci- 
dentally, but  most  often  this  defect  depends  upon  a  poor  quality  of  the 
horn,  which  is  too  soft  or  too  brittle.  It  is  more  serious  than  is 
believed,  on  account  of  the  extreme  care  which  it  demands  from  the 
farrier.  The  nail-holes  of  the  shoe  can  only  be  placed  at  those  points 
where  the  wall  is  still  intact.  The  nails  must  not  be  driven  too  close 
to  the  edges  under  the  penalty  of  breaking  the  horn  still  more.  The 
latter  circumstance  would  necessitate  too  many  shoulders  or  tongues  on 


THE    FOOT.  335 

the  shoe,  sunk  into  the  horn  at  the  toe  or  the  mammae,  to  supply  the 
insufficiency  of  the  nails. 

The  broken  hoof  is  sometimes  restored  to  its  normal  form  by  the 
application  of  gutta-percha  at  the  points  where  this  is  necessary.  It 
is  then  possible  to  apply  a  normal  shoe  provided  with  an  ordinary 
number  of  nail  holes  equally  distant  from  each  other.  It  is  not  rare 
to  see  an  animal  whose  foot  has  thus  been  treated  offered  fbrjale ;  at 
times  even  the  nails  at  the  level  of  the  broken  parts  are  simply  riveted 
on  the  shoe  at  these  places  and  the  irregularities  filled  with  gutta- 
percha  or  some  other  coating.  The  examination  of  the  hoof  can  there- 
fore never  be  too  minute. 

Foot  with  Weak  Heels. — This  is  a  variety  of  the  low-heeled 
foot,  in  which  the  posterior  parts  are  defective  by  reason  of  an  insuffi- 
cient consistency  of  the  horn,  and  are  consequently  predisposed  to  con- 
tusions of  all  kinds.  The  shoe,  in  such  cases,  should  protect  the  parts 
which  lack  strength,  without  bearing  on  them,  either  by  means  of  a 
wide-heeled  shoe,  or,  if  the  frog  be  well  developed,  the  application  of 
a  bar  shoe. 

E. — Accidents  occasioned  by  Shoeing. 

The  conditions  of  domestication  of  the  horse  make  it  necessary  for 
those  who  employ  him  to  protect  the  four  hoofs  by  a  shoe,  a  sort  of 
incomplete  metallic  sole,  destined  to  insure  them  against  the  excessive 
wear  of  the  horn,  which  would  otherwise  soon  impair  their  functional 
usefulness. 

Shoeing,  farriery,  is  the  art  which  consists  in  the  methodical 
application  to  the  foot  of  the  shoe  or  the  protecting  apparatus  of 
which  we  have  spoken.  It  is,  in  most  instances,  not  very  difficult  to 
perform  this  operation,  but  there  are  some  cases  in  which,  either  from 
the  incompetency  and  unskil  fulness  of  the  farrier  or  the  conformation 
of  the  foot  itself,  shoeing  causes  more  or  less  grave  accidents,  in  regard 
to  which  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  a  simple  enumeration. 

Pricking. — Pricking  is^the  penetration  into  the  sensitive  tissues 
of  a  nail  which  is  driven  too  closely  by  the  farrier.  Again,  it  can  be 
caused  by  the  division  of  a  flawy  nail,  of  which  one  segment  enters 
the  living  tissues  (the  quick),  while  the  other  issues  on  the  outer  side. 
Its  gravity  varies  with  the  length  of  time  the  nail  remains  in  the  soft 
parts.  If  the  nail  be  drawn  out  again  immediately,  it  is  without 
gravity  ;  if,  however,  the  direction  of  the  nail  be  not  recognized,  it 
may  lead  to  serious  complications.  The  nail  should  be  removed  and 
not  reinserted. 


336  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Pricking  is  sometimes  concealed  by  the  farrier,  who  rivets  the  nail 
upon  the  shoe  at  the  level  of  the  seat  of  injury. 

Compression  by  the  Nail. — This  condition  is  produced  when 
the  nails  are  driven  too  deeply  (too  so/if), — that  is  to  say,  too  close  to 
the  sensitive  tissues,  which  are  thus  more  or  less  compressed.  This 
accident  happens  quite  often  in  soft  or  weak  feet,  in  consequence  of  the 
thinness  of  their  horn.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  this  accident  by  making 
the  horse  trot,  and  to  remedy  it  by  removing  the  shoe  immediately. 

Compression  by  the  Shoe. — Compression  of  the  sole  occurs 
when  the  shoe,  which  is  badly  fitted,  bears  in  some  places  on  a  weak 
or  thin  sole.  Compression  also  takes  place  when  the  farrier  has  pared 
the  sole  too  much  or  draws  the  shoe  too  tightly.  Certain  defective 
feet  (flat  and  pumiced  feet)  are  more  particularly  predisposed  to  this 
accident. 

Heated  Sole. — The  sole  is  called  heated  when  it  has  been  sub- 
jected for  too  long  a  time  to  the  contact  of  the  red-hot  shoe ;  it  is  the 
more  predisposed  as  it  is  less  concave. 

Burnt  Sole. — The  sole  upon  which  has  been  applied  for  too  long 
a  time  a  shoe  simply  red  is,  on  the  contrary,  qualified  burnt.  In  the 
preceding  case  the  abundant  carbonaceous  layer  formed  by  burnt  horn 
has  protected  the  foot  against  the  injurious  effect  of  the  heat.  Here, 
there  is  very  little  charring  of  the  horn,  which  permits  the  heat  to  pen- 
etrate quickly  and  deeply  into  the  living  tissues. 

The  burnt  sole  is  rebellious  to  treatment. 

Excessive  Paring  of  the  Foot.— When  the  foot  is  pared  too 
much  it  acquires  an  exaggerated  sensibility  from  the  excessive  thinness 
given,  by  the  farrier's  knife,  both  to  the  sole  and  the  inferior  border 
of  the  wall. 

Cuts  from  the  Hoof-Knife  and  the  Butteris.— These  are 
accidents  produced  by  unskilful  or  unintelligent  employment  of  these 
instruments  of  farriery.  Their  gravity  is  in  relation  with  the  depth, 
the  nature  and  the  seat  of  the  wounds  which  result  from  them.  They 
are  sometimes  complicated  by  red  excrescences,  excessive  granulations 
of  the  subjacent  tissue,  known  under  the  name  of  cherries. 

F.— Diseases  of  the  Foot. 

"  These  numerous  and  varied  diseases,"  says  J.  Girard,1  "  can  be 
produced  by  prolonged  travelling  on  dry,  hard,  rough,  and  stony 
roads ;  by  concussion,  the  contact  of  external  bodies  and  even  of  one 


1  J.  Girard,  Traite  du  pied,  2e  ed.,  p.  95,  Paris,  1828. 


THE    FOOT.  337. 

foot  with  the  other ;  by  the  deviation  of  some  of  the  superior  regions 
or  articulations ;  and,  finally,  by  the  shoeing. " 

In  all  diseases  of  the  foot  the  horse,  \vhen  exercised  at  a  walk  or 
the  trot,  does  not  make  a  free  and  equal  contact  with  the  ground  upon 
the  whole  of  the  plantar  surface  of  the  foot ;  certain  movements  are 
precipitated,  others  are  effected  in  preference  upon  the  toe,  upon  one 
quarter  more  than  the  other,  or  again  upon  the  heels. 

We  must  confine  ourselves,  not  to  go  beyond  our  domain,  to  the 
enumeration  of  the  principal  of  these  diseases,  by  simply  mentioning  in 
what  they  consist. 

Contraction  of  the  Foot. — Contraction  of  the  foot  (hoof-bound)  is 
the  more  or  less  marked  contraction  of  the  foot  in  its  posterior  parts. 

It  is  distinguished  as  true  and  false,  according  to  the  form  which  it  assumes. 

In  true  contraction  the  diminution  of  the  lateral  diameter  affects  the  quarters 
as  well  as  the  heels,  which  are  always  very  high ;  and  hence  such  a  foot  is  qual- 
ified mule's  foot.  As  a  consequence  of  the  compression,  the  sole  becomes  more 
concave  and  the  frog,  in  a  great  measure,  becomes  atrophied. 

It  is  nearly  always  acquired,  and  occurs  more  frequently  in  meridional 
horses  than  in  any  others.  The  causes  are  numerous,  but  all  can  be  traced  to 
one  of  two  factors :  desiccation  of  the  horn  or  interference  with  its  normal  elas- 
ticity. 

In  false  contraction,  known  under  the  name  contraction  of  the  heels  (narrow 
heels,  compressed  heels,  etc.),  the  hoof  preserves  its  ordinary  form,  except  in  the 
region  of  the  heels,  which  are  more  or  less  drawn  towards  each  other  without 
attaining  the  excessive  height  which  they  assume  in  true  contraction. 

Inflammation  of  the  Prog,  Thrush. — These  are  two  inflammatory  con- 
ditions of  the  frog,  which  are  accompanied  by  a  separation  of  the  horn,  with  a 
blackish,  purulent,  and  very  fetid  discharge,  emanating  from  the  median  and 
the  lateral  lacunae,  principally  from  the  former,  especially  when  in  feet  in  which 
it  is  prolonged  between  the  two  heels. 

Canker. — In  canker  the  horn  of  the  frog  first,  and  then  that  of  the  sole, 
softens,  separates,  and,  finally,  is  shed,  thus  exposing  the  living  tissues,  whose 
papillae,  very  hypertrophied,  form  fleshy  vegetations,  often  voluminous,  known 
under  the  name/ci.  These  alterations  of  the  keratogenous  membrane,  which 
have  a  tendency  to  spread  to  the  surrounding  healthy  tissues,  discharge  an  abun- 
dant caseous  secretion  of  a  very  fetid  odor. 

Seams. — Seams  (cracks)  are  longitudinal  fissures  of  the  wall,  which  extend 
from  the  inferior  border  to  the  coronary  band  or  to  the  vicinity  of  the  latter. 

They  are  called  complete  when,  involving  the  entire  length  and  thickness  of 
the  wall,  they  extend  to  the  podophyllous  tissue ;  they  are  qualified  incomplete 
in  the  contrary  case. 

Relatively  to  their  seat,  they  are  distinguished  as  follows :  quarter  seam,  the 
complete  fissure  of  the  quarter,  which  is  more  common  in  the  anterior  members, 
and  on  the  internal  side  more  than  the  external  side. 

S?am  of  the  toe  (toe-crack),  fissure  of  the  toe;  it  occurs  more  frequently  in 
the  hind-  than  the  fore-foot,  and  as  it  seems  to  divide  the  foot  into  two  lateral 
moieties,  the  animal  is,  on  this  account,  sometimes  called  cloven-footed. 

22 


338  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Seam  of  the  bars  affects  the  latter  and  breaks  their  continuity.  This  is  one 
of  the  accidents  of  the  foot  most  rebellious  to  treatment. 

We  will  also  say,  in  this  connection,  that  seams  or  cracks  are  sometimes  con- 
cealed, in  animals  offered  for  sale,  either  by  a  coating  of  gutta-percha,  putty,  wax, 
or  simply  hoof  ointment.  They  are  called  barred  when,  as  a  means  of  treatment, 
their  borders  are  approximated  by  the  aid  of  special  iron  clasps. 

Corns. — Corns  are  contusions  of  the  sole  in  the  region  comprised  between 
the  wall  and  the  bars.  They  are  common  in  feet  with  low  and  weak  heels, 
especially  in  contracted  feet. 

They  are  called  dry  when  the  horn  which  covers  them  is  of  a  yellowish 
color  and  stained  with  blood. 

A  corn  is  moist  when  the  exudation  of  blood  and  serum,  in  consequence  of 
the  bruising,  is  more  abundant,  renders  the  horn  softer,  and  even  separates  it 
over  a  small  area  from  the  tissues  below. 

Finally,  it  is  called  suppurating  whenever  the  alteration,  not  confined  to  a 
simple  ecchyrnosis,  has  occasioned  inflammation  and  suppuration  of  the  subjacent 
tissues. 

Bruised  Sole. — Bruised  sole  is  an  accident  of  the  same  nature  as  that 
of  corns.  It  only  differs  from  the  latter  in  that  it  consists  of  a  contusion  of  a 
more  or  less  large  area  of  the  sole  at  the  quarters  or  at  the  toe.  According  to  the 
objective  characters  of  the  horn,  it  is  also  qualified  dry,  moist,  or  suppurating. 

Concussion  of  the  Hoof. — Ancient  veterinarians  have  designated  under 
this  name  a  localized  congestive  state  of  the  keratogenous  membrane  of  the  foot 
resulting  from  external  violence,  most  frequently  the  blows  of  the  farrier's 
hammer. 

This  alteration  differs  only  from  that  of  laminitis  in  that  it  is  due  to  the 
influence  of  purely  local  causes.  Anatomically  speaking,  they  are  identical. 

Laminitis. — Laminitis  (founder)  is,  primarily,  a  congestion  of  the  kerato- 
genous apparatus  in  the  region  of  the  toe  and  the  mammae. 

Under  the  pressure  of  the  serous  and  sanguineous  exudation  which  results 
therefrom,  the  podophyllous  tissue  (flesh  of  the  foot},  tightly  compressed  between 
the  wall  and  the  third  phalanx,  becomes  extremely  sensitive,  which  obliges  the 
animal  to  walk  upon  the  heel,  or  even  renders  all  support  by  the  foot  impossible. 
The  founder,  in  this  case,  is  called  acute,  for  it  is  accompanied  by  phenomena 
generally  very  intense. 

If  the  temperature  fall,  the  symptoms  ameliorate,  and  inflammatory  phe- 
nomena gradually  invade  the  tissues  pre- 
viously congested,  the  keratogenous  mem- 
brane, at  this  level,  becomes  the  seat  of 
an  abnormal  and  exaggerated  secretory 
function,  characterized  by  a  profound  de- 
formity of  the  hoof  and  a  decided  altera- 
tion in  the  form  and  relation  of  the  inter- 
nal osseous  structures.  It  is  this  which 
FIG.  123.  constitutes  chronic  founder  or  laminitis. 

The  foot,  in  such  cases,  assumes  an 

oval  form  and  the  wall  is  decidedly  rammy  ;  its  toe  acquires  an  enormous  thick- 
ness and  becomes  convex  ;  its  heels  are  high  and  touch  the  ground  first  in  loco- 
motion. The  sole,  compressed  by  the  plantar  border  of  the  third  phalanx,  loses 


THE    FOOT.  339 

its  concavity ;  it  presents,  towards  the  toe,  a  swelling  in  the  form  of  a  crescent ; 
its  peripheral  border,  finally,  is  separated  from  the  inferior  border  of  the  wall  at 
the  toe  and  the  mammse  by  a  voluminous  wedge  of  podophyllous  horn.  The 
latter  may  be  solid,  or  it  may  contain  an  internal  cavity  (seedy-toe),  filled  by  a 
reddish,  dry,  porous  mass  formed  by  the  residue  of  the  serous  and  bloody  exu- 
date  from  the  podophyllous  tissue,  which  the  farrier  at  times  fraudulently 
endeavors  to  conceal  with  the  shoe. 

Seedy-Toe. — This  condition  is  not  always  due  to  founder,  because  the 
cavity  by  which  it  manifests  itself  may  exist  under  the  sole  as  well  as  under  the 
wall.  This  allows  us  to  distinguish  two  varieties  of  seedy-toe :  that  of  the  sole 
and  that  of  the  ivall.  The  first  is  much  less  grave  than  the  second ;  it  is  occa- 
sioned by  strong  contusions  of  the  velvety  tissue ;  percussion  of  the  sole  over 
this  region  is  resonant  as  soon  as  the  cavity  is  formed. 

False  Quarter. — "False  quarter  is  especially  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  the  wall  at  the  quarter,  in  consequence  of  an  operation  or  an  accident 
sacrificing  the  coronary  band.  While  it  lasts  there  is  nothing  in  this  region  but 
the  horn  secreted  by  the  podophyllous  tissue."  *  The  foot  is,  in  this  case,  quite 
frequently  restored  by  a  false  quarter  made  of  gutta-percha. 

Avalure  and  Circles. — By  the  term  avalure  is  meant  the  normal  descent 
or  growth  of  the  horn,  from  the  fact  of  the  continual  formation  over  the  whole 
periphery  of  the  cutidure.  It  becomes  morbid,  pathological,  when  it  takes  place 
in  an  irregular  manner  only  over  a  portion  of  the  wall,  or  over  the  whole  area, 
which  qualifies  it  entire  or  partial;  the  animal  then  grows  a  neiv  foot  or  a  new 
quarter.  According  to  the  case,  it  is  called :  complete,  when  the  growth  of  the 
horn  which  corresponds  to  it  extends  to  the  inferior  border  of  the  wall ;  incom- 
plete, when  this  growth  has  not  yet  reached  this  border ;  irregular,  if  it  takes 
place  more  rapidly  at  one  point  than  at  another.  Under  these  diverse  circum- 
stances we  have  altered  nutrition  of  the  coronary  band  manifesting  itself  in  the 
form  of  circles  (rammyfoot),  which  often  surround  the  whole  wall,  sometimes  one 
of  the  quarters,  and  which  occasion  a  marked  soreness  in  the  foot  from  the  com- 
pression which  they  exercise  upon  the  sensitive  parts.  The  circled  foot  (Fig. 
124)  is  frequently  a  symptom  of  chronic  founder  and,  in 
general,  of  all  the  diseases  in  which  the  keratogenous 
membrane  is  extensively  involved. 

Keraphyllocele. — Keraphyllocele  is  a  horn 
tumor  of  a  cylindrical  or  conical  form,  which  exists  on 
the  internal  face  of  the  wall,  particularly  at  the  toe ;  it 
compresses  and  atrophies  the  vascular  tissues.  FIG.  124. 

It  is  qualified  fistulous  or  solid  according  as  it  con- 
tains, or  does  not  contain,  an  internal  cavity.  Its  mode  of  formation  resembles 
in  all  respects  that  of  the  wedge  of  horn  in  chronic  laminitis ;  it  consists,  in  fact, 
of  a  localized  congestion  of  the  podophyllous  tissue,  followed  by  a  hypersecre- 
tion  of  the  corresponding  laminae.  Among  its  causes  we  may  recognize  either  a 
slight  founder,  a  seam,  or  most  frequently  violent  contusions  of  the  wall,  con- 
secutive, for  example,  to  the  blows  of  the  farrier's  hammer  when  he  sets  the  toe- 
clip. 

Quitters. — This  term  designates  a  partial  necrosis  of  some  of  the  tissues 

1  Commission  d'hygi£ne  hippique,  loc.  cit.,  p.  190. 


340  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

entering  into  the  construction  of  the  inferior  part  of  the  members.  Quitters  are 
divided  as  follows : 

The  cutaneous  is  that  of  the  cutidure  or  coronary  band,  and  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  veritable  furuncle. 

The  tendinous  is  the  necrosis,  in  small  fragments,  of  the  aponeurotic,  liga- 
mentous,  and  tendinous  tissues  of  the  phalangal  region. 

Furuncle  of  the  frog  consists  in  a  partial  necrosis  of  the  plantar  cushion  or 
fleshy  frog. 

Finally,  cartilaginous  quitter  is  nothing  else  than  a  slowly-progressive 
necrosis  of  the  complementary  nbro-cartilages  of  the  third  phalanx.  This  is 
much  the  gravest  on  account  of  its  complications  and  its  duration. 

Calk. — Calk  is  a  wound,  a  contusion  of  the  coronary  band,  at  the  toe, 
the  quarters,  or  the  heels,  which  the  animal  inflicts  himself  by  the  contact  of 
the  shoe  of  another  foot  during  locomotion.  It  belongs  to  the  category  of  grave 
diseases. 

Crapaudine  or  "Mai  d'Ane."— This  affection,  thus  named  because  it 
is  more  common  in  the  ass  than  in  the  horse,  develops  first  at  the  toe  upon  the 
perioplic  band,  then  upon  the  cutidure,  and  originates  essentially  from  a  chronic 
inflammation  with  perverted  secretory  functions  of  these  two  structures.  It 
seems  to  be,  as  H.  Bouley  believed,  of  the  same  nature  as  canker,  and  as  a  sort 
of  exfoliation  of  the  periople,  with  this  difference,  nevertheless,  "that  the 
secreted  product,  instead  of  remaining  diffluent,  concretes  after  its  formation,"  * 
and  constitutes,  at  the  seat  of  the  disease,  a  rugous  surface,  laminated  longitudi- 
nally and  transversely,  varying  in  severity  and  extent  according  to  its  period  of 
duration. 

We  have  deemed  it  needless  to  enter  into  more  details  as  to  the 
diseases  of  the  foot,  since  their  diagnosis,  their  prognosis,  and  their 
treatment  belong  entirely  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  veterinarian.  The 
foot  is  the  veritable  foundation  of  the  animal  edifice,  which  should 
always  be  remembered  in  the  purchase  of  a  horse.  It  is  a  region  in 
relation  to  which  one  cannot  be  too  fastidious.  Is  it  defective  ?  is  it 
diseased  ?  One  can  then  foretell  the  speedy  wearing  out  and  ruin  of 
the  animal,  as  well  as  considerable  expenses  of  shoeing  and  treatment. 
On  the  contrary,  is  it  duly  constituted  ?  is  it  healthy  ?  Every  day  the 
animal  will  resume,  without  discomfort,  the  work  of  the  day  before ; 
he  will  never  be  incapacitated  from  work,  for  it  is  in  the  inferior  regions 
that  the  members  begin  to  blemish,  and  all  the  more  slowly  as  the 
extremities  are  better  conformed.  Hence,  in  what  concerns  the  dis- 
eases, we  have  only  defined  them  and  indicated  their  seat,  not  so  much 
for  the  student  to  understand  them  as  to  direct  his  attention  to  certain 
parts  of  the  hoof  more  predisposed  than  others  to  lose  those  characters 
which  constitute  the  desirable  points  in  these  parts. 

1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  de  m6decine,  d'hygiene  et  de  chirurgie  v<5t£rinaires,  t. 
Iv.  p.  552. 


SECTION    THIRD. 

PROPORTIONS. 


PART    I. 

INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER    I. 

PRELIMINARY    IDEAS. 

Definition. — The  word  proportions,  in  its  most  general  accep- 
tation, signifies  agreement  and  correlation  when  it  is  applied  to  the 
different  parts  of  one  whole.  Considering  it  from  the  point  of  view 
which  concerns  us,  this  meaning  should  still  be  preserved,  and,  in  the 
exterior,  the  study  of  the  proportions  endeavors  to  point  out  with  pre- 
cision the  agreement  of  the  regions  with  each  other  and  with  the  body 
as  a  whole. 

Agreement  or  Relation  of  the  Regions. — The  bodies  by 
which  we  are  surrounded  are  composed  of  elements,  simple  or  complex, 
possessing  a  kind  of  reciprocal  connection  with  one  another,  from  which 
results  the  particular  state  in  which  these  bodies  appear  to  us. 

As  to  living  beings,  they  are  a  collection  of  organs  whose  action 
conspires  to  a  sole  end,  the  manifestation  of  that  special  mode  of 
activity  which  is  called  life.  These  organs,  when  we  study  only  that 
which  is  apparent  to  us  from  the  exterior,  show  us  relations  of  length, 
width,  thickness,  direction,  development,  etc.,  which  cause  the  animated 
machine  to  present  itself  to  us  in  a  form  always  similar  in  its  general 
features,  but,  on  the  contrary,  infinitely  varied  in  its  details.  It  is  on 
account  of  these  general  proportions,  constantly  the  same  and  easily 
recognized  in  each  individual  of  the  same  species,  that  we  distinguish, 

341 


342  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

at  first  sight,  for  example,  a  horse  from  an  ass  or  a  zebra.  But  the 
opponents  of  the  relationship  theory  affirm  that  these  characters  cannot 
be  compared ;  it  is  the  disposition,  the  attitude,  the  appearance,  the 
color,  the  presence  or  the  absence,  etc.,  of  such  or  such  parts,  much 
more  than  the  dimensions,  which  impress  us  at  first.  To  make  this 
assertion  is  to  recognize  implicitly  the  relations  of  the  many  parts  of 
the  organic  collection,  from  which  proceed  the  differences  shown. 
The  proportions  of  the  ass  are  not  more  similar  to  those  of  man  than 
those  of  man  are  to  be  confounded  with  those  of  the  monkey ;  and  so 
long  as  these  species  exist,  we  shall  find  in  their  external  form  the 
relations,  more  or  less  comprehensible,  which  their  regions  disclose  at 
the  present  time.  In  different  individuals  these  vary  but  very  little, 
and  in  the  same  race  they  are  not,  as  has  been  said,  essentially  variable, 
for  the  features  of  resemblance  become  purely  illusionary ;  we  know, 
on  the  contrary,  that  they  are  used  as  a  principal  foundation  for  all 
classifications  whose  object  is  the  methodical  description  of  the  different 
ethnic  groups. 

Harmony  and  Discord;  Proportion  and  Disproportion. 
— When  the  mind  examines  any  living  form  whatsoever,  a  conception, 
a  production  of  its  own  activity,  it  always  experiences  in  the  presence 
of  the  one  or  the  other  a  series  of  sensations  which  convey  to  it  an 
agreeable  or  a  disagreeable  impression.  We  are  not  affected  in  the 
same  way  by  the  reading  of  a  literary  composition,  at  the  sight  of  a 
picture,  a  statue,  an  object  of  art,  the  recital  of  a  dramatic  adventure. 
The  association  of  ideas,  words,  facts ;  the  musical  power  of  a  sentence  ; 
the  rhythm  of  discourse ;  the  elevation  of  sentiment ;  the  combination 
of  geometrical  lines,  color,  objects,  or  scenes  described, — all  these  con- 
ditions of  persons  and  things  excite  our  sensibility  differently,  please 
or  fatigue  us  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  expressed  and 
the  aptitude  of  the  person  whom  we  wish  to  appreciate  them. 

In  the  same  manner,  the  sight  of  a  horse  pleases  or  displeases  us 
by  the  elegance  of  his  form,  the  expression  of  his  physiognomy,  the 
vigor,  the  gracefulness,  and  the  elegance  of  his  gaits.  Beautiful  nature, 
like  a  fine  book,  manifests  in  every  one  a  sentiment  of  physical  and 
moral  pleasure  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  impressionability  and 
special  culture  which  the  observer  possesses.  Sympathy  or  antipathy, 
emotion  or  indifference,  such  are  the  results  by  which  the  correlation 
of  things  is  manifested  to  our  senses ;  by  which,  in  other  words,  the 
harmony  or  discord  of  these  relations  is  indicated.  In  ordinary  lan- 
guage everything  that  is  in  harmony  or  concordance  is  called  propor- 
tionate; everything  that  is  not  so  is  disproportionate,  although  in  many 


PRELIMINARY    IDEAS.  343 

instances  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  is  different.  In  this  respect, 
it  is  plain  that  the  type  of  a  handsome  draught-horse  approaches  as 
near  perfection,  in  its  way,  as  that  of  a  fine  race-horse.  Both  satisfy 
in  the  same  degree,  although  in  a  different  way,  the  requirements  of 
the  true  connoisseur,  for  both  are  the  expressions  of  a  perfect  adap- 
tation to  the  end  desired. 

Proportions  are  then  good  or  bad,  perfect  or  defective ;  tire  subject 
in  which  they  are  found  is  well  formed,  correct  in  his  lines,  has  a  hand- 
some form,  beautiful  symmetry,  beautiful  lines ;  or  he  is  in  two  pieces, 
inharmoniously  constructed,  wanting  inform  and  in  symmetry. 

The  Agreeable,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good.— "  But," 
Bourgelat1  says,  "it  is  just  as  certain  that  all  eyes  have  not  the  power 
to  judge  well,  though,  as  it  is  a  fact  that  all  men  indiscriminately 
believe  that  they  have  the  right  of  judging.  However,  the  decisions 
formed  upon  the  knowledge  of  certain  established  and  demonstrated 
rules  are  the  only  ones  which  should  be  held  as  the  law  ;  for  every 
judgment  which  has  for  its  foundation  only  fancy,  prejudice,  inclination, 
a  purely  customary  and  imperfected  notion  of  the  thing,  is  only  a  self- 
conceited  and  often  false  opinion,  denied  by  some,  accepted  by  others, 
and  sometimes  even  soon  abandoned  by  him  who  has  conceived  it." 

Thus  the  distinction  between  the  agreeable  and  the  beautiful  in 
things  pertaining  to  the  horse  has  for  a  long  time,  as  we  know,  been 
very  clearly  established  ;  between  that  which  pleases  the  eye  and  that 
which  signifies  energy,  vigor,  a  perfect  adaptation  of  the  motor  to  its 
end ;  between  that  which  is  self-conceit,  prejudice,  mode,  and  that 
which  is  reason  or  demonstrated  truth,  science. 

What,  then,  are  the  qualities  which  impress  the  laity, — that  is  to 
say,  the  mass  of  people,  ignorant  of  the  facts  of  which  we  speak  ? 
Elegance  of  form,  gracefulness  of  attitude  and  movement,  roundness 
of  the  lines,  indicating  an  easy,  graceful  action,  and  implying  the 
absence  of  effort  in  the  movements ;  vivacity,  mobility,  a  certain 
gentle  look  of  distinction  in  the  physiognomy,  which  admits  the  pre- 
dominance of  moral  perfection  over  the  purely  physical  instincts. 
The  animal  which  performs  a  laborious  work  contracts  his  muscles, 
stiffens  his  spine,  extends  his  members,  and  shows  under  his  skin  a 
multitude  of  angular  projections,  straight  or  broken  lines,  which  sug- 
gest vigor,  energy,  power,  but  which  always  indicate  hard  labor. 
Hence  it  is  that  we  dwell,  in  preference,  unknown  to  ourselves,  on 
the  spectacle  of  this  energy  in  the  state  of  rest,  for  as  soon  as  it 

1  C.  Bourgelat,  Trait6  de  la  conformation  ext6rieure  du  cheval,  5e  6d.,  p.  194. 


344  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

becomes  visible,  the  grace,  calmness,  ease,  which  before  pleased,  will 
disappear.  A  round  croup,  flattened  haunches,  a  sway  back,  a  "  fat," 
thick  withers,  an  arched  neck,  slim  canons,  small  feet,  and  a  slender 
head  will  give  more  pleasure  to  the  majority  of  inexperienced  eyes 
than  long,  projecting  lines,  even  a  little  roughly  so,  well-marked 
muscles,  strong  members,  a  spacious  chest,  broad  articulations,  large 
nostrils,  etc. 

All  eyes  do  not  see  in  the  same  way,  nor  even  appreciate  forci- 
bly what  is  simply  agreeable.  With  greater  reason  the  horsemen  are 
rare  who  are  capable  of  appreciating  the  beauty  of  which  Bourgelat 
speaks ;  not  the  arbitrary,  which  varies  with  individuals  and  their  artistic 
temperament,  but  the  useful,  which  should  be  understood  as  synony- 
mous with  fitness,  and  which  consists  essentially  in  the  adaptation  of 
the  organs  to  their  function ;  that  which  results  from  the  harmonious 
proportions  of  the  parts  and  communicates  to  the  whole  a  combination 
of  qualities  which  renders  it  good,  and  not  that  which  makes  the  same 
agreeable  only  to  the  senses.  This  beauty,  to  be  appreciated,  demands 
a  certain  intuition,  much  culture,  study,  acute  observation,  and  judg- 
ment ;  we  will  refer  to  this  at  the  end  of  this  work. 


CHAPTEE    II. 

HISTORICAL. 

Now  that  we  know  what  difficulties  are  comprised  in  the  study  of 
proportions,  it  is  not  surprising  that  all  horsemen  have  endeavored  to 
establish  the  basis  of  these  proportions  the  more  safely  to  lead  their  pupils 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  horse.  But,  among  the  many  authors,  those 
are  few  in  number  who  have  really  produced  upon  this  subject  any- 
thing original.  Many  criticisms  not  founded  upon  facts,  any  amount 
of  commentaries,  and  often  much  injustice  are,  unfortunately,  the  argu- 
ments of  those  who  have  entered  the  arena  after  the  masters  whose 
researches  they  have  had  neither  the  patience  nor  the  courage  to  investi- 
gate carefully. 

Abou-Bekr-Ibn-Bedr. — A  veterinarian  of  distinction,  Abou-Bekr,  son 
of  Bedr,  has  given  in  his  book,  "  Le  Naceri,"  all  the  questions  referring  to  the 
science  and  the  treatment  of  the  Arabian  horse.  We  find  in  this  important 


HISTORICAL.  345 

work,  which  dates  from  the  first  third  of  the  fourteenth  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  the  first  vague,  incomplete,  and  indeed  incorrect  indication  of  the  measure- 
ments concerning  the  proportions  of  the  horse.  We  will  confine  ourselves  to 
this  mention.1 

Grisone. — The  origin  of  the  idea  of  proportions  is  therefore  wrongly 
attributed  to  an  Italian  veterinarian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Frederico  Grisone,2 
a  very  imperfect  idea,  too,  for  he  attempts  in  his  book,  which  treats -especially 
of  horsemanship,  rather  to  determine  the  qualities  of  the  parts  than  to  express 
their  relations;  he  indicates  the  characters  which,  according  to  his  opinion, 
should  constitute  beauty ;  besides  these  characters  being  in  several  respects  very 
disputable,  and  in  others  very  erroneous,  we  do  not  see  that  he  has  felt  the  neces- 
sity of  comparing  the  regions  with  one  another,  and  of  expressing  their  rela- 
tions with  positive  data.  The  establishment  of  the  proportions,  such  as  they 
are  understood  at  the  present  time,  does  not  therefore  belong  to  him. 

Bourgelat. — To  Bourgelat,  then,  belongs  all  the  praise  of  this  attempt. 
He  says 3  that,  "  since  beauty  resides  in  the  fitness  and  agreement  of  the  parts,  it 
is  very  necessary  to  observe  their  particular  and  respective  dimensions ;  and,  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  proportions,  we  must  institute  a  kind  of  measurement 
which  may  be  indiscriminately  common  to  all  horses. 

"  The  part  which  can  be  used  as  a  basis  of  proportions  for  all  others  is  the 
head.  Let  us  measure  its  length  between  two  parallel  lines,  one  tangent  to  the 
nape  of  the  neck,  or  to  the  top  of  the  forelock,  the  other  tangent  to  the  extremity 
of  the  superior  lip,  by  a  line  perpendicular  to  these  two  parallel  lines ;  we  will 
thus  obtain  its  geometrical  length.  Divide  this  length  into  three  parts,  and 
give  them  a  particular  name  which  can  be  applied  to  all  heads,  as,  for  example, 
that  of  prime.  .  .  .  But  all  the  parts  which  we  shall  consider,  either  in  their 
length,  height,  or  thickness,  cannot  constantly  have  either  a  whole  prime,  a  prime 
and  a  half,  or  three  primes ;  subdivide  each  prime  into  three  equal  parts,  which 
we  will  name  seconds  ;  and  as  this  subdivision  is  not  sufficient  to  furnish  us  with 
the  correct  measure  of  all  the  parts,  we  will  again  subdivide  each  second  into 
twenty-four  points." 

The  geometrical  length  of  the  head  is  then  divided  into  3  primes,  9  seconds, 
or  216  points.  Now,  as  this  region  may  be  defective  in  proportion,  Bourgelat 
had  to  seek  for  another  unit. of  measure  in  the  height  and  in  the  length  of  the 
body,  which,  in  the  well-formed  horse,  are  equal  to  two  and  one-half  times  the 
length  of  the  head.  By  dividing  one  or  the  other  of  these  dimensions  into  five 
equal  parts,  and  by  taking  two  of  these  parts,  he  then  established  a  unit  of 
measure  such  as  the  head  would  give  if  it  were  well  proportioned. 

This  being  laid  down,  let  us  now  detail  the  law  of  Bourgelat, — that  is  to  say, 

For  more  details,  see :  1.  Le  Nac6ri  ou  Traite  complet  d'hippologie  et  d'hippiatrie  arabes, 
translated  from  the  Arabian  by  M.  Perron,  t.  ii.  p.  96,  Paris,  1859,  chez  Bouchard-Huzard ;  2.  Le 
Livre  de  1'agricxilture  d'Ibn-al-Awam,  translated  from  the  Arabian  by  J.-J.  Clement-Mullet, 
t.  ii.,  2d  part,  p.  33,  Paris,  1866.  This  manuscript  is  older  than  the  preceding.  M.  Clement-Mullet 
wrote  it  in  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era. 

2  Frederico  Grisone,  Ordini  di  cavalcare  et  modi  di  conoscere  le  nature  de  cavalli.  emendare 
i  vitii  loro,  et  ammaestrargli  per  1'uso  della  guerra  et  commodity  de  gli  huomini,  Venetia,  1558, 
p.  5. 

3  C.  Bourgelat,  loc.  cit.,  p.  199. 


346  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  resume  of  the  rules  which,  according  to  his  opinion,  constitute  the  founda- 
tion of  the  beautiful  proportions  of  the  horse's  body.1 

1st.  Three  geometrical  lengths  of  the  head  give : 

The  entire  height  of  the  horse,  ab  (Fig.  125.  ^4),  counting  from  the  forelock  to  the  ground  upon 
which  he  rests,  provided  that  his  head  be  well  carried. 

2d.  Two  heads  and  a  half  equal : 

The  height  of  the  body,  cd,  from  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the  ground. 

The  length  of  this  same  body,  ef,  from  the  point  of  the  arm  to  the  point  of  the  buttock 
inclusive. 

3d.  A  whole  head  gives: 

The  length  of  the  neck,  eg,  from  the  summit  of  the  withers  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  poll. 
The  height  of  the  shoulders,  ch,  from  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the  point  of  the  elbow. 
The  thickness  of  the  body,  ij,  from  the  middle  of  the  abdomen  to  the  middle  of  the  back. 
The  width  of  the  body  from  one  side  to  the  other,  kl  (Fig.  125,  B  and  C). 

4th.  A  head,  66',  measured  from  the  top  of  the  forelock  to  the 
commissure  of  the  lips,  will  equal  (Fig.  125): 

The  length  of  the  croup,  of,  from  the  angle  of  the  haunch  to  the  point  of  the  buttock. 

The  width  of  the  croup  or  of  the  haunches,  mn  (Fig.  125,  B  and  C). 

The  height  of  the  croup,  pq  (Fig.  125,  A),  taken  from  the  summit  of  the  latter  to  the  patella, 
the  leg  being  at  rest. 

The  poster o -lateral  length  of  the  legs  or  tibial  region,  qr,  from  the  patella  to  the  centre  of  the 
tibio-astragaloid  articulation. 

The  perpendicular  height,  rs,  of  the  same  articulation  above  the  ground. 

The  distance  from  the  summit  of  the  withers  to  the  insertion  of  the  neck  into  the  chest,  ct. 

5th.  Twice  the  length  of  the  croup,  bb',  gives  almost : 

The  distance  from  the  point  of  the  patella  to  the  summit  of  the  withers,  uc. 
The  distance  from  the  point  of  the  elbow  to  the  summit  of  the  croup,  hp. 

6th.  Two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  head  will  equal : 

The  width  of  the  breast,  vx  (Fig  125,  B),  from  one  point  of  the  arm  to  the  other,  from  outside 
to  outside. 

The  horizontal  length  of  the  croup,  yz  (Fig.  125,  A),  between  two  verticals,  one  of  which  touches 
the  point  of  the  buttock,  and  the  other  passes  through  the  summit  of  the  croup  and  touches  the 
point  of  the  patella. 

The  thirds  of  the  hind  quarters  and  of  the  body,  taken  together,  cz,  to  the  perpendicular  line 
from  the  withers  touching  the  elbow. 

The  anterior  length  of  the  leg,uw, taken  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  to  the  fold  of  the  hock. 

7th.  The  half  of  the  head  is  the  same  as : 

The  horizontal  distance  from  the  point  of  the  arm  to  the  vertical  line  from  the  fummit  of  the 
withers  and  from  the  elbow,  eef. 

The  width  of  the  neck,  mn,  viewed  laterally  and  taken  from  its  insertion  at  the  intermaxillary 
space,  or  from  the  throat,  to  the  root  of  the  first  hairs  of  the  mane,  upon  a  line  which  forms  with 
the  contour  of  the  poll  two  equal  angles. 

8th.  The  third  of  the  head  gives : 

The  height  of  its  superior  parts,  op  (Fig.  125,  B),  from  the  summit  of  the  forelock  to  the  line 
which  passes  through  the  most  prominent  points  of  the  orbits. 


1  In  Fig.  125,  which  is  an  exact  reproduction  from  the  large  plate  of  the  book  of  Bourgelat, 
we  have  omitted  all  the  more  confusing  lines ;  it  has  also  seemed  necessary  to  us  to  change  the 
letters  and  somewhat  modify  the  expressions  of  the  original  description  in  order  to  render  the 
ideas  more  intelligible  to  the  reader.  Finally,  we  have  omitted  paragraphs  6  and  7  of  the  pro- 
portions of  the  founder  of  the  veterinary  schools,  because  the  measurements  which  are  given 
there  are  only  a  repetition  of  those  mentioned  in  paragraph  2. 


HISTORICAL. 


347 


348  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE.     . 

The  width  of  the  head,  qr,  below  the  inferior  eyelids. 

The  lateral  width  of  the  forearm,  vh  (Fig.  125,  A),  taken  from  its  origin  in  front  to  the  point 
of  the  elbow. 

9th.  Two-ninths  of  the  head  give : 

The  vertical  elevation  of  the  point  of  the  elbow  above  the  sternum,  hx. 
The  depression  of  the  back,  IV ,  in  relation  to  the  summit  of  the  withers. 
The  lateral  width  of  the  legs,  vw',  close  to  the  hocks. 

The  opening,  g  (Fig.  125,  B),  or  rather  the  distance  between  the  forearms,  from  one  axilla  to  the 
other. 

10th.  One-sixth  of  the  head  equals : 

The  thickness  of  the  forearm,  h  (Fig.  125,  B),  seen  in  front,  at  its  origin,  from  the  axilla  to  its 
external  contour  horizontally. 

The  width  of  the  coronet  of  the  anterior  feet,  h  (same  figure),  either  from  one  side  to  the  other 
or  from  before  to  behind. 

The  width  of  the  coronet  of  the  posterior  feet,  h  (Fig.  125,  C),  from  one  side  to  the  other  only. 

The  width  of  the  posterior  fetlocks,  k  (Fig.  125,  A),  from  in  front  to  behind. 

The  width  of  the  knee,  h  (Fig.  125,  B),  seen  in  front  (measure  a  little  large). 

The  thickness  of  the  hocks,  h  (Fig.  125,  C)  (measure  a  little  small). 

llth.  One-twelfth  of  the  head  gives: 

The  thickness  of  the  anterior  canon,  n'  (Fig.  125,  B) ;  the  posterior,  n"  (Fig.  125,  C),  is  a  little 
thicker. 

12th.  One-ninth  of  the  head  equals : 

The  thickness  of  the  forearm  in  its  narrowest  part,  m'  (Fig.  125,  B). 

The  thickness  of  the  posterior  pasterns,  m',  seen  laterally  (Fig.  125,  A). 

13th.  The  height  of  the  elbow  from  the  fold  of  the  knee  (Fig. 
125,  A,  below)  is  the  same  as: 

The  height  of  this  same  fold  to  the  ground,  o'n'  (Fig.  125,  .4). 
The  height  of  the  patella  above  the  fold  of  the  hock,  qw. 
The  distance  from  the  fold  of  the  hock  to  the  coronet,  wd'. 

14th.  One-sixth  of  the  preceding  measure  (13th)  gives: 

The  width  of  the  canon  of  the  forefoot,  a'  (Fig.  125,  A),  viewed  laterally  in  the  middle  of  its 
length. 

The  width  of  the  anterior  fetlock  viewed  in  front,  a"  (Fig.  125,  B). 

15th.  One-third  of  the  same  measure  (13th)  is  almost  equal  to : 
The  width  of  the  hock  from  the  fold  to  the  point,  r  (Fig.  125,  A). 

16th.  One-quarter  of  the  same  measure  (13th)  gives: 

The  width  of  the  knee  seen  laterally,  cf  (Fig.  125,  A). 
The  length  of  the  knee,  c"  (Fig.  125,  A). 

17th.  The  space  between  the  eyes  from  one  angle  to  the  other,  s 

(Fig.  125,  B\  equals: 

The  width  of  the  leg  or  tibial  region  seen  laterally  at  the  level  of  the  fold  of  the  buttock,  r'r' 
(Fig.  125.  A). 

18th.  One-half  of  this  interval  between  the  eyes  gives : 

The  width  of  the  posterior  canon  seen  laterally,  v  (Fig.  125,  A). 
The  width  of  the  anterior  fetlock  seen  laterally,  v'  (Fig.  125,  A). 

Finally,  the  difference  of  the  height  of  the  croup  in  relation  to  the  summit  of  the  withers,  py  (Fig. 
125,  A). 


HISTORICAL.  349 

Bourgelat  adds  that  "  these  are,  in  the  horse,  nearly  all  the  parts  correspond- 
ing through  reciprocal  dimensions.  The  eye  which  is  experienced  in  these  dif- 
ferent data  will  recognize  them  without  the  use  of  the  hippometre,  the  compass, 
or  the  scale  upon  the  parts  whose  defects  he  wishes  to  judge  by  the  measure- 
ment with  as  much  facility  as  the  painter  reduces  his  sketch  in  making  from 
an  ordinary  figure  one  that  is  colossal." 

Bourgelat's  work  is  almost  entirely  contained  in  the  preceding  data ;  con- 
trary to  the  accepted  opinion,  it  is  based  upon  a  profound  knowledge  of  the 
horse,  as  well  as  upon  observations  as  positive  as  those  which  are  daily  recorded 
by  purely  descriptive  sciences,  as  anatomy,  for  example. 

Still,  the  first  and  most  frequent  of  the  criticisms  made  against  the  founder 
of  veterinary  schools  is  his  having  acted  under  the  inspiration  of  his  own  ideas 
and  borrowed  from  other  sources  than  from  nature  itself.  How  can  we,  indeed, 
uphold  the  bad  expression,  the  ugly  form,  of  the  model  upon  which  he  has  traced 
his  geometrical  lines?  This  model,  known  to-day  by  the  name  the  Bourgelat 
horse,  with  his  Roman  nose,  his  arched  neck,  and  massive,  straight  shoulder, 
rounded  croup,  flattened  haunches,  round  buttocks,  angular  hock,  and  long 
canons,  appears  to  have  aimed  at  the  establishment  of  a  special  and  new  type, 
very  different,  however,  from  that  which  he  had  mentally  devised.  The  beholders 
failed  to  see  all  the  beauty  and  accuracy  contained  in  that  rough  scheme  which 
Vincent's  pencil  produced  Under  the  very  eyes  of  the  master.  Disagreeably 
impressed  by  the  whole  work,  they  missed  the  harmony  of  the  important  lines, 
they  objected  to  the  minuteness  of  the  measurements,  and  looked  upon  it  as  a 
work  of  pure  imagination,  without  reflecting  that  the  most  gifted  imagination  is 
powerless  to  create  such  combinations. 

It  is  true  Bourgelat  did  establish  his  laws  according  to  his  own  idea  of  the 
beautiful  horse,  but  he  has  obtained  the  proportions  from  a  real  type,  which  still 
exists,  and  which  by  a  unanimous  acknowledgment  connoisseurs  also  consider 
the  type  of  beauty. 

That  there  are  exaggerations,  inaccuracies,  in  his  system  is  incontestable.  Is 
not  this  the  danger  of  all  inventors,  and  does  it  follow  from  this  that  we  should 
discredit  any  of  the  truths  that  are  offered?  Bourgelat  has  attempted  to  deter- 
mine the  agreement  of  the  parts  with  one  another  and  with  the  whole ;  this  is 
his  main  idea ;  to  have  seen  and  appreciated  these  relations  is  his  merit ;  finally, 
he  has  found  some  which  will  live  and  which  show  the  results  to  which  a  correct 
idea,  supported  by  a  good  judgment  and  an  exceptional  talent,  may  lead. 

But  we  do  not  think  that  we  can,  following  the  example  of  Professor 
Baron,1  blame  him  for  having  estimated  all  the  external  measurement  of  the 
body  by  only  one  and  the  same  unit :  the  length  of  the  head.  According  to 
our  colleague,  the  length  of  this  region  should  only  be  used  to  measure  the  lon- 
gitudinal axes,  its  width  the  transverse,  and  its  thickness  all  that  which,  in  the 
body,  is  an  element  of  thickness.  Truly,  this  logic  appears  a  little  exclusive. 
In  practice  it  results  in  this :  a  single  rule  being  insufficient,  three  are  necessary. 
Instead  of  simplifying  a  rule  already  too  complex,  we  increase  the  difficulties 
threefold  at  the  time  when  it  is  so  important  to  point  out,  in  passing,  the  excep- 
tions and  the  deviations  that  are  of  some  interest.  To  understand  the  regional 
relations,  one  single  common  measure  is  sufficient,  the  head  or  any  other  part, 

1  Baron,  Methodes  de  reproduction  en  zootechnie,  p.  159,  Paris,  1888. 


350  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

it  matters  little  which.  The  head  has  been  rightly  selected,  because  this  unit  is 
easy  to  be  obtained,  and  its  individual  variations  in  the  same  race  are  more  rare 
than  those  of  the  other  regions.  It  is  just  as  convenient  to  compare  the  different, 
dimensions  of  the  horse,  with  the  head,  and  to  find  their  harmonious  combina- 
tions, as  to  determine  the  relations  of  height,  width,  and  depth  of  a  room,  for 
example,  by  the  same  yard  measure. 

Bourgelat  has  been  criticised  for  the  minutiae  into  which  he  has  entered, 
notably,  of  the  width  and  the  thickness  of  the  articulations  and  the  members, 
the  separation  of  the  eyes,  etc.  But  would  he  have  fallen  into  this  error  if  he 
had  not  especially  worked  to  guide  artists  in  the  realization  of  their  works? 
No  doubt  he  forgot  that  the  more  minute  his  measurements  became  the  more 
liable  they  were  to  show  what  was  erroneous  in  them,  for  if  the  generality  of 
horses  are  in  conformity  with  his  principal  rules,  they  are  notably  different  from 
the  secondary  as  soon  as  dissimilar  types  are  in  question.  This  is  the  very 
reason  why  these  rules  have  been  successfully  opposed,  and  without  difficulty,  by 
most  horsemen.  It  seemed,  in  fact,  a  deduction  from  the  ideas  of  Bourgelat,  that 
there  was  but  one  single  type  of  beauty  for  the  horse,  while  it  is  evident  that  the 
type  is  multiple.  To  attempt  to  apply  the  same  scale  to  the  heavy-draught 
horse  and  to  the  race-horse,  and  assert  it  beforehand  as  infallible,  was  the  obliga- 
tory consequence  that  his  opponents  were  sure  to  draw  from  Bourgelat's  forget- 
fulness,  and  to  make  the  most  of  against  him.  He  believed  that  his  rules  had 
an  absolute  value,  whilst  they  are  essentially  relative  to  some  particular  types. 

His  other  great  fault  is  to  have  misunderstood  the  compensations  which 
exist  between  these  regions.  In  assigning  such  precise  limits  to  what  he  believed 
to  be  the  ideal  beauty,  he  has  tacitly  declared  defective  all  that  was  not  in 
conformity  with  his  measures,  a  logical  deduction  of  his  system.  The  head,  for 
example,  was  in  his  opinion  either  proportionate,  too  short,  or  too  long.  In  these 
latter  cases  it  was  to  be  rejected,  whatever  might  be  the  length  of  the  neck. 
Still,  we  have  seen  that  a  neck  which  is  too  long  redeems  a  small  head;  a  neck 
that  is  short  and  massive  ameliorates  in  the  same  manner  the  effects  of  a  head 
that  is  too  large.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  defects  of  certain  regions  are 
capable  of  compensating  those  of  some  others,  always  on  condition  that  these 
last,  by  agreement  with  the  preceding,  are  of  a  reverse  order  in  their  results. 

Another  criticism  which  can  be  made  against  Bourgelat  lies  in  his  having 
absolutely  ignored,  so  to  speak,  the  relations  between  the  angles  of  the  osseous 
segments  of  the  members.  He  has  occupied  himself  with  little  more  than 
the  relations  of  length,  width,  and  thickness  of  the  parts,  without  considering 
the  desired  angles  of  locomotion  which  tend  to  an  increase  of  speed.  This  is  a 
regrettable  omission  in  this  sense,  that  if  the  founder  of  veterinary  schools  had 
thought  of  it  with  the  same  intelligence  that  he  showed  in  the  establishment  of 
his  horse-measuring  rules,  science  would  have  possessed  at  least  some  correct 
ideas  upon  this  subject,  which  would  have  prevented  General  Morris  from 
inventing,  aside  from  all  positive  observations,  his  theory  upon  the  similitude 
of  angles  and  the  parallelism  of  the  bony  segments. 

Finally,  Bourgelat  has  also  omitted  to  speak  of  the  relations  of  the  body  as  a 
whole  with  the  nervous  system,  another  important  consideration  which  might 
have  caused  him  to  speak  of  the  interesting  question  of  the  blood, — that  is  to 
say,  of  the  moral  qualities,  transmissible  by  heredity,  which  endows  the  horse 
with  the  highest  qualities  of  the  choicest  families  of  the  species. 


HISTORICAL. 


351 


Saint-Bel.— Saint-Bel,1  the  founder  of  the  veterinary  school  of  Saint-Pau- 
cras,  ^ideavored  to  propagate  the  principles  of  Bourgelat  in  Englanc1.  vle 
thour.  it  that  Eclipse,  that  extraordinary  and  always  unconquerable  horsr  i  J 
be  i  En;1  us1-  ^holars  the  best  type  of  the  conformation  of  the  beaut'  orse, 
and  he  prepai^u  with  great  care  the  scale  of  the  proportions  of  this  nob  .nimal. 

We  do  not  know  what  instruments  Saint- Bel  made  use  of  to  measure 
Eclipse.  It  is  certain  that  he  indicates  accurate  measurements  alongside  of 
others  that  are  altogether  impossible.  Perhaps  he  employed  the  tape-measure. 
If  this  were  so,  the  incompatibilities  of  several  of  his  assertions  may  be 
explained.  However  this  may  be,  we  have  shown  in  our  drawing  the  head  of 
Eclipse,  such  as  this  horse  should  have  had  in  order  to  be  regularly  conformed. 

The  length  of  the  head  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  twenty-two  equal  parts, 
which  are  used  as  a  common  measure  for  all  parts  of  the  body  (Fig.  126) : 


b  L  nd         k  / 

FIG.  126.— The  proportions  of  Eclipse,  after  Saint- Bel. 

1st.   Height  of  the  poll  from  the  ground  (ab) 3  heads  and  13  parts. 

2d.    Height  of  the  withers  from  the  ground  (cd) 3  heads. 

3d.    Height  of  the  croup  from  the  ground  (ef) 3  heads. 

4th.  Whole  length  of  the  body,  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 

to  that  of  the  buttock  (gh)     3  heads  and   3  parts. 

5th.  Height  of  the  body  at  the  level  of  the  centre  of  gravity  (ik)  2  heads  and  20  parts. 

6t!i     ilevation  of  the  chest  above  the  ground  (?)  ;.?~) 2  heads  and   7  parts. 

7th.    leight  of  the  perpendicular  falling  from  the  point  of  the 

shoulder  upon  the  hoof  (gl) 2  heads  and   5  parts. 

8th.  Height  of  the  perpendicular  from  the  point  of  the  elbow 

to  the  ground  (mn) 1  head   and  19  parts. 

i  William  Youatt,  History  of  the  English  Thoroughbred  Horse. 


352  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

9th.  Distance  from  the  summit  of  the  withers  to  the  stifle- 
joint  (co) 1  head   and  19  parts. 

10th.  Distance  from  the  summit  of  the  croup  to  the  elbow  (em)  1  head   and  19  parts. 

llth.  Length  of  the  neck  from  the  withers  to  the  top  of  the 

head  (ca) 1  head   and  11  parts. 

12th.  Length  of  the  neck  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  its  inser- 
tion in  the  chest  (ap)      1  head   and  11  parts. 

13th.  Width  of  the  neck  at  its  union  with  the  chest  (cp)  .  .   .   .  1  head. 

14th.  Width  of  the  neck  in  its  narrowest  part  (qr) 12  parts. 

15th.  Width  of  the  head  taken  above  the  eyes  (st) 12  parts. 

16th.  Thickness  of  the  body  between  the  middle  of  the  back 

and  the  middle  of  the  abdomen  (uv) 1  head   and   4  parts. 

17th.  Width  of  the  body 1  head   and   4  parts. 

18th.  Distance  from  the  top  of  the  croup  to  the  point  of  the 

buttock  (eh)      1  head   and  4  parts. 

19th.  Distance  from  the  root  of  the  tail  to  the  stifle-joint  (ox)  .  .  1  head   and   4  parts. 

20th.  Distance  from  the  stifle-joint  to  the  point  of  the  hock  (ay)  1  head   and   4  parts. 

21st.  Distance  from  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  hoof  (yz)  ...  1  head   and  4  parts. 

22d.   Distance  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  to  the  stifle- 
joint  (oh) 20  parts. 

23d.   Width  of  the  croup 20  parts. 

24th.  Width  of  the  anterior  members  at  the  level  of  the  elbow 

(mm') 10  parts. 

25th.  Width  of  the  posterior  members  at  the  level  of  the  fold 

of  the  buttock  (ww) 10  parts. 

26th.  Width  of  the  hock  at  the  level  of  its  fold  (yy') 8  parts. 

27th.  Width  of  the  head  above  the  nostrils  (n'n') 8  parts. 

28th.  Distance  from  the  internal  angle  of  one  eye  to  that  of 

the  other 7  parts. 

29th.  Separation  of  the  anterior  members 7  parts. 

30th.  Width  of  the  anterior  face  of  the  knees 5  parts. 

31st.  Width  of  the  anterio   member  above  the  knee  (rO  .  .  .  .  5  parts. 

32d.   Width  of  the  hocks  (anterior  face) 5  parts. 

33d.   Width  of  the  fetlock  (sf) 4  parts. 

34th.  Width  of  the  anterior  face  of  the  coronet 4  parts. 

35th.  Same  width,  but  a  little  lower 4}^  parts. 

36th.  Width  of  the  member  in  its  narrowest  part  (V) 3  parts. 

3"th.  Width  of  the  posterior  pastern  (anterior  face) 2%  parts. 

38th.  Width  of  the  anterior  pastern  (o1) 2%  parts. 

39th.  Width  of  the  anterior  canon 2%  parts. 

40th    Width  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  canons  upon  their 

anterior  face 1%  parts. 

Vallon. — Vallon1  also  attempted  to  indicate  proportions,  but  he  has  not 
been  more  successful  than  the  English,  especially  in  what  concerns  the  length 
of  the  body,  which  he  considers  to  be  three  heads  in  the  saddle-horse,  which  is 
incorrect.  Here  are  the  measurements  which  he  gives  for  a  horse  of  1.60  m. : 

Length  of  the  head 0.60  m. 

Length  of  the  neck  (a  head  and  a  fifth) 0.72  m. 

Height  of  the  horse  from  the  withers  to  the  ground  (two  and  two-thirds 
heads) 1.60  m. 

Height  of  the  chest  from  the  withers  to  the  xiphoid  region  (a  head  and  a 
quarter) 0.75  m. 

Length  of  the  anterior  members  from  the  passage  of  the  girth  to  the  ground 
(a  head  and  about  a  third) 0.85  m. 

Height  of  the  posterior  quarters  from  the  top  of  the  croup  to  the  ground  (a 
little  more  than  two  heads  and  a  half) 1.55  m. 

Length  of  the  body  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  point  of  the  but- 
tock (three  heads) 1.80  m. 

i  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  448. 


353 

If,  with  these  proportions,  the  head  is  square  and  light,  the  forehead  wide  and 
long,  the  eye  large,  placed  far  from  the  ears,  the  withers  elevated  and  extending 
backward,  the  loins  short  and  straight,  the  croup,  the  shoulder,  the  leg,  and  the 
forearm  long  and  well  muscled,  the  canon  short,  the  pastern  of  medium  length 
and  properly  inclined,  the  articulations  wide,  the  articular  angles  well  oriented, 
the  muscular  system  dominant  and  firm,  the  foot  irreproachable,  the  horse  has,  as 
a  whole,  good  proportions. 

"As  to  the  work-horse,"  he  adds,1  "he  should  not  be  in  all  respects  similar 
to  the  cavalry  horse.  The  fore-quarters  need  not  be  as  light  nor  the  shoulder  as 
long  and  oblique,  the  withers  as  elevated ;  the  chest  should  be  spacious,  the 
members  shorter,  the  muscular  system  more  strongly  developed,  the  degree  of  the 
temperament  (blood)  less  sanguinary. 

"  The  proportions  which  suit  the  horse  of  1.50  m.  the  best  are  the  following : 

Head 0.60m. 

Neck  (a  head  and  about  a  fifth) 0.70  m. 

Height  of  the  body  (two  heads  and  a  half) 1.50  m. 

Length  of  the  chest  (a  little  more  than  a  head  and  about  a  fifth) 0.70  m. 

Length  of  the  members  (a  head  and  a  third) 0.80  m. 

Length  of  the  body  (two  and  two-thirds  heads) 1.60  m. 

Height  of  the  hind-quarters  (a  little  less  than  two  heads  and  a  half) 1.45  m." 

The  preceding  measures  do  not  differ  much  in  principle  from  those  of  Bour- 
gelat,  which  they  reproduce,  as  a  whole,  under  another  form.  Their  points  of 
difference  consist,  in  our  opinion,  in  errors  or  at  least  exaggerations,  the  evidence 
of  which  will  be  seen  when  we  present  our  own  ideas  concerning  this. 

M.  Richard. — To  our  regret,  and  contrary  to  our  custom,  we  are  here  forced 
to  oppose  one  of  the  most  distinguished  horsemen,  who,  in  France,  contributed 
much  to  bring  discredit  upon  Bourgelat's  system.  We  mean  M.  Richard,  whose 
opinions  on  other  questions  are  in  most  instances  in  conformity  with  ours. 

The  principal  objection  to  this  recommendable  writer  proceeds  from  the 
point  of  view  in  which  he  regards  the  horse.  Starting  out  with  the  idea  that 
this  animal  has  become  for  man  a  generator  of  force  and  speed,  he  cannot  con- 
ceive that  an  attempt  could  be  made  to  impose  limits  to  the  mechanical  beauties 
of  the  horse-machine,  which  he  would  wish  to  realize.  This  manner  of  reason- 
ing, although  very  just  in  principle,  has  led  M.  Richard  into  numerous  exagger- 
ations ;  because  beauty  resides  principally  in  the  harmony  of  the  parts,  and  not 
in  the  extreme  development  of  some  of  them,  considered  as  more  particularly 
advantageous  for  the  proper  action  of  the  whole.  If  the  disproportion  results 
from  the  number  of  the  defects,  it  may  also  become  the  consequence  of  a  func- 
tional discord  of  the  relations. 

Now,  it  is  with  the  beauties  of  the  horse  as  with  all  other  things  analogous 
to  them  through  utilization;  the  motor  in  question  must  be  benefited  by  them, 
for  otherwise  they  become  useless  or  detrimental.  It  being  granted  that  large 
wheels  are  for  a  vehicle  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  speed,  of  what  use  would 
they  be  if  their  elevation  gave  it  such  an  instability  that  it  could  be  used  only 
upon  special  roads,  or  turn  only  in  certain  curves  ?  In  the  same  way,  it  is 
acknowledged,  in  an  absolute  manner,  that  a  long  forearm,  long  legs,  a  long 

1  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  457. 
23 


354  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

croup,  and  a  very  oblique  shoulder  are  elements  indispensable  to  the  velocity  of 
the  gait ;  now,  increase  these  beauties  of  the  forearm  and  the  leg  in  an  exaggerated 
degree  and  you  will  make  your  horse  taller ;  do  the  same  thing  with  the  croup 
and  the  shoulder,  you  will  lengthen  his  body,  and  if  you  do  not  develop  in  the 
same  proportion  the  chest,  the  abdomen,  the  neck,  the  head,  the  articulations,  etc., 
you  will  have  made,  according  to  your  fancy  or  talent,  a  giraffe,  a  dromedary,  or 
an  elephant,  but  you  will  no  longer  have  a  horse, — that  is  to  say,  a  special  motor 
adapted  to  our  needs,  to  our  civilization ;  because  you  will  have  destroyed  the 
pre-existing  harmony  of  the  regions.  That  is  what  M.  Richard  has  misunderstood, 
and  which  caused  him  not  only  to  disregard  the  opinions  of  Bourgelat,  but  also 
to  shower  upon  him  those  harsh  criticisms  which  fell  with  equal  force  upon  his 
followers,  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

Here  are,  besides,  some  extracts  which  abundantly  prove  that  we  have  not 
exaggerated  his  thoughts  : 

"  The  model  horse  of  Bourgelat,  constructed  in  accordance  with  his  method,  cannot  fulfil 
the  conditions  required  by  reason  and  by  a  good  locomotor.  How,  indeed,  can  we  accept  limits 
to  the  development  of  certain  regions,  especially  when  the  very  excesses  would  always  and  without 
exception  be  a  desirable  beauty?  How  is  it  possible  to  limit  the  width  of  the  forehead,  the  height 
of  the  cranium,  the  development  of  the  withers,  the  height  of  the  chest,  that  of  the  shoulders, 
or  their  obliquity  ?  Shall  we  ever  find  a  fetlock  or  a  forearm  that  is  too  wide,  the  latter  too  long, 
a  knee  too  much  developed,  a  tendon  too  neatly  outlined  ?  Can  we  fix  the  limits  to  the  width  of 
the  hock,  to  that  of  the  leg,  to  the  length  of  the  croup  and  that  of  the  ribs  ? 

"  He  who  wishes  to  study  the  horse  according  to  his  destination  will  be  convinced,  as  we 
are,  that  it  is  contrary  to  reason  to  establish  by  arbitrary  measures  (there  can  be  no  others)  limits  to 
the  development  of  such  or  such  region  of  his  body.  We  understand  perfectly  that  the  artist 
should  have  data  to  direct  him  in  the  perfection  of  his  work,  the  forms  of  which  are  regulated 
by  taste  and  fashion,  but  the  mechanic  must  obey  only  the  laws  of  mechanics ;  he  can  judge  of 
the  qualities  of  the  machine  only  from  the  invariable  rules  upon  which  these  laws  are 
established." 

And  still  further : 

"  Physiology  and  mechanics  united,  in  accordance  with  the  observation  of  facts,  teach  us 
that  a  square  head  is  generally  beautiful.  Its  masticating  muscles  are  usually  quite  prominent. 
Its  nostrils  are  very  mobile,  very  wide,  very  dilatable.  Large  eyes,  wide  open,  bright,  and  placed 
low.  a  large  forehead,  and  a  well-developed  cranium  are  its  characteristics.  -Such  a  head  is 
always  to  be  recommended,  whatever  may  otherwise  be  the  indications  of  the  proportions,  which  prove 
absolutely  nothing  if  they  are  contrary  to  beauty.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  horse  has  his  neck  well 
muscled,  to  execute  well  all  the  movements,  without  an  excess  of  fatty  or  cellular  tissue ;  if  he 
has  very  high  withers,  and  here  we  know  no  limits ;  if  he  has  a  short  back  and  short  loins,  very 
wide  and  with  strong  muscles;  if  his  croup  is  long  and  well  muscled,  high  and  well-inclined 
shoulders;  if  the  chest  is  very  deep  and  the  ribs  long,  well  arched,  and  rounded  ;  if  the  flank  is 
short, the  forearm  very  long  and  wide;  if  the  knee  is  strong,  the  tendon  extremely  detached,  the 
fetlock  wide,  the  pastern  short  and  of  the  desired  degree  of  inclination ;  if  the  buttocks  are 
prominent  and  furnished  with  strong,  long,  well-marked  and  well-descended  muscles ;  if  the  leg 
and  the  hock  are  wide,  whatever  may  be  the  excess  of  their  width,  take  no  account  of  proportions  whose 
value  nothing  justifies  ;  you  will  always  be  sure  of  having  found  the  model  horse." 

M.  Richard  does  not  perceive,  in  the  two  quotations  which  we  have  just 
made,  that,  more  than  all  others,  he  has  the  idea  of  proportions,  the  name  of 
which  irritates  him  so  much.  He  speaks  of  the  excess  of  certain  beauties,  with- 
out thinking  that  the  excess  of  things  is  judged  only  by  comparing  them  with 
one  another,  or  by  appreciating  how  they  exceed  the  dimensions  and  the  mean 
limits  which  they  ordinarily  possess.  If  that  particular  thing  cannot  be  too  wide, 
or  this  one  too  long,  it  follows  that  another  one  can  be  right,  or  even  too  narrow 
and  too  small.  Now,  the  excess,  the  sufficiency,  and  the  deficiency  are  qualities 


HISTORICAL.  355 

impossible  to  be  determined  if  the  relations  of  the  parts  have  not  been  studied, 
and  if  there  be  not  for  them  certain  mean  terms  of  comparison.  To  say  that  a 
region  is  too  long,  exactly  normal,  or  too  short,  is  to  express  that,  relative  to  its 
ordinary  beautiful  length,  it  is  proportional  or  disproportional ;  it  is  therefore 
tantamount  to  admitting  good  or  bad  proportions.  There  exist,  therefore,  certain 
standard  dimensions  which  must  be  known  in  order  to  be  able  to  base  one's 
judgment. 

Without  any  doubt,  it  would  be  contrary  to  reason  to  establish  by  arbitrary 
measures  the  limits  of  development  of  any  region.  But  the  great  error  in  our 
esteemed  colleague's  argument  lies  in  not  proving  what  he  asserts.  The  meas- 
urements are  arbitrary  only  when  they  proceed  solely  from  the  self-conceit  of 
him  who  invents  them ;  in  all  other  cases  they  are  as  real  as  the  things  from 
which  they  are  taken. 

M.  Richard  has  advanced  exactly,  with  regard  to  Bourgelat,  that  of  which  he 
has  accused  the  latter :  a  pure  theory.  He  has  not  taken  the  trouble  to  study 
this  author  closely.  If  he  had  attempted  this,  would  he  ever  have  written  the 
following  passage? 

"But  we  will  go  still  further.  We  mean  to  prove  in  two  words  that  a  horse  which  would 
display  the  most  rigorous  proportions  advanced  by  this  author  might  be  very  badly  conformed  and 
in  very  bad  condition  as  regards  strength  and  speed.  We  wish  to  show  still  further  that,  in  order 
to  remedy  his  vice  of  conformation,  we  are  forced  to  do  the  contrary  of  what  is  prescribed  by  the 
founder  of  veterinary  medicine. 

"  Suppose  that  a  horse  which  is  in  conformity  with  the  proportions  of  Bourgelat  has  very 
long  and  corded  flanks  and  a  very  short  croup,  which  is  often  observed  ;  this  horse  will  have  weak 
loins,  and  his  gait  will  be  shortened  for  want  of  length  in  its  croupal  muscles.  What  shall  we 
do  now,  if  we  wish  to  give  this  horse  the  qualities  of  strength  in  which  he  is  wanting  and  which 
the  acknowledged  proportions  would  indicate  as  excellent?  We  will  lengthen  its  iliac  bones, 
which  Bourgelat  condemns,  so  as  to  diminish  a  part  of  the  surplus  length  of  the  loins ;  we  will 
also  lengthen  the  ischiums  to  carry  the  point  of  the  buttocks  farther  backward.  We  have  no 
other  means  of  remedying  the  evil  and  making  a  good  horse  from  a  bad  type  of  construction  of 
the  loins  and  the  croup.  To  arrive  at  this  essential  result,  what  shall  we  do  ?  We  will  do  the  oppo- 
site of  what  is  prescribed  by  the  proportions  of  Bourgelat :  we  will  lengthen  the  body  of  the  horse 
by  lengthening  the  croup  in  front  and  behind  through  a  greater  predominance  of  the  buttocks. 
The  proportions  of  the  whole,  like  those  of  the  individual  regions,  are  therefore  contrary  to 
physiological  and  mechanical  laws  as  well  as  to  those  of  reason.  Then,  as  we  have  said,  written, 
and  taught  for  more  than  fifteen  years,  the  proportions  of  Bourgelat,  which  have  always  been 
considered  as  the  key  to  the  basis  of  all  the  principles  established  by  this  author,  are  falsely 
founded ;  we  cannot  repeat  too  often  that  they  should  be  condemned  as  a  material  error,  fatal  to  the 
progress  of  science,  fatal  to  the  perfecting  of  our  races  of  horses,  especially  cavalry  horses." 

In  the  face  of  such  assertions,  without  proof,  we  must  acknowledge  that 
this  verdict  is  very  severe.  M.  Richard  takes  for  granted  precisely  what  he 
should  at  first  have  commenced  to  demonstrate, — namely,  that  a  croup  such  as 
Bourgelat  requires  would  be  very  short.  But  it  would  have  been  easy  for  him  to 
ascertain  the  contrary  by  measuring  this  region  upon  subjects  selected  by  him- 
self as  well  formed  in  that  part  of  their  body.  Then  he  could  have  proved  that 
a  croup  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  distance  comprised  between  the  top  of  the 
head  and  the  commissure  of  the  lips  is  not  too  short,  that,  consequently,  this 
proportion  was  not  poorly  founded,  and  should  not  be  condemned  as  a  material 
error  and  one  fatal  to  the  progress  of  science.  M.  Richard's  objections,  very 
judicious  theoretically,  we  repeat,  fail  when  practically  applied,  for  the  same 
reason  :  want  of  deliberation.  To  what  would  they  be  reduced  if  it  were  settled 
that  Bourgelat  had  taken  his  measurements  upon  horses  in  which  they  showed 


356  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

themselves  really  irreproachable?  To  nothing,  since  upon  these  subjects  the 
shoulder,  the  croup,  the  forearm,  the  neck,  the  leg,  etc.,  would  exactly  enter  into 
the  conditions  of  length,  width,  and  thickness  required  by  his  contradictor.  And 
yet  this  is  the  very  merit,  we  do  not  say  of  all,  but  of  many,  of  the  proportions 
of  the  founder  of  veterinary  schools,  and  M.  Richard  would  not  have  failed  to 
recognize  it  if  he  had  seriously  undertaken  to  verify,  with  compass  in  hand,  the 
assertions  of  the  former.  This  is  the  reason  why,  when  we  take  literally  the 
data  of  an  author,  without  taking  account  of  the  almost  inevitable  exaggerations 
to  which  he  is  naturally  inclined,  one  is  easily  led  to  draw  from  them  wrong 
conclusions,  to  overlook  the  good  in  order  to  see  only  the  weak  points,  and 
present  these  as  the  only  result  which  this  theory  can  attain. 

Most  certainly  we  would  ourselves  deserve  this  reproach  if  we  should  not 
now  make  prominent  the  correct  and  truly  practical  idea  which  is  apparent  in 
M.  Richard's  criticisms.  This  distinguished  horseman  desires  principally  to 
call  the  attention  of  the  observer  to  the  absolute  beauties  of  the  horse,  beauties 
which  we  should  never  oppose,  since  they  are  the  best  index  of  the  conditions  of 
strength  and  speed,  attributes  which  should  never  be  limited,  for  they  are  funda- 
mental qualities  of  the  animal  machine,  elements  indispensable  to  its  proper 
action.  If  the  eye  is  impressed  with  a  want  of  harmony  in  the  whole,  it  is  not 
to  the  fulness  of  the  chest,  the  length  of  the  croup,  of  the  forearm,  of  the  leg, 
the  obliquity  of  the  shoulder,  the  height  of  the  withers,  the  width  of  the  articu- 
lations, etc.,  that  this  defect  is  to  be  attributed ;  it  is  due  to  the  weakness,  the 
bad  conformation,  of  the  other  regions.  The  disproportion  should  be  considered 
especially  as  characterizing  the  predominance  of  defects,  and  not  as  being  de- 
rived from  excess  of  the  beauties.  A  horse  is  defective  not  because  he  is  too  well 
formed  in  some  of  his  parts,  but  because  he  is  not  enough  so  in  others.  A  kind  of 
correlation  of  development  exists  between  all  the  organs;  if  one  of  them  acquires 
dimensions  somewhat  considerable,  others  follow  it,  so  to  speak,  in  the  same 
measure ;  and  this  is  what  justifies  to  a  certain  extent  the  words  of  M.  Richard, 
when  he  asserts  that  he  does  not  understand  how  we  can  limit  the  width  of  the 
forehead,  the  height  of  the  cranium,  the  development  of  the  withers,  the  height 
of  the  chest,  and  the  length  of  the  shoulders ;  when  he  defies  us  in  some  way  to 
find  too  wide  a  fetlock,  a  forearm  too  long,  a  knee  too  much  developed,  a  tendon 
too  much  detached ;  when  he  rejects  the  limits  imposed  to  the  width  of  the  hock, 
that  of  the  forearm  and  the  leg,  the  width  of  the  croup  and  that  of  the  ribs. 
The  giraffe-,  dromedary-,  or  elephant-horse  is  not  possible,  even  in  driving  to  ex- 
tremities M.  Richard's  exaggerations,  on  account  of  those  very  organic  correla- 
tions of  which  we  have  just  spoken.  This  has  been  mentioned  only  to  show  the 
consequences  which  may  be  the  result  of  the  a  priori  in  matters  concerning  the 
horse.  We  get  to  believe  that  facts  are  overthrown  by  words,  and  the  more  readily 
so,  as  we  are  encouraged  in  it  by  the  mass  of  those  who  content  themselves  with 
admiring  facts  through  the  eyes  of  others. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      357 


PART   II. 

OBJECT  AND  UTILITY  OF  THE   PROPORTIONS. 

Now  that  we  have  demonstrated  the  existence  of  the  relations 
existing  among  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  it  will  be  easy  to  under- 
stand what  result  cap  be  reached  by  seeking  for  the  proportions  of  the 
horse.  The  question  at  issue  is  to  express  in  simple  terms  the  relations 
of  the  regions  in  such  a  manner  as  to  establish  the  elements  of  beauty 
which  should  here  be  looked  upon  as  a  reflection  of  perfection.  Such  a 
study  is  most  fruitful  for  one  who  wishes  to  succeed  promptly  in  devel- 
oping his  "  eye"  and  his  judgment ;  it  is  not  less  useful  for  the  artist 
anxious  to  impress  his  works  with  the  stamp  of  accurate  imitation. 

We  do  not  wish  to  say  by  this  that  imitation  is  the  supreme  aim 
of  art  and  that  the  merit  of  artistic  productions  lies  infallibly  in  their 
accuracy.  It  is  far  from  our  intention  to  compare  the  artist  to  a  pho- 
tographic apparatus :  this  would  be  the  ignoring  of  his  personality,  of 
the  very  passion  with  which  he  sees  the  things  of  his  domain  ;  it  would 
be  the  very  negation  of  his  talent.  His  work  should,  principally, 
reflect  movement  and  animation,  the  emotion  he  felt  in  the  presence 
of  the  subject  which  he  wished  to  reproduce.  He  will  be  pardoned 
for  the  want  of  physical  resemblance  in  his  conceptions,  whilst  he  will 
always  be  blamed  for  his  want  of  sentiment  or  his  absolute  indiffer- 
ence. But  if  we  have  been  able  to  say  with  reason  in  this  respect  that 
sincerity  in  art  can  replace  truth,  it  is  not  less  evident  that  the  artist 
who  is  at  the  same  time  accurate  and  sincere  in  his  reproduction  will 
constantly  excel  him  who  has  only  one  or  the  other  of  these  qualities. 
It  is  on  this  account  that  the  study  of  proportions  is  of  the  greatest 
necessity  to  him. 


CHAPTER    I. 

POINTS   OF   VIEW    FROM   WHICH    THE   PROPORTIONS   ARE   STUDIED. 

UNTIL  now,  under  the  head  of  proportions,  we  have  only  treated 
of  the  relations  of  length,  of  width,  and  of  thickness  of  the  constit- 
uent parts  of  the  body,  and  even  this  has  been  done  in  a  very  incom- 
plete manner.  This  too  exclusive  view  is  certainly  insufficient  for  one 


358  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

who  wishes  to  analyze  minutely  the  horse  as  a  machine  productive  of 
force  and  speed.  It  is  necessary,  besides,  to  inquire  into  the  relations 
of  direction  which  the  osseous  segments  may  affect  among  each  other, 
to  determine  in  what  manner  they  are  articulated,  and  what  rules 
govern  their  most  extensive  and  regular  action. 

We  should  then  examine  the  whole  body  with  regard  to  its  larger 
dimensions,  its  general  harmony. 

Finally,  we  should  determine  in  what  measure  the  nervous  system, 
this  ultimate  regulator  of  all  activity  and  of  all  vital  manifestation,  is 
in  functional  equilibrium  with  the  machinery  which  animates  and 
directs  the  animal  with  absolute  power. 

These  four  important  questions  will  be  the  subject  of  the  present 
chapter. 

A. — Relation  of  Dimensions  between  the  Parts. 

We  have  not  to  deal  with  long  and  slender  or  with  short  and  thick 
forms  only, — that  is  to  say,  with  two  extreme  conformations  between 
which  there  might  exist  a  mean  one  related  as  much  to  the  first  as  to  the 
second.  In  reality,  the  types  of  conformation,  varying  with  the  conditions 
of  existence  and  the  kinds  of  utilization,  are  much  more  numerous.  He 
who  intends  to  make  an  artistic  reproduction  of  them,  or  who  wishes  to 
choose  them  with  a  view  to  some  special  purpose,  should  therefore  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  characters  proper  to  each,  and  seek  for  their  differences. 

Nevertheless,  certain  common  characters  always  unite  them,  which 
establish  their  relationship,  their  analogies,  and  their  resemblance.  It 
is  these  qualities,  easily  found  in  the  great  majority  of  horses,  which, 
hereafter,  we  propose  to  consider. 

But  an  important  observation  should  first  of  all  be  made  with 
reference  to  the  documents  of  which  we  are  about  treating.  It  is,  that 
they  constitute  only  mean  data  capable  of  directing  and  aiding  the 
artists  or  amateurs  who  are  making  their  debut.  We  cannot  see  in 
them  absolute  ideas  beyond  which  everything  is  false.  They  are  only 
beacons,  landmarks  of  reference  to  be  consulted,  which,  whilst  showing 
general  harmonious  relations  of  the  form  of  the  horse,  will  cause  gross 
errors,  regrettable  mistakes,  and  opinions  falsely  founded. 

Since  Bourgelat's  time,  several  observers,  besides  Saint-Bel  and 
Vallon,  have  endeavored  to  establish  the  relations  of  the  dimensions 
which  should  exist  between  the  parts  of  the  horse's  body. 

Professor  Colin,1  a  long  time  ago,  indicated  the  mean  length  of 

1  G.  Colin,  Physiologic  compare  des  animaux  domestiques,  lere  £d.,  t.  i  p.  252,  Paris,  1855. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      359 

the  bony  segments  of  the  members.  Our  colleagues,  M.  Neumann  !  and 
Professor  Lemoigne,2  of  Milan,  have  confirmed,  on  their  part,  the 
results  published  by  M.  Colin ;  we  will  say  the  same  about  our  own 
personal  researches.3 

But  Colonel  Duhousset  is  indeed  the  man  who,  in  France,  is  the 
most  interested  in  the  measurements  of  all  the  regions  of  the  horse. 
We  have  had  the  pleasure  of  guiding  him  in  his  first  attempts  and 
investigating,  afterwards,  the  correctness  of  his  observations.  These 
are  published  in  a  pamphlet,  from  which  we  have  borrowed  the  greater 
part  of  the  following  details.4  After  the  example  of  Bourgelat,  M. 
Duhousset  has  chosen  the  head  as  a  unit  of  measure,  and  considers  its 
length  from  the  poll  to  the  extremity  of  the  upper  lip.  This  dimen- 
sion, as  well  as  those  of  which  we  will  hereafter  speak,  is  obtained 
by  the  aid  of  a  compass  of  thickness,  and  not  by  the  tape-measure 
system,  in  order  to  avoid  the  causes  of  error  inherent  to  the  promi- 
nence of  the  parts  whose  outlines  this  measure  would  have  to  follow. 
It  is  also  well  that  the  animal  be  placed  in  normal  equilibrium,  and 
that  his  head,  a  little  raised,  should  as  nearly  as  possible  be  parallel  to 
the  direction  of  the  slope  of  the  shoulders. 

We  will  annex  to  our  description  the  following  drawing  (Fig.  127), 
a  reproduction  of  a  photograph  on  which  the  subject  is  shown  abso- 
lutely in  profile,  a  position  which  in  no  way  alters  the  reciprocal  rela- 
tions of  the  parts ; 5  the  animal  here  represented  was  as  high  as  he  was 
long. 

i 

"  The  length  of  the  head  almost  exactly  equals  the  distance : 

1st.  From  the  back  to  the  abdomen,  NO  (thickness  of  the  body). 

2d.   From  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the  point  of  the  arm,  HE  (shoulder). 

3d.   From  the  superior  fold  of  the  stifle-joint  to  the  point  of  the  hock,  J*J. 

4th.  From  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  ground,  JK. 

5th.  From  the  dorsal  angle  of  the  scapula  to  the  point  of  the  haunch,  D'D. 

6th.  From  the  xiphoid  region  to  the  fetlock-joint,  MI;  above  this  latter  for  large  horses  and 
race-horses;  below  and  in  the  middle,  in  small  horses  and  in  those  of  medium  size. 

7th.  From  the  superior  fold  of  the  stifle-joint  to  the  summit  of  the  croup  in  subjects  whose 
coxo-femoral  angle  is  large  ;  this  distance  is  always  less  in  other  cases  (G.  and  B.). 


1  G.  Neumann,  Des  aplombs  chez  le  cheval,  in  Journal  de  me'd.  ve"t.  milit.,  t.  viii.  p.  352. 

2  A.  Lemoigne,  Recherches  sur  la  m6canique  animate  du  cheval,  in  Rec.  de  me'd.  v6t.,  an  ne'e 
1877,  p.  81. 

3  See,  besides,  J.  Ki£ner,  Journal  de  1'agriculture,  anne"e  1884,  t.  ii.  p.  341.    (He  treats  there 
of  the  relation  of  the  widths  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  canons.) 

4  E.  Duhousset,  Le  cheval,  p.  63  et  suiv.,  Paris,  1881. 

5  In  measuring  a  horse  from  a  photograph,  it  is  necessary  to  take  him  absolutely  in  profile. 
Without  this  precaution  the  regions  are  not  shown  perpendicularly  upon  the  same  plane;  the 
length  and  the  height  of  those  which  are  more  distant  from  the  observer  appear  shorter  in  rela- 
tion to  those  which  are  nearer. 


360  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

"  Two  and  one-half  times  the  head  gives : 

1st.  The  height  of  the  withers,  H,  above  the  ground. 

2d.  The  height  of  the  top  of  the  croup  above  the  ground. 

3d.  Very  often  the  length  of  the  body  from  the  point  of  the  arm  to  that  of  the  buttock, 
although  for  a  long  time  Bourgelat's  type  has  been  rejected  as  a  purely  conventional  type,  short 
and  massive.  Our  drawing,  which  is  two  heads  and  a  half  in  length  and  in  height,  is  that  of  a 
horse  which  is  often  seen. 


FIG.  127.— The  proportions  of  the  horse  seen  in  profile. 


"  The  length  of  the  croup,  from  the  point  of  the  haunch  to  that  of  the  but- 
tock, DF,  is  always  less  than  that  of  the  head :  this  varies  from  5  to  10  centi- 
metres. As  to  its  width  from  one  haunch  to  the  other,  it  often  exceeds  only  very 
little  its  length  (often  it  is  equal  to  the  latter)  (G.  and  B.). 

"  The  Group,  DF,  exists  quite  accurately  in  length  four  times  in  the  same 
horse: 

1st.  From  the  point  of  the  buttock  to  the  inferior  part  of  the  stifle-joint,  FP. 

2d.  In  the  width  of  the  neck  at  its  inferior  attachment,  from  its  insertion  into  the  chest  to 
the  origin  of  the  withers,  SX. 

3d.  From  the  insertion  of  the  neck  into  the  chest  to  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  XQ,  when 
the  head  is  held  parallel  to  the  shoulder. 

4th.  Finally,  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  nostril,  nn't  or  to  the  commissure  of  the  lips. 

"  The  measure  of  one-half  of  the  head  will  also  guide  us  very  much  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  horse,  when  we  know  that  it  is  frequently  applied  to  several  of 
his  parts, — namely : 

1st.  From  the  most  prominent  point  of  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the  anterior  profile  of 
the  forehead,  above  the  eye,  PQ  (thickness  of  the  head). 

2d.  From  the  throat  to  the  superior  border  of  the  neck,  behind  the  poll,  QL  (attachment  of 
the  head). 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      361 

3d.    From  the  inferior  part  of  the  knee  to  the  coronet,  TT. 
4th.  From  the  base  of  the  hock  to  the  fetlock,  VU . 

5th.  Finally,  from  the  point  of  the  arm  to  the  articulation  of  the  elbow  (approximate  length 
of  the  arm)." 

The  proportions  of  the  head  are  also  of  great  importance  to  artists, 
who,  in  this  respect,  depend  entirely  too  much  upon  the  inspiration  of 
the  moment.  We  always  borrow  from  M.  Duhousset — whose  graphic 
precepts  appear  to  us  to  be  the  nearest  to  the  real  form — the  indications 
which  he  recorded  in  an  unpublished  work  upon  this  subject ;  we  will 
add  to  them,  in  passing,  our  personal  researches. 

"  Although  it  is  very  difficult/'  says  he,  "  when  we  speak  of  meas- 
urements taken  upon  the  living  horse,  to  form  anything  but  approxima- 
tions, still  we  think  we  are  very  near  the  truth  when  we  give  the  follow- 
ing results  which  proceed  from  our  numerous  observations.  The  head 
which  we  present  is  that  of  a  horse  which  is  frequently  seen  as  a 
medium  between  the  pleasure-horse  and  the  draught-horse."  In  this 
respect,  it  will  not  be  uninteresting  to  accompany  with  figures  the  two 
drawings  upon  which  are  found  the  measurements  we  are  speaking  of: 

HEAD  VIEWED   IN   PROFILE   (FIG.  128). 

Length,  AB.  from  the  poll  to  the  end  of  the  lips 0.60  m. 

Thickness,  CD,  from  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the  anterior  face  (half  a 

head) .    0.30  m. 

This  line  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  eye  and  is  taken  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  profile  of  the  anterior  face.  It  is  seen  in  many  common 
horses,  especially  in  the  heavy-draught  horses;  in  finer  subjects  it  is  a 
little  shorter  (G.  and  B.). 

Width,  IH,  of  the  neck  in  its  narrowest  part  (half  a  head) 0.30  m. 

It  is  frequently  greater,  which  is  noticed  whenever  the  superior  attachments 

of  the  neck  are  wanting  in  neatness  of  outline.    This  is  seen  in  lymphatic 

and  draught-horses,  and  in  those  which  are  excessively  corpulent  (G.  and  B.). 

Distance,  OR,  from  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  superior  commissure 

of  the  nostril  (G.  and  B.)  (half  a  head) 0.30  m. 

It  is  greater  in  the  common  head  and  in  one  which  is  too  long. 

Distance,  AO,  from  the  poll  to  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye 0.22m. 

This  distance  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  head  (PQ),  taken  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  profile  of  the  anterior  face,  and  passing  the  level  of  the  maxil- 
lary fissure  and  the  maxillary  spine. 

Again,  it  is  equal  to  QO,  from  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  maxillary 
fissure ;  and  to  PG,  from  the  middle  of  the  face  to  the  commissure  of  the 
lips  (G.  and  B.). 
The  distance,  PE,  from  the  middle  of  the  face  to  the  maxillary  spine  is  about 

one-sixth  of  the  total  length  of  the  head 0.10  m. 

The  line  BE,  considered  from  the  end  of  the  lips  to  the  maxillary  spine  is  equal : 

To  EF,  from  the  maxillary  spine  to  the  external  auditory  hiatus,  visible  only  upon  the 

skull. 

To  HO,  from  the  insertion  of  the  throat  into  the  intermaxillary  space  to  the  commis- 
sure of  the  lips  (G.  and  B.). 

To  QR,  from  the  maxillary  fissure  to  the  superior  commissure  of  the  nostril  (G.  and  B.). 
To  QB,  from  the  maxillary  fissure  to  the  end  of  the  lips  (G.  and  B.). 
To  OD,  from  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  curved  portion  of  the  border  of  the 

lower  jaw,  provided  the  line  CD  be  in  proportion  (G.  and  B.). 

Finally,  very  often  to  OH,  from  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  insertion  of  the 
throat  into  the  intermaxillary  space  (G.  and  B.). 


362  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

A  very  frequent  equality  is  that  which  exists  between  the  distances: 
OB,  from  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  end  of  the  lips. 
AH,  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  insertion  of  the  throat  into  the  intermaxillary 

space. 
And  HB,  from  the  latter  point  to  the  end  of  the  lip. 


FIG.  128. — The  proportions  of  the  head  viewed  in  profile. 
HEAD   VIEWED   IN   FRONT   (FIG.  129). 

M.  Duhousset  adds  that  if,  in  order  to  continue  our  examination,  we  regard 
the  head  in  front,  we  find  its  greatest  width  in  AB,  extreme  points  of  the  orbi- 
tal arches. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      363 

This  width  is  22  centimetres. 
It  is  also  equal  to : 

AC,  from  one  arch  to  the  poll. 

AD,  from  one  arch  to  the  middle  of  the  face. 

DE,  from  the  middle  of  the  face  to  the  end  of  the  lips. 


FIG.  129.— The  proportions  of  the  head  viewed  in  front. 

From  the  auditory  hiatus,  G,  to  the  maxillary  spine,  F,  it  is  the  same  distance  as  from  this 
point  to  the  end  of  the  lips,  E,  and  still  better  to  the  end  of  the  teeth. 

The  line  GC,  from  the  auditory  hiatus  to  the  poll,  equals  one-sixth  of  the  head,  or  10 
centimetres;  the  line  -46?,  from  the  orbital  arch  to  the  auditory  hiatus,  is  a  little  longer  and 
measures  12  centimetres. 


364 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


The  distance  FT,  comprised  between  the  two  maxillary  spines,  is  18  centimetres. 
It  is  of  the  same  value  as : 

OO,  distance  from  one  internal  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  other  (G.  and  B.). 
Fit,  distance  from  the  maxillary  spine  to  the  superior  commissure  of  the  correspond- 
ing nostril  (G.  and  B.). 

FP,  from  the  maxillary  spine  to  the  supra-orbit  (G.  and  B.). 
From  the  auditory  hiatus,  G,  to  the  tip  of  the  ear,  approximate  length  of  this  latter 

organ  (G.  and  B.). 

And  PQ,  from  the  supra-orbit  to  the  insertion  of  the  ear  upon  the  poll  (G.  and  B.). 
From  the  poll  to  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye.  CO,  the  distance  is  equal  to  that  from  this 
last  point  to  the  commissure  of  the  lips,  OT,  and  from  the  maxillary  spine  to  the  superior  lips, 
FS  (G.  and  B.). 

The  separation,  TT,  of  the  two  commissures  of  the  lips  is  almost  the  distance  from  the 
superior  border  of  the  orbital  arch  to  the  base  of  the  ear  or  to  the  auditory  hiatus. 

In  a  state  of  rest,  the  external  limit  of  the  separation  of  the  nostrils  does  not  exceed  the 
width  of  the  knee ;  the  same  distance  often  exists  between  the  base  of  the  ears,  in  quietude, 
over  the  region  of  the  poll.  We  have  intentionally  represented  in  the  figure  the  latter  directed 
in  different  directions,  in  order  to  show  that  when  the  external  part  of  the  ear  is  turned  back- 


FIG.  130.— Comparative  proportions  of  the  man  and  the  horse. 

ward,  it  none  the  less  preserves  its  accolade  form,  more  or  less  marked  according  to  the  fineness 
of  the  subject,  and  characterizing  at  rest  the  internal  curve  of  the  ear. 

The  limit,  MN,  of  the  lips  exceeds  very  little  that  of  the  nostrils ;  in  many  heads  displaying 
harmonious  proportions,  this  distance  is  one-half  of  AB. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      365 

As  to  that  which  concerns  the  comparative  proportions  of  man  and 
horse,  the  reader  may  gather  information  from  Fig.  130,  which  repre- 
sents a  man  of  1.70  m.  mounted  upon  a  horse  of  1.60  m.  The  latter 
is  in  the  position  of  rassembler,  ready  to  begin  the  step.1 

B. — Angular  Relations  of  the  Osseous  Segments. 

Besides  the  relations  of  length,  width,  and  thickness  which  exist 
between  the  different  regions  of  the  body,  it  is  also  important  to  know 
the  relations  of  direction  possessed  by  the  different  bony  regions  super- 
posed one  upon  the  other  to  form  the  members.  These  relations,  as 
we  have  seen,  have  an  influence  upon  the  production  of  speed  and  force. 

From  this  mode  of  superposition,  angles  are  produced  upon  the 
course  of  the  various  bones,  whose  summit  always  corresponds  to  the 
centre  of  movement  of  an  articulation,  and  whose  sinus  is  either  in  the 
anterior  or  the  posterior  part  of  the  particular  region. 

But  as  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  have  a  variable  external  configura- 
tion, and  as  their  axis  of  figure  does  not  always  terminate  in  an  artic- 
ular centre, — witness  the  femur,  whose  surfaces  of  contact  with  the 
pelvis  and  the  tibia  are  situated  internal  to  and  behind  the  median  line 
of  the  bone, — it  follows  that  we  can  logically  determine  the  angles  of 
locomotion  only  after  having  previously  ascertained  the  axis  of  move- 
ment of  each  of  their  branches.  Now,  the  latter  are  obtained  by  simply 
uniting  to  each  other  the  articular  centres,  which  are  at  the  same  time 
the  centres  of  rotation  of  the  said  branches.  All  researches  not  founded 
upon  this  experimental  mode  are  therefore  at  once  condemned  as  being 
vitiated  by  arbitrariness  and  error.  ,The  analysis  of  the  following 
theory  will  give  the  proof. 

Theory  of  the  Similitude  of  the  Angles  and  the  Parallel- 
ism of  the  Bony  Segments. — More  than  half  a  century  ago,  in 
1835,  Captain  Morris,2  later  commanding  general  of  the  Imperial  Guard, 
published  a  pamphlet  in  which  was  expressed  the  opinion  that  in  all 
well-formed  horses  the  same  articular  angles  had  a  uniform  opening  or 
size  and  the  osseous  segments  inclined  in  the  same  direction, — were  parallel. 
Again,  these  bony  segments  were  inclined  at  an  angle  of  4&  degrees  to 
the  horizon.  Whence  it  follows  that  the  head,  the  shoulder,  the  thigh, 
and  the  pastern  on  one  hand ;  the  neck,  the  humerus,  the  croup,  and 
the  leg  on  the  other,  in  order  to  combine  the  conditions  of  beauty,  were 


1  For  further  details,  see  E.  Duhousset,  Etude  sur  les  proportions  du  cheval,  d'apres  son 
ossature,  in  Illustration,  nos.  des  18-25,  Aout  et  ler  Septembre,  1883. 

2  Capitaine  Morris,  Essai  sur  l'Ext6rieur  du  cheval,  Paris,  1835,  chez  Mme.  Huzard,  rue  de 
1'Eperon. 


366 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


regarded  as  having  the  same  inclination,  the  same  parallelism,  and, 
finally,  forming,  two  by  two,  angles  of  90  degrees. 

Such,  in  substance,  is  Morris's  theory,  by  the  aid  of  which  he  was 
led  to  construct  the  horse  whose  type  he  gives  at  the  head  of  his  treatise, 


and  which  we  consider  it  our  duty  to  reproduce  with  the  most  scrupu- 
lous accuracy  (Fig.  131).  It  is  sufficient  for  us  to  look  at  this  drawing 
to  see  that  the  author  himself  duly  appreciated  the  maxim  of  Des- 
cartes, which  he  recommends  to  the  attention  of  his  readers  :  "  He  who 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      367 

wishes  to  know  the  truth  should,  at  least  once  in  his  life,  doubt  all 
that  he  has  been  taught.'7  It  will  be  acknowledged  that  the  general 
might  have  been  better  inspired ;  not  only  was  he  satisfied  to  doubt, 
but  he  never  learned  what  he  represented  ! 

Still,  it  is  upon  this  horse  that  he  traced  his  geometrical  lines.  It 
is  true  that  he  himself  admits  that  the  directions  considered  are  not 
strictly  those  of  the  bones,  but  those  of  the  regions  whose  base  they.  form. 
With  such  a  reservation  we  may  conceive  that  the  most  inventive  mind 
has  a  free  field  and  may  persuade  itself  into  believing  in  the  objective 
reality  of  its  conceptions,  whatever  may  be  their  exaggerations. 

We  would  not  oblige  the  reader  to  formulate  an  opinion  upon  the 
theory  of  the  similitude  of  the  angles  and  the  parallelism  of  the  bony 
segments  if  the  views  of  General  Morris  had  not  found  partisans,  even 
among  men  of  great  merit.  His  arguments  in  favor  of  his  doctrine  are 
(the  expression  is  not  too  strong)  absolutely  unintelligible.  As  to  the 
theory  of  the  similitude  of  the  angles,  taken  in  itself,  it  has  no  scien- 
tific value,  since  common  sense  and  facts  are  opposed  to  it.  Its  only 
merit  consists  in  having  drawn  horsemen's  attention  to  a  question 
formerly  completely  ignored. 

The  most  judicious  criticism  of  it  that  we  know  of  is  that  of  our  colleague 
of  the  school  of  Toulouse,  Professor  Neumann.1  We  will  review  his  principal 
arguments,  which,  in  all  points,  are  the  same  as  ours. 

And  first  of  all,  since  the  ideal  conditions  of  speed  imply  certain  angles  and 
certain  inclinations  of  the  bones,  how  is  it  that  these  conditions  are  applicable 
only  to  the  horse  and  not  to  other  animals  as  swift  as  the  horse,  for  example,  the 
hare,  the  dog,  the  gazelle,  etc.?  Whence  comes  this  exception  to  the  laws  of 
nature,  which  always  show  us  organisms  adapted  in  the  same  manner  to  the 
same  needs  ?  It  being  granted  that  long  members  and  a  tall  form  are  especially 
necessary  to  produce  speed,  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  move  extensively 
under  the  body ;  it  being  granted,  on  the  other  hand,  as  a  deduction  of  this  prin- 
ciple, that  animals  with  long  members  have  all  their  articular  angles  very  open, 
we  do  not  see  why  the  horse,  so  very  similar  to  them  with  regard  to  locomotion, 
should  have  been  endowed  with  a  particular  and  contrary  disposition  residing  in 
the  closing  of  his  angles  and  the  parallelism  of  his  bony  segments.  A  priori,  the 
theory  of  Morris  presents  itself,  then,  for  examination  as  an  exception  to  the 
natural  laws  of  speed,  which  should  already  arouse  our  apprehensions  against  its 
consequences. 

Let  us  pursue  the  purely  theoretical  objections  which  result  from  its  appli- 
cation to  the  construction  of  the  horse ;  this  M.  Neumann  has  very  fortunately 
attempted  ;  we  will  resume  our  colleague's  reasoning  and  confirm  it  with  our  own 
observations. 

In   subjects  which  are  well   formed  the  length  of  the   anterior  and   the 


1  G.  Neumann,  Des  aplombs  chez  le  cheval,  in  Journal  des  v6t£rinaires  militaires,  t.  viii. 
p.  352. 


368 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


posterior  members  is  about  equal ;  the  excess  of  the  height  at  the  withers  over 
that  at  the  croup  results  most  usually  from  the  projection  of  the  spinal  apophyses 
above  the  scapular  cartilages. 


FIG.  132. 


FIG.  133. 


This  being  admitted,  let  us  represent  (Fig.  132)  the  anterior  member  of  a 
horse  of  medium  height  with  the  oblique  long  segments  inclined  45  degrees  to 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      369 

the  horizon,  as  affirmed  by  General  Morris.  Again,  let  us  give  to  each  segment 
its  medium  length,  such  as  has  been  determined  by  the  concordant  observations 
of  MM.  Colin,  Neumann,  Lemoigne,  and  our  own, — namely : 

For  the  shoulder 0.41  m. 

For  tho  arm 0.31  m. 

For  the  forearm 0.36  m. 

For  the  knee 0.05m. 

For  the  canon 0.24m. 

And  for  the  phalangal  segment 0.17  m.  ~ 

Then  project  each  region  upon  the  vertical  line  ox,  which  means  nothing 
else  than  the  height  of  the  member  above  the  ground. 

Finally,  calculate  the  sides  a,  b,  and  c,  which  belong  to  the  right-angled 
isosceles  triangles  having  for  hypothenuses  the  recognized  length  of  the  shoulder, 
the  arm,  and  the  phalanges. 

We  will  have : 

a  =  Y^^  =  0.28991  m. 

From  which  results 

2a2  =  (0.41)2. 
Likewise,  we  will  have : 

b  =  JgyS)*  =  0<2i920  m.  and  c  =  y&&-  =  0.11313  m. 

2  2i 

Add  the  values  of  a,  b,  and  c  thus  obtained  to  those  of  the  vertical  segments 
which  are  projected  in  their  actual  length ;  add  to  them  0.12  m.  for  the  projec- 
tion of  the  cartilage  of  prolongment,  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  the  hoof,  the 
articular  cartilages,  the  skin,  etc.,  and  we  will  obtain  the  following  results : 


VERTICAL   HEIGHT,    OX,  OF  THE  ANTERIOR  MEMBER  ABOVE  THE  GROUND. 

Shoulder  (a) 0.28991m. 

Arm  (6) 0.21920  m. 

Forearm 0.36000m. 

Carpus 0.05000  m. 

Metacarpus 0.24000m. 

Phalanges  (c) 0.11313  m. 

Cartilage  of  prolongation,  shoe,  hoof,  etc 0.12000  m. 

Total  height  of  the  member 1.39224  m. 

The  same  calculations  are  applied  to  the  posterior  member  according  to  the 
following  medium  length  (Fig.  133) : 

Ilium 0.26m. 

Femur 0.39  m. 

Tibia 0.36m. 

Tarsus 0.08  m. 

Metatarsus 0.28  m. 

Phalanges 0.17  m. 

24 


370  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

VERTICAL   HEIGHT,    ox,  OF  THE   POSTERIOR   MEMBER  ABOVE  THE  GROUND. 

Pelvis  (a) 0.28384  m. 

Thigh  (6) 0.27575  m. 

Leg(c) 0.25455m. 

Tarsus 0.08000  m. 

Metatarsus 0.28000m. 

Digital  region 0.12020m. 

Vertical  distance  between  the  summit  of  the  croup  and  that  of  the 

haunch  0.02000  m. 

Thickness  of  the  interarticular  menisci,  the  cartilages,  the  skin, 

the  shoe,  the  hoof 0.05000  m. 


Total  height  of  the  member 1.36434  m. 

Whence  it  follows  that  if  the  locomotory  segments  of  the  horse  were  really 
inclined,  as  General  Morris  asserts,  a  subject  of  medium  size  would  measure  only 
1.39  m.  at  the  withers  and  only  1.26  m.  at  the  croup.  Besides,  the  summit  of 
his  withers  would  be  12  centimetres  higher  than  that  of  the  croup!  Medium 
horses  so  small,  or  withers  so  prominent,  are  no  longer  seen !  What  is  the  con- 
clusion ?  Evidently  that  the  articular  segments  are  not  inclined  45  degrees  to 
the  horizon  and  that  the  angles  are  more  open  than  the  theory  asserts. 

On  the  other  hand,  M.  Neumann  adds,  "  Since  some  kind  of  mathematical 
accuracy  is  the  principal  merit  of  this  conception,  is  it  not  strange  that,  in  a 
practical  question,  ideal  lines,  which  are  left  to  the  appreciation  of  those  who 
wish  to  apply  them,  are  established  as  a  foundation  ?  For,  if  the  direction  of 
the  region  by  itself  be  considered,  it  is  seen — to  speak  of  the  shoulder  alone — 
that  this  direction  may  vary  from  five  to  six  degrees  upon  the  same  subject, 
according  to  the  line  which  one  wishes  to  obtain.  Each  region  is  not  so  well 
delineated.  It  does  not  offer  points  of  delimitation  so  precise  and  so  invariable 
that  the  lines  which  may  be  taken  as  a  basis  shall  be  the  same  in  all  horses 
which  are  made  an  object  of  comparison ;  and,  if  these  lines  are  not  the  same, 
of  what  use  can  they  be  in  that  comparative  examination  of  the  subjects  which 
is  necessary  to  the  establishing  of  a  theory  ? 

"  An  oblique  croup  will  necessarily  correspond  to  an  oblique  shoulder ;  a 
horizontal  croup  to  a  straight  shoulder;  so  that  draught-horses  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  connoisseurs,  would  be  well  adapted  to  their  service,  would  present, 
on  the  contrary,  a  very  defective  conformation,  if  such  a  theory  was  to  be  the 
guide ;  to  an  oblique  croup  (that  of  the  race-horse)  would  correspond  an  elbowed 
hock  (that  of  the  draught-horse) ;  the  anterior  and  the  posterior  pasterns  should 
have  the  same  direction,  whilst  it  is  well  known  that  the  latter  are  nearly  always 
straighter  than  the  former ;  and  many  other  details  upon  which  we  do  not  wish 
to  insist." 

Thus,  from  a  purely  theoretical  point  of  view,  the  conception  of 
the  similitude  of  the  angles  and  the  parallelism  of  the  bony  segments 
is  unsupportable,  nor  is  it  less  so  if  we  endeavor  to  verify  it  experi- 
mentally. 

In  order  to  do  this,  as  we  have  said  at  the  beginning,  it  is  necessary 
to  determine  with  the  greatest  care  the  external  landmarks  of  the  axes 
or  centres  of  rotation  around  which  the  osseous  levers  turn. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      371 

The  Determination  of  the  Articular  Angles. — Several  at- 
tempts have  already  been  made  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  articular 
angles  of  the  horse.  Vallon1  and  Daudet2  have,  indeed,  indicated  in 
their  works  angular  openings  in  opposition  to  the  ideas  of  General 
Morris,  in  vogue  at  the  time  among  all  horsemen.  But  these  observers 
no  doubt  lacked  sufficient  instruments,  judging  from  the  conclusions 
to  which  they  were  led,  and  which  otherwise  fail  in  accuracy.  They  do 
not  relate  in  their  writings  either  their  method  or  the  class  of  horses 
they  experimented  upon.  Some  of  their  ideas  are  even  so  far  from 
being  true,  that  we  are  tempted  to  believe  that  in  many  cases  they  de- 
pended only  upon  the  accuracy  of  their  eyesight.  However  it  may  be, 
and  though  their  researches  were  of  so  little  account,  it  was  already 
praiseworthy  to  invalidate  in  their  time,  as  they  have  done,  the  classical 
opinions  of  the  day. 

In  this  way  they  made  it  easier  for  their  followers  to  obtain  the 
general  acceptation  and  the  ultimate  triumph  of  ideas  for  which  they 
had,  so  to  speak,  paved  the  way. 

Little  by  little  the  theory  of  Morris  fell  into  disrepute,  unable  as  it 
was  to  stand  the  slightest  investigation,  and  it  would  have  remained 
thus  if  some  observers  of  merit  had  not  very  recently  attempted  to  set 
it  up  again. 

And  yet,  as  early  as  1865,  Professor  Alexis  Lemoigne,3  of  Milan, 
published  his  researches  upon  the  articular  angles,  with  the  intention 
of  determining  the  direction  of  the  final  resultant  of  the  horse's  efforts 
in  the  act  of  pulling.  This  is  what  they  consisted  of: 

Our  learned  colleague,  in  his  measurements,  made  use  of  the  tape- 
measure,  the  hippometer,  the  plumb-line,  and  the  goniometer,  provided 
with  a  spirit-level. 

First  of  all  he  sought  to  establish  with  great  accuracy,  upon  the 
skeleton,  the  axis  of  rotation  of  the  bones, — that  is  to  say,  the  centres 
of  movement  forming  the  mathematical  summit  of  the  angles  of  loco- 
motion. We  have,  on  our  side,  verified  M.  Lemoigne's  principles ;  they 
are  absolutely  precise.  Here  is  the  resume.  The  reader  can  more  easily 
follow  this  review  by  consulting  Fig.  1 34,  which  represents  the  copy  of 
a  photograph  of  Fitz-Gladiator. 

a.  Anterior  Member : 

1st.  Scapula- humeral  Axis. — Its  point  of  external  localization,  upon  the  living 
animal,  is  situated  about  at  the  level  of  the  convexity  of  the  great  trochanter. 

1  A.  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  Saumur,  1865. 

2  Daudet,  Traite  de  locomotion  du  cheval  relatif  &  1' Equitation,  Saumur,  1864. 

8  Alexis  Lemoigne,  in  Giornale  delle  razze  degli  animali  utili  e  di  medicina  veterinaria, 
fascic  11  et  12,  Naples,  1865 ;  ibid.,  in  Recueil  de  medecine  veterinaire,  annee  1877,  pp.  81  et  208. 


372 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


2d.  Humero-radial  Axis. — Point  of  external  localization :  at  the  humeral  in- 
sertion of  the  external  lateral  ligament  of  this  articulation. 

3d.  Radio-carpal  Axis. — Point  of  external  localization :  a  centimetre  below 
the  external  and  inferior  tuberosity  of  the  radius. 

4th.  Metacarpo-phalangeal  Axis. — Point  of  external  localization :  at  the  su- 
perior insertion  of  the  corresponding  lateral  ligament  of  the  articulation. 

We  have  intentionally  omitted,  as  of  little  importance  to  our  subject,  the 
intercarpal  and  the  interphalangal  axes  also  established  by  M.  Lemoigne. 


FIG.  134.— The  articular  angles  upon  a  drawing  from  a  photograph  of  Fitz-Gladiator. 

b.  Posterior  Member : 

1st.  Coxo-femoral  Axis. — Point  of  external  localization :  a  little  below  and 
behind  the  convexity  of  the  trochanter. 

2d.  Femoro-tibial  Axis. — Point  of  external  localization  :  a  little  below  the  su- 
perior insertion  of  the  corresponding  lateral  ligament  of  this  articulation. 

3d.  Tlbio-tarsal  or  Metatarsal  Axis. — Point  of  external  localization  :  centre  of 
the  astragalus. 


POINTS   FROM    WHICH  THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      373 


4th.  Metatarso-phalangal  Axis. — Point  of  ex- 
ternal localization :  at  the  superior  insertion  of  the 
corresponding  lateral  ligament  of  the  articulation. 

All  these  points  of  localization — the  points  where 
the  centre  of  rotation  can.be  located  externally — can 
with  a  little  practice  be  easily  recognized  in  the  liv- 
ing animal.  But  it  is  indispensable  that  this  habit 
should  be  acquired  by  numerous  experiments  ;  other- 
wise, those  who  explore  and  measure  are  exposed  to 
almost  inevitable  mistakes.  Nor  are  all  subjects 
suitable  for  such  an  experiment ;  there  are  some 
that  must  be  absolutely  rejected  :  those  whose  state 
of  obesity  conceals  not  only  from  sight  but  also 
from  touch  those  external  points  of  which  we  have 
been  speaking. 

These  restrictions  being  established,  we  will 
suppose  that  upon  a  chosen  subject  all  the  articular 
centres  have  been  marked  with  a  colored  pencil  or 
chalk.  In  order  to  obtain  the  imaginary  axes  of 
movement  of  the  osseous  levers  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  join  these  points  by  straight  lines. 

This  direction  should  be  determined  accurately 
in  a  special  manner  for  the  shoulder,  the  coxa,  and 
the  phalanges,  which  are  connected  with  only  one 
articular  centre.     All  the  other  re- 
gions are  indeed  placed  between  two 
of  these  centres,  and  therefore  as  soon 
as   the  latter  are   discovered   their 
direction  is  known. 

It  is  M.  Lemoigne's  opinion,  as 
well  as  ours,  that  the  line  of  direc- 
tion of  the  shoulder  starts  from  the 
scapulo-humeral  centre,  and  supe- 
riorly divides  the  dorsal  border  of  the 
scapula  at  about  two  centimetres  be- 
hind the  line  of  the  scapular  spine. 

That  of  the  ilium  extends  from 
the  coxo-femoral  centre  to  the  angle 
of  the  haunch,  which  it  divides  in 
its  middle. 

Finally,  that  of  the  phalanges 
extends  from  the  metacarpo-  or 
metatarso-phalangal  centre  to  the 
ground,  and  remains  almost  parallel 
to  the  anterior  profile  of  the  digital 
region. 


The  animal  being  placed  and 
maintained  in  its  normal  equi- 


FIG.  135. 
1.  Large     toise 
used  as  a  compass 
of  thickness. 
I    2.  Compass    of 
thickness     prop- 
erly so  called. 


374 


THE  EXTERIOR  OF  THE  HORSE. 


librium,  the  top  of  the  goniometer,  M.  Lemoigne  says,  is  placed  in 
juxtaposition  "  to  the  external  determining  point  of  one  of  the  axes  of 
rotation ;  an  arm  of  the  instrument  is  directed  in  such  a  manner  that 
its  line  of  direction  passes  through  the  external  determining  point  of 
the  axis  of  rotation  which  is  immediately  superior ;  the  other  arm  is 
placed  in  a  perfectly  horizontal  direction, — which  is  ascertained  by 
means  of  a  spirit-level, — and  the  degrees  of  the  angle  thus  formed 
between  the  horizontal  and  the  osseous  segment  whose  inclination  is 
desired  are  then  counted.  .  .  ." 

By  taking  these  precautions,  and  by  the  greatest  care,  M.  Lemoigne 
has  been  able  to  determine  the  following  figures,  which  represent,  upon 
fourteen  subjects,  the  mean  of  the  inclinations  of  the  osseous  levers 
and  the  angles  which  they  form. 

TABLE  A. 


INCLINATION   OF   THE   OSSEOUS   SEGMENTS   UPON   THE    HORIZON. 

SEGMENTS. 

Medium. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Medium 
adopted. 

65^ 
57 
35 
78 
65 

70° 
65 
43 

85 
72 

59° 
53 
28 

70 
55 

65° 
55 
35 
78 
65 

Uiac                     .             

Tibial                      ...      .            ... 

OPENING   OF   THE   ARTICULAR   ANGLES   IN   STATION. 

SEGMENTS. 

Medium. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Medium 
adopted. 

Scapulo-humeral   

121° 
148 
158 
117 
144 
152 
158 

130° 
157 
170 
130 
151 
158 
165 

116° 
137 
152 
100 
138 
148 
150 

121° 
148 
158 
117 
144 
150 
158 

Metacarpo-phalangal  

Tibio-metatarsal 

We,  too,  have  attempted  to  determine  the  standard  inclinations  of 
the  articular  segments  of  the  horse,  and  this  we  have  done  upon  nearly 
a  hundred  subjects  of  different  conformations. 

For  this  purpose  we  have  constructed  (Fig.  135)  a  toise  (1)  and  a 
compass  for  measuring  thickness  (2).  Each  of  these  instruments  is 
composed  of  a  strong,  square  rule  bearing  two  graduations  disposed  in 
an  inverse  sense  from  each  other,  upon  which  glides  by  gentle  friction 
a  gauge,  B  and  6,  which  may  be  held  in  position  by  means  of  a 
pressure-screw.  By  raising  the  rod  A,  the  large  rule  forms  a  standard. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      375 


and  is  used  to  measure  the  height ;  by  turning  the  gauge  J5,  after  having 
completely  withdrawn  it,  it  becomes  a  compass  of  thickness  to  measure 
the  great  lengths.  As  to  the  compass  of  thickness  properly  so  called, 
merely  turning  it  will  transform  it  into  a  small  toise. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  connection  with  M.  Vignardou,  principal 
of  the  department  of  physics  and  chemistry  at  the  Alfort  school,  we 
have  constructed  a  goniometer  by  the  use  of  which  we  ean^dispensc. 
with  the  spirit-level,  an  instrument  very  difficult  to  use  on  an  irritable 
horse. 

Suppose,  for  example,  we  are  measuring  (Fig.  136)  the  inclination 
of  the  segment,  AS,  upon  the  horizon,  XY.  To  do  this,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  estimate  the 
angle,  BAP,  formed  by  this 
segment  with  the  vertical 
line,  and  deduct  90  degrees 
from  the  angle  obtained.  It 
is  quite  easy  to  arrive  at 
this  result  by  employing  the 
following  instrument,  which 
we  intend  to  designate  by 
the  name  arthrogoniometer, 
on  account  of  its  use. 


It  is  composed  (Fig.  138)  of 
a  compass  of  precision,  made  of 
wood,  whose  branches  are  0.65  m. 
long,  and  which  at  the  same 
time  is  used  as  a  compass  of 
thickness. 

Upon  one  of  these  branches 
a  semicircular  piece  of  copper, 
very  accurately  graduated,  well 
centred,  and  having  a  radius  of 
0.20  m.,  is  fixed  by  means  of 
movable  screws.  The  centre  of  FIG.  136. 

this    circle    corresponds    to    the 

axis  of  rotation  of  the  branches,  an  axis  upon  which  a  small  metallic  rod 
0.10  m.  long  is  screwed  perpendicularly,  upon  which  freely  slides  a  hollou 
cylinder  supporting  a  plumb-line. 

In  order  to  use  the  arthrogoniometer,  we  stand  the  horse  in  his  normal 
equilibrium,  and  then  place  the  articulation  of  the  instrument  over  an  articular 
centre,  as,  for  example,  the  scapulo-humeral  (Fig.  137).  The  observer  stations 
himself  about  fifty  centimetres  from  the  animal ;  he  is  careful  not  to  touch  the 
latter,  and  recommends  the  assistant  to  hold  his  hand  over  the  eye  of  the  cor- 
responding side,  so  that  the  horse  may  not  be  frightened  by  the  examination 


376 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


about  being  made.  This  done,  the  operator  places  the  instrument  in  such  a 
position  that  the  branch  of  the  compass  to  which  the  half-circle  is  fastened  is 
perfectly  tangent  to  the  plumb-line.  Then  he  gently  moves  the  other  branch 
until  it  has  the  direction  of  the  osseous  segment  the  inclination  of  which  he 
desires  to  obtain.  Having  again  proved  the  correct  position  of  the  apparatus, 
he  reads  upon  the  half-circle  the  value  of  the  angle  contained  between  the  two 
branches,  and  deducts  90  degrees  from  this  angle  to  obtain  the  desired  inclina- 
tion. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  we  simply  desire  to  measure  an  articular  angle,  the 
plumb-line  is  needless.     It  is  unfastened  from  the  sliding  cylinder,  and  the  two 


FIG.  137.— Use  of  the  arthrogoniometer  for 
measuring  the  articular  angles. 


FIG.   138. — Arthrogoniometer   for    measuring 
the  articular  angles. 


arms  of  the  arthrogoniometer  are  placed  in  the  prolongation  of  the  two  axes 
of  movement  whose  separation  we  desire  to  determine.  For  the  metacarpo-  and 
metatarso-phalangal  angles  an  ordinary  compass  is  used,  which  is  afterwards 
applied  upon  an  appropriate  protractor  in  order  to  obtain  the  angle  contained. 
Although,  in  reality,  the  metacarpus  and  the  metatarsus  are  not  absolutely  ver- 


POINTS  FROM   WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      377 

tical,  a  sufficient  approximation  is  nevertheless  obtained  by  considering  them  so 
to  determine  the  inclination  of  the  anterior  and  the  posterior  phalanges. 

By  operating  in  this  way  and  with  great  care  upon  a  large  number 
of  subjects  destined  for  different  services,  but  of  irreproachable  con- 
formation for  their  kind,  we  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  angles 
and  the  inclinations  given  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE   B. 

INCLINATION    OF   THE     SEGMENTS    OF    LOCOMOTION   UPON   THE    HORIZON  AND 
THE  VALUE   OF  THE   ARTICULAR  ANGLES   IN   FAST   HORSES. 


DESIGNATION  OF  THE  ANGLES. 

INCLINATION 

VALUE  OF  ANCLE 
CONTAINED. 

Of  the  Superior 
Segment. 

Of  the  Inferior 
Segment. 

Anterior  Member. 
Scapulo-humeral    

55° 
50°  to  55° 
90° 

30°  to  35° 
80° 
65°  to  70° 
90° 

60° 
90° 
60° 

80° 
65°  to  70° 
90° 
65° 

115° 
140°  to  145° 
150° 

110°  to  115° 
145°  to  150° 
155°  to  160° 
155° 

Humero-radial                 

Posterior  Member. 
Coxo-femoral      .          

Femoro-tibial 

Tibio-tarsal    

Metatarso-phalangal  . 

Notwithstanding  the  improvement  which  is  obtained  from  the  em- 
ployment of  the  arthrogoniometer,  the  measurement  of  all  the  angles 
of  locomotion  in  the  same  horse  was  none  the  less  a  long,  delicate,  and 
often  dangerous  operation.  It  was  necessary  to  place  the  horse  in 
equilibrium,  and  thus  maintain  him  during  the  entire  duration  of  the 
experiment, — that  is  to  say,  for  nearly  an  hour. 

In  order  to  gain  time  and  operate  with  more  accuracy,  we  have 
recently  conceived  the  idea  of  applying  photography  to  the  measure- 
ment of  the  articular  angles.  This  proceeding,  which  is  more  precise, 
more  convenient,  also  gives  more  security  to  the  observer.1 

It  consists  in  this  : 

Wafers  (white  or  black,  according  to  the  color  of  the  horse)  are  fastened  to 
the  skin  over  each  articular  centre.  Others  are  also  placed  on  the  withers,  the 
haunch,  and  the  hoofs,  which  are  used  as  marks  to  indicate  the  direction  of  the 
axtreme  segments  of  the  members  (shoulder,  croup,  phalanges).  Different 
measurements  are  then  taken :  the  height  at  the  withers  and  at  the  croup,  the 
length  of  the  body,  length  of  the  head,  etc. 

This  being  done,  the  horse  is  placed  in  the  direction  of  an  axis  marked  out 


1  G.  Barrier,  Sur  un  nouveau  proc£d£  de  mensuration  des  angles  articulaires,  in  Bulletin  de 
.a  Soc.  cent,  de  m£d.  v6ter.  (Recueil  de  medecine  velerinaire,  ann6e  1885,  p.  224). 


378  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

upon  the  ground.  On  the  other  hand,  a  photographic  apparatus  is  stationed 
upon  another  axis  perpendicular  to  the  first.  As  soon  as  the  animal  is  placed  in 
a  good  position,  and  his  members  are  in  their  normal  equilibrium,  the  photo- 
graph is  instantaneously  taken. 

The  photographic  proof  thus  obtained  is  in  some  measure  a  mathematical 
reduction  of  the  silhouette,  or  the  profile  of  the  subject,  and  the  measurements 
previously  taken  upon  the  latter,  then  compared  to  the  corresponding  dimensions 
of  the  photograph,  show  exactly  the  ratio  of  the  reduction  effected.  To  avoid 
the  causes  of  error  inherent  to  the  slight  alteration  of  forms  due  to  the  lenses, 
the  photographic  apparatus  is  placed  at  a  certain  distance,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  obtain  as  small  an  image  as  possible. 

Upon  this  image  the  wafers  serve  as  so  many  points  of  determination  or 
landmarks  which  it  will  be  sufficient  to  join  by  straight  lines  to  obtain  the  real 
direction  of  the  osseous  segments.  It  only  remains  now  to  estimate  with  a  pro- 
tractor the  inclination  of  each  line,  as  well  as  the  angles  which  are  formed  by 
their  union.  With  this  new  process  we  can  measure  quietly,  at  our  ease,  without 
fatigue,  without  danger,  and  whenever  convenient.  The  measurements  are  all 
comparable,  since  all  the  angles  of  the  same  subject  have  been  photographed  at 
the  same  time,  and  since  on  different  horses  we  operate  constantly  under  the  same 
conditions. 

The  results  obtained  are  very  analogous  to  those  already  indicated. 

What  we  have  said  with  regard  to  each  region,  concerning  the 
osseous  inclination  and  the  angular  relations,  excuses  us  from  entering 
here  into  more  minute  details  relative  to  the  numerous  variations  which 
are  observed  in  subjects  according  to  their  adaptation. 

We  will  not  speak  of  draught-horses  used  for  slow  work,  in  which 
the  service  at  a  walk  requires  only  bulk  and  muscle ;  their  scapulo- 
humeral  and  coxo-femoral  angles  are  always  more  open ;  the  others, 
on  the  contrary,  are  more  closed.  When  the  researches  of  M.  Le- 
moigne  appeared,  Professor  Neumann  was  the  only  one  who  submitted 
them  to  a  judicious  analysis;  and  as  the  criticisms  which  he  opposed 
to  them  have  an  important  value  and  may  equally  occur  to  the  mind 
of  the  reader,  it  is  our  duty  to  give  an  account  of  them,  inasmuch  as 
they  apply  to  us  also  who  have,  since  the  beginning,  sided  with  our 
Milan  colleague. 

M.  Neumann  has  reasoned  upon  these  things  in  a  purely  math- 
ematical light,  and,  in  this  respect,  no  objection  can  be  made  to  his 
deductions.  But  the  case  is  entirely  different  if  the  researches  of 
M.  Lemoigne  and  our  own  are  considered  as  a  very  accurate  means 
of  obtaining  information  upon  the  different  inclinations  of  the  bones 
of  fast  horses.  It  is  no  longer  a  problem  to  know  if  these  in- 
clinations can  be  calculated  with  strict  precision,  a  precision  which 
it  is  impossible  to  realize  in  the  researches  which  have  animal 
mechanics  for  their  object ;  it  practically  resolves  itself  into  this :  // 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      379 

being  granted  that  ike  angular  relations  of  the  osseous  levers  have  an 
immediate  influence  upon  the  development  of  speed  (we  think  that  we 
have  shown  this  a  propos  of  the  regions),  is  it  possible  to  estimate  these 
relations  with  more  accuracy  than  a  single  glance  of  the  eye  would  give, 
and,  this  being  so,  are  the  centres  of  rotation  obtained  by  the  process 
indicated  above  sufficiently  precise  to  allow  comparative  observations  to 
be  made  upon  different  subjects  and  afterwards  to  reason  in  a  general 
manner  upon  the  results  obtained  f 

Well,  there  is  no  doubt  but  the  question,  brought  down  to  these 
limits,  is  susceptible  of  a  positive  solution ;  and  however  approxima- 
tive this  solution  may  be,  it  will  always  be  better  than  the  state  of 
ignorance  in  which  the  observer  was  previously,  or  than  the  often 
erroneous  appreciations  suggested  by  our  senses.  Let  us  see,  besides, 
the  criticisms  of  M.  Neumann,  which,  without  contradiction,  we  our- 
selves would  have  presented  if  our  colleague  had  not  previously 
formulated  them.1 

First,  it  is  certainly  not  demonstrated  that  the  articular  angles  are 
always  of  the  same  geometrical  kind  for  the  same  bone ;  that  they 
possess  a  centre  and  only  one;  that  the  position  of  this  centre  is 
always  the  same  in  relation  with  the  external  surface  of  the  bone ; 
finally,  that  the  supposed  axis  of  rotation  is  perpendicular  to  a  cross- 
section  of  the  latter.  Nor  is  it  established,  either,  that  the  axes  pass- 
ing through  the  centres  of  rotation,  perpendicularly  to  the  plane  of 
movement,  invariably  meet  the  same  anatomical  points  of  the  external 
surface  of  the  bones.  All  this  is  true,  but  the  variations  among  dif- 
ferent animals  are  less  marked  than  M.  Neumann  seems  to  believe. 
We  will  go  further,  for  we  have  sought  to  determine  it,  and  say  that 
these  variations,  already  so  minute  in  the  hybrids  (mule,  hinny),  or  in 
subjects  of  the  same  genus  (ass),  are  recognized  with  extreme  difficulty 
and  are  even  unappreciable,  so  feeble  are  they,  among  the  representa- 
tives of  the  same  species.  Therefore,  although  these  objections  are 
applied  to  possible  and  even  probable  errors,  they  are  of  little  value  as 
concerns  definite  results,  and  may  be  neglected  without  great  incon- 
venience. 

This  is  not  the  case  in  the  search  for  the  points  of  external  data, 
or  location  of  the  axes  of  rotation  in  the  living  animal.  Errors  of 
one,  two,  or  three  centimetres,  either  above  or  below  the  point  indi- 
cated, are  easily  committed,  which  lead  without  a  doubt  to  solutions 


1  G.  Neumann,  Quelques  observations  sur  la  mecanique  animale,  a  propos  des  recherches 
de  M.  Alexis  Lemoigne,  in  Recueil  de  m^decine  v£terinaire,  annee  1877,  p.  489. 


3^80  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

entirely  erroneous.  This  is  not,  however,  an  irrefutable  argument. 
At  every  moment,  in  physiological  experiments,  we  find  ourselves  face 
to  face  with  such  difficulties,  and  notwithstanding  the  failures,  notwith- 
standing the  errors  every  day,  these  experiments  are  renewed,  and  sci- 
ence constantly  goes  on  reaping  benefits  from  them.  Must  we  say,  then, 
that  this  idea  should  be  renounced  ?  Must  we  reject  beforehand  and 
with  determination  the  facts  acquired  for  this  reason  alone,  that  they 
may  have  been  badly  collected,  wrongly  studied,  wrongly  interpreted, 
or  that  they  are  simply  approximative  ?  Certainly  not ;  this  would 
prove  a  deplorable  state  of  the  scientific  mind. 

Far  from  us  be  the  thought  of  drawing  this  conclusion  from  the 
criticisms  of  M.  Neumann.  Our  distinguished  colleague  (and  he  is  to 
be  praised  for  this)  has  signalized  the  danger ;  he  has  appealed  to  cor- 
roborating observations ;  he  has  shown  and  demonstrated  with  proof 
the  inevitable  errors  into  which  investigators  incompletely  prepared 
would  fall,  and  we  cannot  too  warmly  approve  his  aim.  All  eyes 
are  not  apt  to  see  well,  all  hands  are  not  skilled  in  exploring,  all 
horses  are  not  suitable  for  this  kind  of  study.  Let  it  be  well  noted 
that  if  the  results  obtained  by  two  observers  do  not  agree  in  an  abso- 
lute manner,  if  even  their  differences  appear  exaggerated,  it  is  not  less 
certain  that  these  results,  for  each  of  them,  can  still  be  compared,  for 
the  chances  are  great  that  whatever  error  is  committed  is  repeated 
everywhere  the  same  way.  In  M.  Lemoigne's  opinions  and  in  ours 
the  differences  are  insignificant ;  we  are  in  accord  as  to  his  articular 
angles.  In  table  B  (page  377)  we  gave  only  the  angular  relations-  of 
the  bones  in  fast  horses, — that  is  to  say,  in  animals  with  an  oblique 
shoulder,  a  straight  arm,  a  horizontal  croup,  and  a  straight  leg ;  this 
shows  why  our  scapulo-humeral  and  humero-radial  angles  are  a  little 
more  closed  and  our  tibio-tarsal  angle  a  little  more  open,  and  even  then 
the  opening  of  the  last  results,  perhaps,  from  the  fact  that  in  all  our 
estimations  we  have  considered  the  canon  as  vertical. 

Let  us  try  now,  as  M.  Neumann  has  done  above  in  order  to  refute 
the  theory  of  General  Morris,  to  estimate,  with  our  angles,  the  vertical 
height  of  the  members  of  a  horse  of  medium  size. 

Let  the  anterior  member  be  represented  schematically  with  its  axis  of  move- 
ment (Fig.  139).  The  heights  a,  6,  c  of  the  segments  which  do  not  themselves 
lie  parallel  with  the  vertical  line  are  the  sides  of  as  many  rectangular  triangles, 
whose  hypothenuse  and  one  of  the  adjacent  angles  are  known.  It  is  then  easy 
to  calculate  them  by  vulgar  trigonometrical  formula?,  and  we  have : 

a  =  0.41  m.  sin.  fiO°  =  0.35507  m. 
b  =  0.31  m.  sin.  55°  =  0.25394  m. 
c  =  0.17  m.  sill.  60°  =  0.14722  m. 


POINTS  FROM   WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      381 

Add  the  values  of  a,  b,  c,  thus  obtained,  to  those  of  the  vertical  segments, 
those  which  lie  parallel  in  their  actual  length  with  the  vertical  line ;  add  to  this 


FIG. 


FIG.  140. 


0.12  m.  for  the  prominence  of  the  scapular  cartilage,  the  thickness  of  the  shoe, 
hoof,  articular  cartilages,  skin,  etc.,  and  we  will  obtain  the  following  results : 


382  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

VERTICAL  HEIGHT  OF  THE  ANTERIOR  MEMBER  CALCULATED  FROM  THE  NOR- 
MAL LENGTH  OF  THE  SEGMENTS  AND  THE  REAL  ARTICULAR  ANGLES 
WHICH  THEY  FORM  WITH  EACH  OTHER. 

Shoulder  (a) 0.35507m. 

Arm  (b) 0.25394  m. 

Forearm 0.36000m. 

Carpus 0.05000  m. 

Metacarpus 0.24000m. 

Phalanges  (c) 0.14722  m. 

Cartilage  of  prolongation,  shoe,  hoof,  etc 0.12000  m. 


Total  of  the  member 1.52623  m. 

Same  height  calculated  from  the  figures  of  M.  Lemoigne l . 1.55316m. 

The  same  calculations  applied  to  the  posterior  member  (Fig.  140)  give  for 
the  values  of  a,  b,  c,  d  : 

a  =  0.26  m.  sin.  35°  =  0.14912  m. 
6  =  0.39  m.  sin.  80°  =  0.38407  m. 
c  =  0.36  m.  sin.  70°  =  0.33828  m. 
d  =  0.17  m.  sin.  65°  =  0.15407  m. 


VERTICAL   HEIGHT   OF  THE   POSTERIOR  MEMBER   CALCULATED   FROM  THE 
NORMAL   LENGTH  AND   INCLINATION  OF  THE  SEGMENTS. 

Ilium  (a) 0.14912m. 

Thigh  (6) 0.38407  m. 

Leg  (c) 0.33828  m. 

Tarsus 0.08000  m. 

Metatarsus 0.28000  m. 

Digital  region  (d) 0.15407  m. 

Vertical  distance  between  the  summit  of  the  croup  and  that  of 
the  haunch  ( we  have  intentionally  represented  it  as  very 

small) 0.02000  m. 

Thickness  of  the  interarticular  menisci,  cartilages,  skin,  shoe, 

hoof,  etc 0.05000  m. 


Total  of  the  member 1.45554  m. 

Same  height  calculated  from  the  figures  of  M.  Lemoigne 8    .  .  .  .    1.44448  m. 

Thus,  by  taking  M.  Lemoigne's  measurements  as  well  as  our  own 
as  a  base,  we  succeed  in  reconstructing  the  members  with  their  normal 
medium  height,  which  proves  the  relative  precision  of  our  observa- 
tions. 

Influence  of  the  Inclinations  of  the  Bones  upon  Speed. 
— The  degree  of  opening  of  the  locomotory  angles  of  the  horse  have  a 
marked  influence  upon  the  development  of  speed.  With  regard  to  the 
superior  regions  of  the  members,  we  have  not  failed  to  mention  and  to 
indicate,  for  each  bone,  the  value  of  the  inclination  which  it  should 


1  Here  the  shoulder  and  the  phalanges  are  a  little  less  inclined  than  they  should  be,  which 
makes  the  member  a  little  longer. 

2  Here  the  femur  and  the  tibia  are  a  little  more  inclined  than  they  should  be,  which  makes 
the  member  a  little  shorter. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      383 

possess.  It  would  therefore  be  fastidious  to  reproduce  here  all  the 
details  into  which  we  have  entered ;  our  point  of  view  now  is  much 
more  general. 

We  will  limit  ourselves  to  the  following  short  resume: 

1st.  The  articular  angles  are  alternately  closed  and  opened  during 
locomotion. 

Their  closing  should  dispose  their  branches  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
shorten  as  much  as  possible  the  whole  member  in  order  to  prepare  it 
for  an  attitude  of  considerable  extension. 

Their  opening,  lengthening  the  locomotory  column,  should  permit 
the  inferior  extremity  of  the  latter  to  acquire  an  extreme  position, 
as  far  removed  as  possible  from  the  original  position,  in  order  that 
the  step  may  have  a  great  length  and  the  impulsion  be  of  long  dura- 
tion. 

2d.  The  extent  of  the  articular  action  is  intimately  dependent 
upon  the  respective  position  of  the  osseous  segments  during  the  regular 
station.  In  principle,  the  original  separation  of  these  latter  increases 
it,  and  their  approximation  diminishes  it. 

3d.  In  order  that  the  articular  action  may  produce  the  greatest 
amount  of  useful  effects,  it  must  be  accomplished  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  two  extremities  of  the  member  may  be  separated,  at  the  time 
of  extension,  in  a  very  oblique  direction  and  not  according  to  the 
vertical  or  any  other  direction  approaching  the  vertical.  It  is  under 
these  conditions  that  the  length  of  the  step  and  the  impulsive  power 
acquire  their  highest  limit.  It  is  in  this  case  also  that  the  impulsion 
is  most  efficaciously  transmitted, — that  is  to  say,  following  a  trajectory 
close  to  the  horizontal,  having  a  forward  movement  and  not  an  upward 
one. 

4th.  The  degree  of  inclination  of  the  locomotory  segments  is  there- 
fore capable  of  influencing  the  action  of  the  articular  angles  in  two 
ways :  either  by  modifying  its  extent  or  modifying  its  efficacy.  The 
obliquity  of  these  segments  should  therefore  satisfy  this  double  require- 
ment,— viz.,  increase  the  efficacy  of  the  articular  action  without  dimin- 
ishing its  extent. 

5th.  To  do  this  we  know  that  the  superior  segments,  the  shoulder 
and  the  croup,  little  movable,  should  rather  tend  towards  the  horizontal, 
in  order  to  acquire  more  length  without  increasing  beyond  measure 
the  height,  to  facilitate  the  forward  and  backward  movement  of  the 
inferior  regions,  and  give  them  the  freedom  of  extending  themselves 
effectively  to  pass  over  the  ground  or  communicate  the  impulsion. 

This  horizontality  of  the  shoulder  and  the  croup  naturally  implies 


384  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

in  fast  horses  a  more  marked  closing  of  the  superior  angles.  In 
draught-horses  these  angles  should  be  more  open,  because  greater 
rigidity  of  the  members  is  required  in  pulling. 

6th.  We  have  also  seen  that  the  inferior  segments,  much  more 
movable,  are  all  the  better  for  having,  when  at  rest,  only  a  slightly 
oblique  inclination,  which  brings  them  nearer  to  the  vertical  line 
passing  through  their  centre  of  movement,  because  then  the  action  of 
their  articular  angles  develops  the  greatest  amount  of  motion. 

7th.  Observation  and  theory  agree  in  proving  that  the  locomotory 
segments  are  far  from  having  an  inclination  of  45  degrees  to  the 
horizon  in  beautifully-formed  horses,  and  from  being  parallel  with 
one  another  in  the  members  of  the  same  biped,  as  the  theory  of  Gen- 
eral Morris  would  require. 

8th.  The  similitude  of  the  homologous  angles  does  not  seem  to  be 
established  either,  nor  even  necessary  to  the  most  favorable  static  and 
dynamic  conditions. 

The  tendency  to  the  equality  of  the  following  angles  should,  however, 
be  recognized  :  the  scapulo-humeral  and  the  coxo-femoral,  the  humero- 
radial  and  the  femoro-tibial,  the  metacarpo-phalangal  and  the  metatarso- 
phalangal. 

9th.  All  things  being  equal,  the  fast  horse  has  his  locomotory 
angles,  the  superior  and  the  inferior,  less  open  than  the  draught-horse, 
on  account  of  the  greater  inclination  of  his  shoulder,  his  croup,  and 
his  pasterns. 

On  the  contrary,  the  other  angles  are  more  open  and  the  segments 
a  little  longer,  especially  the  canons. 

10th.  The  angular  relations  of  the  locomotory  segments  are  of  im- 
portance in  the  production  of  force  only  in  so  far  as  they  realize  better 
static  conditions  and  favor  muscular  incidences. 

Now,  how  shall  we  judge  of  the  closing  of  the  articular  angles 
without  having  recourse  to  the  use  of  mechanical  instruments  ?  This 
is  certainly  one  of  the  most  delicate  points,  and  one  which  demands 
great  practice  and  great  accuracy  of  sight.  It  is,  however,  possible  to 
give  some  hints  capable  of  guiding  one  in  this  respect. 

Thus,  the  closure  of  the  scapulo-humeral  angle  can  be  estimated  by 
the  obliquity  of  the  shoulder  and  the  elevation  of  its  point. 

The  coxo-femoral  angle  can  be  approximately  estimated  by  the 
horizontally  of  the  croup.  Many  common  horses,  as  has  been  seen, 
present  the  length  of  the  head  between  the  summit  of  that  region  and 
the  superior  fold  of  the  stifle-joint ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  very  rare  to 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      385 

find  this  in  well-formed  race-horses.  In  our  opinion  this  difference 
results  only  from  a  smaller  coxo-femoral  angle  in  the  latter. 

A  proper  opening  of  the  superior  angles  being  once  determined^ 
nothing  remains  to  be  done  but  to  ascertain  the  perfect  regularity  of 
the  equilibrium,  in  order  to  judge  of  the  inferior  angles.  And,  sure 
enough,  if  the  inclination  of  the  shoulder  be  good,  it  is  evident  that  the 
humero-radial  joint  will  be  found  in  advantageous  conditions,  provided 
the  forearm  be  almost  vertical,  and  the  fetlock-joint  and  the  foot  be 
well  placed  in  relation  with  the  vertical  line. 

Likewise,  the  position  of  the  croup  being  ascertained  to  be  right,  it 
is  evident  that  the  direction  of  the  leg  will  become  correct  also,  from 
this  fact  alone,  that  the  hock  will  occupy  its  normal  position  with 
respect  to  the  plumb-line  which  is  tangent  to  it. 

The  correct  opening  of  the  superior  angles  of  the  members,  there- 
fore, commands  that  of  the  inferior,  on  condition  that  the  locomotory 
columns  be  regularly  disposed  for  the  support  of  the  body,  and  that 
the  osseous  segments  have  maintained  their  proper  length. 


C. — General  Relations  of  the  Ensemble,  the  Whole  Organism. 

The  word  ensemble,  when  not  employed  as  synonymous  with  regu- 
larity, harmony,  beautiful  proportions,  signifies  the  totality  of  the  animal 
machine  acting  as  one  generator  of  force  or  speed,  irrespective  of  the 
parts  which  compose  it. 

It  is  by  restriction,  and  incorrectly,  that  the  large  divisions,  lines, 
or  dimensions  of  the  whole  are  called  ensembles;  we  will  therefore 
seldom  use  this  latter  expression,  which  seems  to  refer  rather  to  the 
details,  while  its  true  acceptation  gives  it  a  much  more  general  sense. 

Several  horsemen  criticise  and  take  pleasure  in  ridiculing  the  ingen- 
uous comparison  which  has  been  formed  between  the  horse  and  an 
ordinary  machine ;  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  they  have  neither  felt  nor 
understood  analogies  in  which  they  no  doubt  would  have  found  the 
solution  of  more  than  one  difficult  problem. 

From  a  didactic  point  of  view  it  is,  indeed,  convenient  and  allow- 
able to  compare  the  horse  to  a  vehicle,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  always 
more  simple  to  make  an  examination  upon  a  scheme  than  upon  the 
thing  itself,  especially,  when  the  latter  is  complicated.  Whatever  may 
be  the  essence,  nature,  and  position  of  the  motor  relatively  to  the 
vehicle,  the  latter,  to  fulfil  effectually  the  end  to  which  it  is  destined, 
should  comply  with  certain  conditions  of  'height,  length,  and  width, 
maintain  certain  relations  between  what  we  may  be  allowed  to  call  its 

25 


386  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

inert  part,  the  frame,  and  its  active  part,  the  wheels.  These  are  the 
relations  which  it  remains  for  us  to  determine  by  applying  them  to  the 
horse.  We  will  see  in  them  at  the  same  time  the  most  general  and 
the  most  important  characteristics  of  his  conformation.- 

Height. — The  height  of  an  animal  is  the  elevation  of  its  body 
above  the  ground,  the  members  having  the  altitude  they  usually  take 
during  station.  It  is  measured  from  the  withers  or  from  the  croup, 
two  external  points  easily  found  when  we  are  careful  to  take  the 
necessary  precautions.  (See  Height.) 

Observations  show  that  these  points  are  situated  upon  the  same 
horizontal  line  or  upon  different  levels.  In  the  latter  case,  the  horse 
is  said  to  be  high  or  low  in  front  according  to  the  corresponding  height 
of  the  croup.  There  results  evidently  from  this  an  abnormal  distribu- 
tion of  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  four  extremities ;  this,  at  least, 
is  the  result  of  our  measurements  and  our  weighings. 

A  lowering  of  some  centimetres  at  the  withers  usually  causes  a 
surcharge  of  the  anterior  members,  and  therefore  modifies  the  condi- 
tions of  the  equilibrium  and  the  velocity  of  the  gait.  These  draw- 
backs increase  in  proportion  to  the  burden  carried  on  the  back,  which 
is  often  added  to  the  subject's  own  bulk.  Lastly,  the  region  of  the 
withers  is  more  exposed,  on  account  of  its  prominence,  to  contusions 
and  wounds  caused  by  the  harness. 

Inverse  effects  accompany  the  diminution  of  the  height  over  the 
croup.  The  hind-quarters,  surcharged  in  their  turn,  are  wanting  in 
action,  and  are  obliged  to  use  greater  efforts;  the  hocks  are  soon 
ruined. 

But  these  different  disadvantages,  with  their  grievous  consequences, 
manifest  themselves  only  when  the  inequality  in  the  height  of  the  two 
bipeds  is  very  marked.  When  it  is  slight,  it  is  but  little  perceived  in 
practice.  Besides,  it  has  not  the  same  importance  in  all  services.  The 
cavalry  horse,  the  pack-horse,  and  the  dray-horse,  always  heavily 
loaded,  will  show  the  effects  of  being  low  in  front  much  sooner  than  the 
race-horse,  the  coacher,  the  trotter,  or  the  light  draught-horse.  These 
latter,  on  the  contrary,  in  which  speed  is  the  main  quality,  suffer  much 
more  from  a  defect  in  the  hind-quarters ;  an  excess  of  height  of  the 
croup  over  that  of  the  withers  is  a  favorable  disposition  in  them,  whilst 
an  equality  of  the  height  of  the  two  bipeds  is  the  best  conformation  in 
the  others. 

Many  horses  of  good  breeding  and  of  great  speed  have  the 
croup  considerably  higher  than  the  withers ;  this  conformation  is 
even  very  much  appreciated  by  horsemen,  especially  in  hunters  and 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      387 

steeple-chasers.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  in  such  cases 
the  overloading  of  the  anterior  members  is  compensated  by  the  relative 
lightness  of  the  fore-quarters  and  the  power  and  great  length  of  the 
hind-quarters.  Here,  as  with  the  hare,  according  to  M.  Richard's  * 
comparison,  the  posterior  members  are  carried  far  under  the  trunk, 
their  footprints  are  much  beyond  those  of  the  anterior,  the  hind-quarters 
are  strongly  built,  the  croup  and  loins  are  vigorous  and  well  supported, 
the  dorsal  spinous  apophyses  are  long,  and  the  shoulder  very  oblique. 
There  is  then  truly  a  compensation. 

One  point  which  should  be  insisted  upon  in  passing  is,  that  we 
never  see  subjects  three  heads  in  height.  The  most  exceptional  in  this 
respect  only  reach  two  heads  and  three-quarters,  whilst  the  happy 
medium  reaches  but  two  and  a  half  heads,  according  to  Botirgelat's 
judicious  remark.2  Those  which  very  much  exceed  this  figure,  as 
well  as  those  which  do  not  attain  it,  should  be  considered  dispro- 
portionately built ;  these  last  are  more  seldom  seen.  Let  us  cite  an 
example  of  this  kind,  occurring  in  our  observations,  which  is  quite 
remarkable,  and  in  which  the  height  at  the  withers  was  only  two 
heads  and  one-third. 

The  height  is  an  organic  sum  composed  of  two  elements,  the  body 
and  the  members,  between  which  harmony  does  not  always  exist.  Then 
there  results  one  of  the  defects  of  construction  most  prejudicial  to  a 
good  functional  activity  of  the  living  machine.  We  will  soon  have 
occasion  to  return  to  this. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  body  is  considered  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  to  that  of  the  buttock,  the  animal  being  in  the  normal 
position.  Bourgelat  rightly  assigned  to  it  two  heads  and  a  half  in 
well-formed  horses.  Our  best  types  nowadays  are  still  constructed 
according  to  these  incontestable  measurements. 

Perhaps  this  dimension  is  subject  to  variation  more  than,  the  pre- 
ceding; we  insist  upon  this,  however,  that  its  variations  remain  con- 
stantly below  three  heads,  even  in  subjects  reputed  to  be  long  by  the 
greater  number  of.  horsemen  and  artists, — English  horses,  for  example, 
which  are  usually  shorter  than  others. 

M.  Duhousset 3  says  that  nothing  is  easier  than  to  be  mistaken  by 
a  superficial  observation.  To  prove  this,  we  place  before  the  eyes  of 
the  reader  a  drawing  of  the  two  horses  in  Fig.  141.  No.  1  is  taken 
from  a  photograph  having  exactly  two  heads  and  a  half  in  the  two 

1  A.  Richard,  fetude  du  cheval,  etc.,  p.  149. 
«  Cl.  Bourgelat,  loc  cit.,  p.  203. 
8  E.  Duhousset,  Le  Cheval,  p.  69. 


388  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

measurements,  height  and  length.     No.  2  is  this  type  lengthened  only 


FIG. 141. 


by  one- fourth  of  the  length  of  the  head.     It  is  evident  that  the  first 


POINTS  FROM   WHICH  THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      389 

will  appear  short,  but  the  seeond  will  always  have  the  appearance  of  a 
long  animal ;  however,  that  the  minimum  difference  is  accurate  may  be 
verified  by  the  use  of  the  compass.  According  to  this,  we  may  im- 
agine the  still  greater  apparent  difference  which  would  be  produced  by 
this  second  horse  if  the  length  compared  with  the  height  had  been 
three  heads  instead  of  two  and  three-fourths. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary  horses,  in  this  respect,  which  we 
have  measured  was  two  neads  and  four-fifths  long  ;  it  is  needless  to  add 
that  it  was  entirely  defective  in  other  respects.  Horses  which  do  not 
reach  two  heads  and  one-half  in  length  are  far  from  being  common ; 
still,  we  have  noticed  several  examples. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  important  to  recognize  the  fact  that  the 
pure  and  simple  consideration  of  the  length  of  the  body  is  insufficient 
to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  shortness  of  the  dorso-lumbar  column,  a 
sine  qud  non  condition  of  his  strength  and  aptness  to  properly  utilize 
the  impulsive  action  of  the  hind-quarters.  This  results  from  the 
length  being  an  organic  sum  whose  elements  are :  1st,  the  length  of 
the  spine ;  2d,  the  length,  the  direction,  as  well  as  the  relative  situa- 
tion of  the  shoulder  and  the  croup.  It  is  plain  that  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  and  that  of  the  buttock  will  be  still  more  distant  from  each 
other  as  they  belong  respectively  to  regions  longer,  more  inclined,  and 
more  separated. 

The  question,  then,  is  to  determine  in  what  way  the  spinal  column 
is  covered  by  these  regions.  Now,  the  scapulo-iliac  distance  comprised 
between  the  dorsal  angle  of  the  scapulum  and  the  angle  of  the  haunch 
furnishes  a  rather  convenient  means  of  obtaining  this  result.  This  dis- 
tance, as  we  have  already  seen  in  speaking  of  the  shoulder  (page  203), 
is  equal  to  that  of  the  head  in  all  beautiful  horses.  If  it  is  found  to 
exceed  this,  we  may  infer  that  it  depends  either  upon  the  excessive 
length  of  the  loins  or  the  position  of  the  shoulder  and  the  croup.  As 
the  disposition  of  these  may  be  easily  appreciated,  since  they  occupy  a 
superficial  position,  it  follows  that,  all  things  being  equal,  the  horse 
which  has  the  greatest  separation  between  the  dorsal  angle  of  the 
scapula  and  the  haunch  will  also  be  provided  with  the  longest  spine, 
and  will  be  the  most  predisposed  to  become  sway-backed. 

But  an  excess  of  length  does  not  always  imply  a  like  formation  of 
the  vertebral  column.  De  Saint- Ange1  has  explained  this  judicious 
remark  by  means  of  an  ingenious  graphic  demonstration,  of  which  the 
scheme  of  Fig.  142  is  only  the  reproduction.  The  subjects  Nos.  1  and 

1  De  Saint-Ange,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  154,  Saumur,  1850. 


390  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

2  have  the  same  total  length ;  they  differ  only  in  the  dimensions  of 
the  back  and  loins ;  in  the  first,  they  are  long,  mn  ;  in  the  second,  they 
are  in  good  condition,  op.  In  the  latter  the  total  length,  AD,  depends, 


FIG  142. 


without  contradiction,  upon  the  position  of  AB  and  CD,  regions  which 
without  a  longer  interval  between  them,  are  more  separated  at  their 
extremes  by  becoming  more  horizontal,  therefore  covering  a  larger 
extent  of  the  body,  and  acquiring  more  favorable  dimensions  and 
inclinations.  Here  the  separation  of  the  points  A  and  D  is  not  then 
due,  as  in  subject  No.  1,  to  an  excess  in  the  length  of  the  dorsu-lumbar 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      391 

column,  but  rather  to  the  strengthening  of  the  points  of  the  shoulder 
and  the  buttock,  two  points  which  compensate  what  the  total  length 
AD  at  first  sight  appears  to  be  defective  in,  since  it  measures  two  and 
two-thirds  heads. 

The  normal  length,  two  heads  and  a  half,  on  the  contrary,  is  not 
always  constant  when  the  animal  is  short  and  compactly  built.  The 
back  and  the  loins  of  many  horses  meeting  these  general  requirements 
are  weak,  on  account  of  a  want  of  development  of  the  croup,  vertical 
direction  of  the  shoulder,  and  often  also  on  account  of  the  prominence 
of  the  spine,  poorly  covered  by  these  parts.  Again,  this  defect  is 
judged  of  by  the  value  of  the  scapulo-iliac  distance,  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken. 

Finally,  the  excess  of  length,  when  it  is  not  exaggerated,  cannot 
only  be  compensated,  as  is  seen  in  Fig.  142,  but  it  is  to  be  preferred 
to  the  classic  length  of  two  heads  and  a  half, — even  supposing  the 
scapulo-iliac  separation  to  be  normal, — if  it  is  due  to  the  disposition 
of  the  shoulder  and  croup,  and  if  it  coincides  with  a  long  chest  and  a 
short  flank.  In  this  case,  in  fact,  the  dorso-lumbar  column  is  in  good 
proportion  and  strongly  supported  ;  it  supports  a  spacious  thoracic 
cavity ;  the  animal  has  brilliant  and  extensive  action,  endurance,  and 
a  harmonious  form.  This  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  143,  in  which  subject 
No.  2  is  one-sixth  of  a  head  longer  than  subject  No.  1,  which  possesses 
normal  conditions,  but  whose  shoulder  and  croup  are  wanting  in  length 
and  inclination. 

From  all  that  has  been  said,  it  is  seen  that  we  cannot  investigate 
too  carefully  the  value  of  the  different  elements  which  compose  the 
length  of  the  body.  A  superficial  estimation  of  this  dimension  is 
insufficient,  even  when  it  appears  to  be  in  the  condition  indicated 
above.  The  relative  condition  of  the  back  and  the  loins  on  the  one 
part,  the  shoulders  and  the  croup  on  the  other,  must  also  be  appre- 
ciated; the  apparent  excess  of  length  should  not  be  considered,  a 
priori,  as  resulting  from  the  spine,  nor  regarded  as  implying  always 
the  length  of  the  chest.  We  should  be  in  danger  of  committing 
errors.  When  assigning  two  heads  and  a  half  to  the  length,  we  meant 
to  imply  at  the  same  time  a  proper  scapulo-iliac  distance,  a  well-formed 
shoulder  and  croup.  The  particular  cases  which  we  have  analyzed 
positively  prove  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  absolute  figures. 

Relations  between  the  Height  and  the  Length. — What 
we  have  said  in  regard  to  these  proportions  naturally  foreshadows  that, 
with  Bourgelat,  we  give  preference  to  the  square  (cam)  horse,  one 
in  which  the  height  at  the  withers  is  sensibly  equal  to  his  length,  and 


392 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


which  therefore  might  be  inscribed  within  a  perfect  square.  But  how 
many  prejudices  exist  upon  this  particular  point !  Not  to  lose  time,  we 
will  not  consider  them.  Some  prefer  the  long  horse,  others  the  short ; 
most  people  reject  the  square,— the  only  one,  perhaps,  which  realizes  in 
the  best  way  a  beautiful  conformation. 


FIG.  143. 

Why  these  differences  of  opinion  ?  We  hardly  know.  It  seems, 
in  this  case,  that  observers  have  judged  much  more  from  their  ideas 
than  from  their  researches.  Still,  it  will  be  acknowledged  that  it 
would  have  been  easy  to  proceed  differently.  However  this  may  be, 
let  us  see  what  are  the  consequences  if  height  or  length  be  increased 
separately  beyond  its  normal  limits. 


* 
POINTS  FROM   WHICH  THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      393 

Suppose,  for  a  moment,  that  a  well-formed  horse  be  made  taller 
without  changing,  in  any  respect,  the  relations  existing  between  his 
different  regions ;  in  other  words,  let  us  vary  only  his  height  without 
modifying  the  relations  previously  existing  between  the  body  and  the 
members.  As  Bourgelat  has  expressed  it,  we  shall  have  determined  a 
defect  of  proportion  comparable  to  that  which  is  observed  when  the 
animal  is  too  short.  The  centre  of  gravity  will  have  bee~n  raised 
without  the  base  of  support  being  enlarged ;  the  trunk  will  have 
acquired  greater  weight  without  the  columns  of  support  becoming 
stronger;  finally,  the  members  will  have  become  longer  without 
increasing  the  speed,  since  the  posterior  members  will  not  be  able  to 
move  freely  under  the  body  without  the  risk  of  striking  the  anterior. 
We  will  have  before  us  a  locomotor  unstable  in  its  equilibrium,  feeble 
in  its  parts,  made  taller  so  that  he  might  go  faster,  but  prevented  from 
doing  so  by  the  imperfect  adjustment  of  its  mechanism.  Our  horse 
will  be  narrow,  tall,  liable  to  fall,  to  forge,  to  interfere,  without  power 
or  speed, — a  true  string,  according  to  the  vulgar  expression. 

The  results  will  not  be  better  if  we  attempt  the  contrary  experi- 
ment,— that  is  to  say,  if  we  diminish  the  height  while  allowing  the 
other  parts  to  remain  in  the  condition  in  which  they  were  previously. 
In  such  a  case,  the  defect  will  be  the  same  as  if  the  subject  were  too 
long.  We  will  have  lowered  the  centre  of  gravity,  rendered  the  base 
of  support  relatively  wider,  the  equilibrium  more  stable,  and  the 
members  shorter.  These  will  not  in  any  way  be  disturbed  in  their 
action,  or  liable  to  meet  each  other;  but  their  movements  will  be 
wanting  in  extent  and  also  in  power.  The  motor  will  appear  heavy, 
massive,  and  slow;  he  will  not  be  able  to  display  any  speed  with  his 
shortened  members,  save  by  multiplying  their  movements,  and  that,  be 
it  well  understood,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  muscular  apparatus  which 
moves  them  and  the  nervous  system  which  commands  their  displace- 
ments. 

Identical  conclusions  would  be  reached  if,  instead  of  varying  the 
height,  we  changed  the  normal  relations  of  length  in  relation  to  the 
height. 

The  excess  of  length,  for  example,  would  produce  the  same  effect 
as  if  the  body  were  too  close  to  the  ground.  To  this,  however,  would 
be  superadded  the  complication  that  the  vertebral  column,  being  longer 
and  more  movable,  would  become  feeble,  vacillating,  predisposed  to 
become  sway-backed,  and  more  fatiguing  to  support.  The  subject 
would  be  unfit  for  the  saddle,  his  movements  would  lose  their  precision ; 
he  would  go  cross-ways  rather  than  walk  straight. 


394  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

As  to  the  defect  in  length,  would  not  the  same  inconveniences  exist 
as  if  the  horse  were  too  tall  ?  Over  and  above  the  fact  that  the  animal 
would  acquire  a  tendency  to  forge  and  interfere,  his  gait  would*  be  hard, 
unsightly,  and  high,  for  the  spinal  column,  although  more  solid,  would 
be  shorter  and  less  supple. 

Such  are  the  results  to  which  extremes  lead  !  Let  us  seek  for  the 
just  mean  by  inspiring  ourselves  with  beautiful  nature.  Beginning 
with  the  idea  that  in  order  to  produce  speed  long  members  are  neces- 
sary, and  that  these,  to  be  properly  developed,  should  act  upon  a  long 
body,  many  persons  imagine  that  fast  horses,  trotters -or  others,  are 
longer  than  they  are  high,  and  they  give  to  the  length  a  quarter  of  a 
head,  or  even  a  third,  more  than  to  the  height.  What  reply  will  they 
give  us  when  we  tell  them  that  they  have  made  a  suggestion  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  reality  ? 

M.  Duhousset l  says  that  "  out  of  fifty  African  horses,  twenty-six 
were  shorter  than  they  were  high ;  in  fourteen  the  height  and  the 
length  were  equal ;  and  in  ten  the  excess  was  in  length."  Farther  on, 
the  same  author  records  his  observations  on  horses  of  fine  breeding : 
Out  of  forty  runners  examined,  there  were  twenty-eight  in  which  the 
height  was  equal  to  the  length,  nine  in  which  it  was  more  considerable, 
finally,  three  in  which  it  was  less  (Dick,  Monarque,  and  Ealph). 

It  would  be  fastidious  to  insist  further  upon  this  point.  Our 
measurements  upon  the  handsomest  running-horses,  steeple-chasers, 
Orloff  trotters,  Anglo-Norman  and  Arabian,  Barb,  Andalusian,  some 
.Hungarian,  and  American  horses  enable  us  to  affirm  that  the  excess  in 
length,  scarcely  amounting  to  1,  2,  4,  or  5  centimetres,  is  the  exception, 
the  equality  or  excess  in  height  permitting  variations  of  the  same  value 
being  the  rule. 

For  fast  work,  Bourgelat  was  right  in  considering  the  equality 
between  height  and  length  as  the  just  mean  to  be  sought.  In  this 
respect,  again,  he  was  not  influenced  by  purely  theoretical  views ;  he 
had  sought  for  and  had  actually  seen  what  he  had  indicated. 

For  slow  services  this  just  mean  remains,  a  fortiori,  the  same. 
Still,  we  hasten  to  affirm  that  horses  of  this  class  are  very  often  longer 
than  tall,  very  probably  because  their  production  has  received  less 
care.  Hence,  sway-backs  are  common  among  them.  But  let  those 
be  measured  which  have  won  the  prizes  in  expositions  and  in  competi- 
tions, those  which  the  government  or  breeding  associations  recommend 
for  that  very  reason  to  the  public  choice ;  we  will  find  that  they  are 

1  E.  Duhousset,  Le  Cheval,  p.  67. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      395 

nearly  in  accord  with  the  conditions  stated  by  the  founder  of  veterinary 
schools. 

Width. — We  designate  by  this  term,  width,  ampleness,  the 
transverse  development  of  the  body,  particularly  at  the  level  of  the 
chest,  the  breast,  and  the  croup.  It  results  in  great  part  from  the 
muscular  development  of  the  parts,  and  is  best  appreciated  by  viewing 
the  horse  in  front  or  behind.  We  determine  it  also  by  air  oblique 
inspection,  either  in  front  or  behind,  or,  finally,  by  looking  at  the 
subject  from  above,  when  he  is  harnessed  or  mounted. 

When  the  ampleness  is  considerable,  the  animal  is  vulgarly  said  to 
have  bulk,  to  be  stout,  a  state  which  is  indicated  by  the  width  of  the 
chest,  the  prominence  of  the  shoulders,  their  muscularity,  the  round- 
ness of  the  ribs,  the  width  of  the  croup  and  the  volume  of  its  muscles. 
This  conformation  is  characteristic  of  the  heavy  draught-horse,  to  which 
it  communicates  at  the  same  time  bulk  and  power.  It  is  sought  for 
also,  although  in  a  less  degree,  for  some  services  of  luxury,  principally 
in  the  coach-horse. 

For  fast  services,  on  the  contrary,  too  great  a  width  would  be 
prejudicial.  It  would  increase  the  weight  of  the  body,  already  pro- 
portionately high,  diminish  the  stability  of  the  equilibrium  without 
being  of  advantage  for  speed,  and  would  soon  wear  out  the  members, 
which  would  be  too  weak  as  columns  of  support.  A  larger  osseous 
skeleton,  especially  behind,  a  longer  chest,  muscles  which  are  more 
dense  and  firm,  are  to  be  preferred.  "  From  behind  forward,"  De  Cur- 
nieu1  says,  "the  horse  must  be  wedge-shaped, — that  is  to  say,  have  a 
wide  croup  and  narrow  chest ;  he  will  all  the  better  cleave  the  air  before 
him,  and  if  he  is  a  little  too  high  over  the  withers,  the  power  of  the 
hind-quarters  will  diminish  this  defect,  which,  besides,  often  facilitates 
the  quickness  and  increases  the  force." 

The  lack  of  ampleness  is  a  principal  fault  for  all  kinds  of  work, 
for  it  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  narrowness  of  the  thorax  and 
the  insufficiency  of  the  muscular  apparatus.  It  may  be  characterized 
by  qualifying  the  animal  as  being  etriqut,  lanky. 

Body  and  Members. — The  body  and  the  members  are  the  two 
elements  which  compose  the  height.  But,  as  they  do  not  bear  the 
same  proportions  in  all  subjects,  it  is  important  to  know  in  what  con- 
ditions they  vary  through  excess  or  deficiency,  still  giving  to  the  whole 
a  sum  of  height  in  harmony  with  the  length. 

In  ordinary f  language,  when  the  body  is  spoken  of  in  opposition  to 

1  De  Curnieu,  Lemons  de  science  hippique  g£n£rale,  premiere  partie,  p.  278,  Paris,  1855. 


396  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  members,  reference  is  made,  by  the  first  of  these  expressions,  to  the 
height  of  the  chest  and  the  abdomen,  whilst  by  the  second  is  understood 
only  the  part  of  the  members  completely  detached  from  the  trunk, — 
that  is  to  say,  counting  from  the  elbow  or  stifle.  Taking  this  view,  it 
will  be  understood  how  the  body  is  also  called  the  upper  part,  in  rela- 
tion with  the  members,  which  then  assume  the  name  the  lower  part, 
although  these  expressions  are  sometimes  employed  to  designate  the 
lines  by  which  the  trunk  shows  itself  in  profile  above  and  below. 

The  relations  existing  between  the  body  and  the  members  vary 
according  to  the  types  considered,  which,  to  simplify,  we  divide  into 
two  categories :  the  motors  with  a  view  to  speed  and  the  motors  with  a 
view  to  force.  In  a  general  way,  it  must  be  known,  first,  that  in  the 
former  the  lower  part  is  always,  equal  size  considered,  much  longer 
than  in  the  latter,  which  are  compact  and  near  the  earth.  In  this 
respect,  the  differences  are  all  the  greater  as  the  services  which  they 
perform  differ  the  more  from  each  other. 

The  body,  containing  the  organs  which  are  most  essential  to  life, 
such  as  the  heart,  the  lungs,  and  the  digestive  apparatus,  cannot  be 
deficient  from  excess  of  development,  since  these  organs  are  precisely 
those  from  which  the  animal  machine  draws  its  power  and  resistance. 
If  disproportion  seems  to  exist  in  the  upper  part  compared  to  the 
lower  part,  then  the  latter  is  not  properly  constructed  to  support  the 
former.  But  generally,  although  excess  may  not  be  objectionable,  the 
same  cannot  be  said  of  the  deficiency  of  development.  Our  machine, 
having  a  weak  chest,  a  small  abdomen,  will  be  without  energy,  without 
wind,  capable  of  very  little  exertion.  Such  an  animal  will  be  a  poor 
feeder  and  will  not  last  long.  All  these  are  great  imperfections  if  he 
is  called  upon  to  perform  laborious  service. 

What,  then,  is  the  method  of  appreciating  the  beauty  of  the  body  ? 
We  already  know  it.  In  fact,  we  know  that  the  xiphoid  region  (pit 
of  the  stomach)  should  descend  several  fingers'-breadth  below  the  elbow, 
that  the  ribs  should  be  round,  the  chest  widened  behind  and  a  head 
wide  in  its  middle  part  (ampleness),  the  abdomen  full,  quite  cylindrical, 
and  a  head  thick  from  its  inferior  line  to  the  middle  of  the  back. 

As  to  the  members,  they  cannot  be  too  beautiful.  As  soon  as 
such  seems  to  be  the  case,  the  reason  of  it  is  that  the  upper  part 
is  not  in  proportion.  Strong  columns  under  too  light  a  structure 
are  not  defective,  they  are  simply  useless.  Large  wheels  moved  by  a 
strong  crank  are  neither  of  advantage  to  a  locomotive  nor  hinder  it 
much  if  its  boiler  and  its  piston  are  unable  to  make  use  of  them.  But 
it  is  entirely  different  if  the  supports,  the  wheels  of  the  motor,  are 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      397 

slender,  weak,  too  long,  ill  adjusted,  in  a  word,  disproportionate  in 
relation  with  the  weight  which  they  have  to  displace.  In  this  case 
the  most  irreproachable  body  will  be  powerless ;  the  machine  will  be 
without  force,  without  solidity,  without  speed,  and  destined  to  wear  out 
soon.  How  many  horses  are  thus  constructed,  which  are  said  to  be 
defective,  wiry,  mounted  upon  match-sticks,  perched  high,  which  have  fine 
breeding,  vivacity,  energy,  courage,  but  which — veritable  straw-faes — 
only  last  an  instant,  for  want  of  ability  to  utilize  the  mechanism  which 
they  possess ! 

They  will  be  recognized  by  the  exaggerated  length  of  their  mem- 
bers, the  narrowness  and  thinness  of  their  forearms,  their  legs,  their 
knees,  their  hocks,  and  their  fetlocks,  the  slimness  of  their  shanks,  the 
weakness  of  their  tendons,  and  the  small  volume  of  their  muscles. 
One  way  to  ascertain  their  disproportion  consists  in  measuring  the 
distance  comprised  between  the  passage  of  the  girth  and  the  pastern- 
joint.  It  is  known  that  in  a  beautiful  conformation  this  distance  is 
equal  to  a  head  in  horses  of  ordinary  size,  a  little  longer  in  large 
horses,  and  a  little  less  in  small  ones.  (See  Relations  between  the  Dimen- 
sions of  the  Regions,  page  359.)  At  the  same  time  we  should  not  forget 
always  to  take  into  account  the  greater  length  of  the  locomotory 
columns  in  fast  horses. 


D. — Relations   of  the   Organism  with   the    Nervous    System  ; 
the  "Blood;"  the  Temperament. 

Opinion  of  the  Laity  upon  the  "Blood." — Most  horsemen 
still  speak  of  the  blood1  as  a  kind  of  immaterial  principle  endowing 
the  subject  inheriting  it  with  a  combination  of  physical  and  moral 
qualities  of  a  superior  order.  This  principle,  transmissible  by  heredity, 
would  be  the  appanage  of  the  noble  races,  the  English  thoroughbred  and 
the  Arabian  ;  again,  we  are  asked  to  believe  that  it  has  been  preciously 
preserved  in  all  its  purity,  without  deterioration,  through  a  number  of 
centuries,  thanks  to  the  care  which  man  has  taken  to  preserve  these 
races  from  all  contamination  with  those  called  common,  in  which  it 
cannot  be  observed. 

"  The  pure  blood  [sang],"  writes  M.  Eug.  Gayot,2  "  a  living,  active, 

1  This  is  a  somewhat  ambiguous  term.    Among  the  partisans  of  the  theory  of  crossing,  the 
ancient  idea  is  prevalent  that  the  races  of  the  horse  are  continually  degenerating,  and  that  the 
Aryan  (Arabian)  race  is  of  pure  blood  (pur  sang)  and  superior  to  all  the  others,  which  it  regenerates 
by  crossing.    Hence  the  term  "blood."  as  here  used,  indicates  the  degree  of  relationship  with 
this  race,  as  shown  by  certain  qualities,  both  external  and  internal,  possessed  by  the  animals. 

2  L.  Moll  et  Eug.  Gayot,  La  connaissauce  generate  du  cheval,  p.  313,  Paris,  188—. 


398  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

and  conservative  power,  a  force  inherent  to  the  species,  should  be  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  animal  which  possesses  it.  The  latter  may  vary 
and  have  very  different  external  characters  without  the  principle 
which  animates  him  ceasing  to  be  perfectly  identical,  because  it  pos- 
sesses in  this  connection  an  admirable  scope  of  adaptation ;  this  is  its 
property.  In  it  are  all  the  perfections;  it  is  the  source  of  all  the 
special  qualities.  It  is  through  this  that  it  governs  the  species  and  is 
their  prototype." 

It  is  difficult  to  be  more  metaphysical  and  therefore  less  scientific  ! 
Physiologists  exact  more  at  the  present  time.  This  spiritualistic  con- 
ception deserves  mention  only  from  simple  curiosity  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  more 
than  a  century  behind  modern  ideas ;  there  is  therefore  no  reason  to 
consider  it. 

Other  horsemen,  notably  Magne,1  consider  the  blood  (sang)  as  a 
combination  of  external  characters  proper  to  better — finer — races, 
equally  transmissible  by  heredity. 

We  are  mistaken  as  to  the  very  essence  of  the  question  itself  if 
we  believe  that  English  or  Arabian  reproducers  are  capable  of  trans- 
mitting only  their  conformation  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  qualities. 
The  blood  is  no  more  the  conformation  than  it  is  the  immaterial  prin- 
ciple spoken  of  above. 

A  determined  external  form  is  of  itself  incapable  of  constituting 
the  blood ;  it  is  only  its  substratum,  its  receptacle,  and,  for  this  reason, 
may  become  its  index.  Now,  as  a  horse  cannot  inherit  noble  qualities 
without  at  the  same  time  possessing  the  features  which  indicate  them, 
we  see  how  it  is  that  some  have  taken  the  containing  part  instead  of 
the  thing  contained,  and  misunderstood  the  true  nature  of  blood. 

Origin  of  the  Word  "Blood." — Whence  does  such  an  ex- 
pression originate?  Very  probably  from  the  ideas  formerly  enter- 
tained upon  fecundation. 

Hippocrates2  (to  go  back  no  farther)  was  of  the  opinion  that  the 
male  and  female  each  extracted  from  their  own  humors,  during  cop- 
ulation, stronger  parts,  a  kind  of  particular  production  of  the  organs, 
which  met  each  other  in  the  genital  female  passage  and  constituted 
the  seeds,  in  each  of  which  were  found  male  and  female  germs.  The 
sexuality  of  the  product  depended  upon  the  predominance  of  the  one 
over  the  other.  As  the  strong  parts  were  produced  by  the  agita- 
tion of  the  humors  of  the  body,  as  these  fluids  were  endowed  with  the 


1  J.  H.  Magne,  Races  chevalines,  3e  6d.,  p.  351. 

2  Hippocrate,  Traite  de  la  generation. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE  PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      399 

quintessence  of  the  faculties  and  aptitudes  of  the  procreators,  the  laity 
were  easily  led  to  the  firm  belief  that  children  were  really  the  very 
blood  of  their  parents. 

At  the  beginning,  the  word  blood  could  then  be  considered  as  almost 
synonymous  with  the  word  heredity.  At  the  present  time  it  is  nothing 
more  than  a  corruption  of  it,  in  this  sense,  that  it  is  not  applied  indis- 
criminately to  all  hereditary  characters,  but  only  to  a  few  of  them,  to 
those  which  refer  especially  to  the  moral  qualities  of  the  parents. 

We  understand,  then,  what  is  meant  when  a  horse  is  said  to  have 
bloody  to  be  well  bred.  The  idea  intended  to  be  conveyed  is  that  the 
horse  has  been  more  or  less  subjected  to  metissage,  breeding  animals  of 
different  races  in  earlier  times.  The  animal  of  a  high  lineage,  de- 
scended from  a  noble  race,  and  whose  ancestors  were  entirely  free  from 
all  contamination,  is  qualified  as  being  of  pure  blood.  Lastly,  the 
horse  deprived  of  all  the  qualities  inherent  to  blood  is  styled  a  common 
horse,  while,  a  fortiori,  one  descended  from  parents  that  have  never 
been  mixed  with  pure-blooded  animals  is  the  low  plebeian  of  the 
species. 

But  the  aptitudes  of  the  better  races  of  the  horse  are  not  always  a 
constant  result  of  direct  heredity, — that  is  to  say,  the  immediate  result 
of  the  sire's  or  dam's  influence ;  sometimes  they  pass  over  one  or  more 
generations  to  reappear  in  the  succeeding  ones.  Indeed,  these  aptitudes 
before  being  definitely  established  in  the  better  races  must  have  been 
developed  slowly  under  the  combined  and  incessant  action  of  a  thou- 
sand different  causes ;  they  must,  therefore,  have  shown  themselves 
at  a  given  time  in  the  individual  before  being  transmissible  to  the 
descendants,  and  then  constituting  the  appanage  of  a  determined  type. 

On  the  other  hand,  subjects  of  the  same  family,  whatever  may 
be  their  resemblance,  do  not  always  possess  identical  qualities ;  the 
numerous  and  different  attributes  of  the  species  are  not  uniformly 
inherited  by  them  ;  the  qualities  which  each  one  possesses  at  birth  are 
neither  the  same  in  nature,  nor  equal  in  intensity,  nor  similar  in  value. 
In  any  case,  it  is,  first  of  all,  an  ancestral  inheritance,  the  special,  un- 
conscious accumulation  of  qualities  resulting  from  the  choice  of  the 
male  and  female  for  centuries.  It  may  proceed,  besides,  from  a  more 
or  less  intelligent  selection  on  the  part  of  the  breeder,  who  endeavors 
to  work  in  the  same  manner  as  Nature,  and  in  concert  with  her  aids 
her  by  his  practical  knowledge.  That  is  what  constitutes  inbornness, 
which  is  nothing  else,  as  may  be  seen,  than  a  kind  of  indirect  heredity. 

The  organism,  therefore,  inherits  from  selective  accumulation  and 
the  application  of  zootechnic  methods  by  man,  certain  qualities  which, 


400  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

so  to  speak,  establish  its  individuality,  and  which,  in  the  species,  also 
concur  in  endowing  it  with  those  faculties  which  constitute  the  blood. 

Definition  and  Nature  of  the  "Blood."— This  being  laid 
down,  we  are  in  a  position  of  giving — having  the  same  opinion  upon 
this  point  as  Messrs.  Sanson *  and  Baron2 — the  anatomo-physiological 
interpretation  of  the  metaphysical  conception  of  the  word  blood,  which 
until  now  had  scarcely  been  understood  but  as  the  expression  of  a 
distinct  force,  an  immaterial  essence,  isolated  from  and  independent  of 
the  body  which  it  governed. 

If  it  can  be  said  of  man  that  he  is  an  intelligence  served  by 
organs,  with  better  reason  may  it  be  added  of  the  horse  that  he  is  a 
nervous  system  served  also  by  instruments,  generators  of  force  and  of 
speed.  Without  the  nervous  organism  the  latter  are  nothing ;  without 
them  it  is  reduced  to  the  most  utter  powerlessness ;  with  them  it  is 
everything.  These  two  parts  of  the  living  being  are  indispensable  to 
each  other  for  action ;  the  nervous  system  could  not  command  if  its 
servants  did  not  obey  and  act.  Now,  every  command,  in  order  to  be 
heeded  and  carried  out,  supposes  an  agreement  and  a  previous  under- 
standing between  those  who  are  intrusted  with  its  exercise.  It  sup- 
poses, moreover,  a  veritable  correlation  of  action  between  the  agents 
which  command  the  action  and  those  which  execute  it.  In  the  same 
manner  in  the  organism,  if  there  is  a  harmonious  concord  between  the 
different  parts  (the  spinal  cord  and  the  brain)  of  the  central  nervous 
system  which  presides  over  the  action  of  the  organs  (between  the 
powers  whose  function  it  is  to  properly  direct  the  machine), — if,  besides, 
there  is  a  correlation  between  the  nervous  system  and  the  organs  them- 
selves upon  which  it  depends  (between  the  directing  powers  of  the 
machine  and  its  machinery), — there  will  result  a  kind  of  all-pervading 
and  regulating  harmony,  a  perfect  equilibrium  between  those  pieces  of 
the  economy  and  the  forces  which  set  them  in  action. 

It  is  to  this  state  of  equilibrium — the  result  of  a  perfect  nervous 
system,  considered  with  regard  to  its  functional  activity  or  its  dynamic 
intervention — that  the  name  blood  is  given. 

But  in  what  especially  does  this  perfection  consist?  In  the  in- 
tensity of  the  reflex  power, — that  is  to  say,  in  the  property  which  the 
nerve-centres  possess  of  transforming  more  or  less  quickly  the  im- 
pressions which  they  receive  from  the  external  world  through  the 
intervention  of  the  senses  into  motor  reactions. 


1  A.  Sanson,  Trait<5  de  zootechnie,  2e  6d.,  t.  iii.  p.  197. 

2  R.  Baron,  La  Dynamom6trie  biologique,  in  Archives  v£t£rinaires,  ann6e  1877,  p.  705. 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH   THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE   STUDIED.      401 

It  is  evident  that  this  reflective  power  in  order  to  be  utilized  must 
be  served  by  organs  not  only  well  conformed,  but  also  well  adapted  to 
the  special  method  of  its  manifestations.  For  example,  an  orchestra 
may  possess  instruments  of  excellent  quality  when  considered  sepa- 
rately ;  its  performers  may  be  artists  of  the  first  rank,  and  yet  the 
combined  eifect  of  all  these  musical  factors  will  be  full  of  discord  if  he 
upon  whom  devolves  the  care  of  employing  and  directing  them  does 
riot  know  how  to  manage  them,  or  speaks  in  a  language  they  do  not 
understand.  However  removed  from  our  subject  this  comparison 
may  appear,  it  is  none  the  less  applicable  here.  The  nervous  system, 
whatever  may  be  its  value  as  a  reflective  power,  and  the  organs,  what- 
ever may  be  their  mechanical  perfection  as  locomotory  agents,  are 
of  little  value  without  the  harmonious  relations  of  which  we  are 
speaking. 

Whence  is  the  "Blood"  derived? — The  blood  is  hereditary, 
as  we  have  already  seen ;  it  is  also  inborn  in  certain  subjects  belonging 
to  races  which  do  not  habitually  possess  it.  And  this  innateness  is  the 
consequence  of  the  great  probability  that  the  hereditary  qualities  of 
the  species  are  unequally  distributed  to  their  descendants.  This  results 
from  the  slow  and  dearly-bought  triumph  of  the  organism  over  the 
surrounding  medium.  Even  thus,  the  handful  of  wheat  which  is  pro- 
miscuously cast  upon  a  fertile  soil,  and  the  grains  of  which  are  not 
uniformly  scattered  on  the  soil,  will  produce  in  the  future  field  places 
more  or  less  rich  in  sheaves ;  so,  also,  the  descendants  of  the  species 
are  led  by  chance  to  develop  in  climates  and  upon  grounds  where  they 
will  be  able  to  preserve  their  qualities,  acquire  new  ones,  and  transmit 
them  to  their  offspring,  while  others  will  succumb  to  the  unfavorable 
conditions  of  the  medium. 

Every  individual,  therefore,  is  born  more  or  less  endowed,  and  his 
very  aptitudes  vary  in  number  and  in  development.  He  owes  them  to 
his  own  parents  in  the  case  of  immediate  heredity  ;  to  his  ancestors  in 
that  of  indirect  heredity. 

Finally,  he  may  develop  it  in  himself,  for  it  is  a  fact  equally  demon- 
strated that  blood  may  be  acquired.  Magne l  says,  "  It  being  the  direct 
product  of  food  and  air,  it  changes  with  the  influences  to  which  the 
animals  are  exposed." 

It  is  increased  by  a  special  regimen  and  a  particular  education,  as 
the  Arabians  have  done  from  antiquity,  as  the  English  still  do  at  the 
present  day  for  their  race-horses.  The  different  and  many  methods 


'  J.-H.  Magne,  loc.  cit.,  p.  351. 
26 


402  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

employed  for  training  the  hippodrome  horse ;  the  conditions  of  nour- 
ishment, stabling,  and  temperature  to  which  he  is  submitted ;  the 
sweatings,  the  tests  of  all  kinds  which  he  undergoes ;  the  dressing,  the 
massage,  the  dry  friction  upon  the  members,  which  are  given  to  him 
every  day ;  is  not  all  this  preparation — so  extensive  and  so  careful — 
adapted  to  communicate  to  him,  in  the  highest  degree,  the  sangui no- 
nervous  temperament  and  the  brilliant  qualities  which  characterize 
him  ?  Is  not  the  Arabian  horse  in  reality  trained  in  the  same  way  ? 
The  different  circumstances  to  which  he  is  obliged  to  conform  him- 
self on  account  of  the  rough  life  of  his  master ;  the  medium  so  pro- 
pitious ibr  the  development  of  all  the  faculties  inherent  to  his  nature, 
— are  they  not  essentially  calculated  to  produce  and  to  establish  in  him 
the  highest  aptitude  of  the  species?  Have  not  these  aptitudes  also 
germinated  in  several  of  the  old  French  races,  for  example,  the  Navar- 
rine,  the  Limousine,  under  the  effect  of  the  same  influences  ?  Do  we 
not  at  the  present  time  see  them  manifested  in  certain  families,  notably 
the  large  Boulonnais  horse,  which  has  never  been  subjected  to  metissage 
with  the  races  called  pure-blooded  f 

Artificial  Transmissibility  of  the  "Blood." — If,  now  that 
the  production  of  the  "  blood"  is  recognized  as  being  derived  from  the 
power  of  adaptation  of  some  isolated  specific  units,  we  obtain  their 
individuality,  with  the  qualities,  however  poor  they  may  be,  by  which 
this  individuality  is  manifested,  we  will  be  able,  by  the  judicious  use 
of  zootechnical  methods,  to  condense  and  establish  it  in  a  family  or 
race  of  which  it  will  become  in  some  way  the  quid  proprium.  This  is 
the  practice  pursued  by  the  Arabs  and  the  English  with  their  horses. 
The  care  which  they  have  taken  to  preserve  them  from  all  contamina- 
tion has  made  them  animals  of  the  richest  blood ;  they  have  so  thor- 
oughly succeeded  in  becoming  masters  of  this  individuality,  that  they 
infuse  it  and  transmit  it  with  a  rare  facility  to  the  varieties  in  which  it 
was  before  absent. 

This  demonstrative  experiment  is  of  great  interest  from  an  economi- 
cal point  of  view.  From  it  we  obtain  the  indication  that  this  condensed 
individuality  which  is  called  the  blood  may  be  made  use  of  to  com- 
municate the  special  feature  or  quality  to  other  individuals  or  other 
races  less  well  endowed,  and  in  whom  selection  will  act  in  the  same  way 
as  it  has  done  for  the  parent  stock.  The  great  difficulty  of  the  prob- 
lem is  to  know  under  what  circumstances  and  to  what  extent  the  opera- 
tion should  be  attempted ;  but,  however  great  this  difficulty  may  be, 
the  principle  we  have  just  given  is  not  the  less  perfectly  true. 

Index    of    the    "  Blood." — Finally,   a   last   question   presents 


POINTS  FROM    WHICH  THE   PROPORTIONS  ARE  STUDIED.      403 

itself.  How  can  we  judge  of  the  amount  of  good  breeding  possessed 
by  a  given  horse  ? 

Two  sources  of  indications  enable  us  to  do  so :  one  of  them  refers 
to  characters  drawn  from  the  general  conformation ;  the  other  to  the 
external  manifestations  of  the  activity  of  the  nervous  system. 

The  first  is  founded  upon  this  fact,  that  the  English  and  the 
Arabian  horses  are  constantly  infusing  better  breeding  into  on r  com- 
mon races.  Whence  it  results  that  these  agents  of  amelioration  should 
transmit  to  their  descendants  the  principal  features  of  their  conforma- 
tion as  well  as  their  "  blood." 

The  second  results  from  this  other  consideration,  that  the  "  blood" 
and  the  temperament,  consisting  in  the  intensity  of  the  reflective 
power,  will  be  seen  by  the  different  external  states  of  the  organs  of 
the  senses, — sight,  hearing,  smell,  taste,  and  touch.  This  last  source  of 
information  is  sometimes  the  only  one, — for  example,  when  it  is  a 
question  of  a  common  race,  free  from  all  mixed  breeding,  in  which  the 
"  blood"  sprang  into  existence  under  the  influence  of  the  external  con- 
ditions only.  Our  own  restrictions  being  made  upon  this  point,  and 
the  cases  in  question  being,  moreover,  rather  infrequent,  we  would  say 
that  the  qualities  proper  to  the  blood  will  be  recognized  by : 

A  slender  body  of  a  stature  generally  tall ;  a  slender  figure,  long 
members,  firm  and  long  muscles,  projecting,  developed  osseous  promi- 
nences ;  a  neat,  light,  square  head  ;  a  wide  forehead  ;  movable  ears  and 
nostrils  ;  quick,  expressive  eyes ;  thin  lips  ;  a  long,  straight,  pyramidal 
neck ;  prominent  withers ;  short  back  and  loins ;  long  and  horizontal 
croup ;  well-attached  tail ;  high  and  long  chest ;  slightly-developed 
belly ;  long  and  oblique  shoulder ;  thigh  and  buttock  low ;  leg  and 
forearm  long ;  straight  hock ;  short  canon ;  clean  and  well-detached 
tendons  ;  feet  rather  small ;  great  nervous  excitability  ;  thin  and  sensi- 
tive skin  ;  scarceness  of  all  the  hairy  productions ;  the  appearance  of 
the  superficial  venous  system  under  the  influence  of  the  least  exercise ; 
the  facility  of  reacting  before  all  external  excitement,  even  the  slightest ; 
finally,  a  remarkable  development  of  the  intellectual  faculties. 

These  are  the  attributes  of  subjects  descended  from  noble  races,  and 
the  proportion  in  which  they  will  be  observed  in  their  metises  (half- 
breeds)  will  also  indicate  the  part  which  reverts  to  the  ancestor  in  their 
production. 

It  may  now  be  understood  without  difficulty  what  is  meant  when 
a  horse  is  said  to  have  race,  nobility  (elegance,  grace,  pride) ;  figure 
(distinction  with  fine  lines) ;  quality,  breeding,  fire,  character  (density 
and  compactness  of  the  muscles,  energy,  vivacity,  vigor) ;  heart  (ardor 


404  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

and  resistance  to  fatigue),  etc.  All  these  expressions  serve  to  character- 
ize such  or  such  a  feature  of  the  conformation  or  the  moral  qualities  of 
well-bred  animals ;  they  are  frequently  employed,  and  it  is  important 
to  know  them  in  order  that  they  may  be  used  and  understood  in  the 
acceptation  which  custom  has  given  them. 


CHAPTER    II. 

ISOLATED   EFFECTS  OF  BEAUTIFUL  PROPORTIONS  UPON  THE  ANIMAL 

MACHINE. 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  passed  in  review  the  four  prin- 
cipal aspects  under  which  it  is  important  to  study  the  proportions. 
We  have  analyzed,  in  a  static  state  or  repose,  the  details,  the  locomotory 
machinery,  the  machine  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  the  animating  principle 
which  regulates  its  action.  Now,  we  have  to  study  the  same  machine 
with  regard  to  the  individual  eifects  which  it  is  susceptible  of  pro- 
ducing, according  to  the  particular  combination  of  the  elements  which 
enters  into  its  organization. 

In  this  respect  Professor  Sanson  l  says,  "  The  actual  work  which  it 
accomplishes  is  utilized  according  to  two  general  modes.  The  displace- 
ment of  mass  which  performs  this  work  is  effected  either  at  the  slow 
gait  of  the  walk  or  the  fast  gaits  of  the  trot  and  the  gallop.  To  ab- 
breviate, we  will  name  the  first  work  en  mode  de  masse,  or  force,  and 
the  second  work  en  mode  de  vitesse,  or  speed.  In  the  one  as  in  the  other 
of  these  two  modes,  the  burden  to  be  transported  may  be  a  mass  dis- 
posed indifferently  upon  the  back  of  the  motor,  or  upon  a  vehicle  to 
which  this  motor  is  attached  and  which  he  pulls." 

We  must  therefore  determine  what  characters  of  the  external  con- 
formation should  be  sought  for  to  choose  in  the  best  conditions  the 
horse  destined  to  work  either  in  the  mode  of  force  or  in  the  mode  of 
speed,  or  in  these  two  modes  at  the  same  time.  We  shall  also  have  to 
say  a  few  words  concerning  the  manner  in  which  the  nervous  force,  the 
excitability,  is  distributed  in  each  of  these  motors,  and  of  its  useful  or 
harmful  influence  upon  the  final  result,  according  to  its  degree  of 
richness.  • 

» A.  Sanson,  Traite  de  zootechnie,  2e  <§d.,  t.  iii.  p.  324. 


ISOLATED  EFFECTS  OF  BEAUTIFUL   PROPORTIONS.         405 


A.— Conditions  of  the  Motor  en  Mode  de  Masse,  or  of  Force. 

The  subjects  intended  for  this  kind  of  work  are  vulgarly  known 
by  the  names  heavy  draught-horses,  horses  of  force.  Their  value  is 
proportional  to  the  burden  which  they  are  capable  of  displacing,  at  the 
slowest  gait,  by  the  contraction  of  their  muscles.  Let  us  see  upon 
what  depends  the  intensity  of  this  contraction,  and  what  external  signs 
denote  it. 

A  muscle  is  a  particular  group  of  red  fibres,  collected  in  bundles  ordinarily 
parallel,  decomposable  by  histological  analysis  into  very  fine  fibres  endowed  with 
special  irritability  and  contractility.  In  the  physiological  state  this  property  acts 
under  the  influence  of  a  stimulation  proceeding  from  the  nervous  centres ;  it 
shows  itself  by  a  more  or  less  marked,  energetic,  and  rapid  diminution  of  the 
length  of  the  primitive  fibrillse.  Connective  tissue  isolates  and  at  the  same  time 
conjoins  the  elementary  parts  of  the  muscle ;  abundant  vessels  (arteries)  carry  to 
it  materials  for  its  nutrition  and  its  activity ;  others  (veins  and  lymphatics)  carry 
away  the  wastes  of  its  functional  activity  ;  finally,  whitish  cords  (nerves),  termi- 
nating in  its  mass  by  numerous  filaments,  veritable  conductors,  connect  it  with 
the  nervous  centres,  and  transmit  to  it  the  motor  stimuli  from  the  will.  These 
last  reach  the  organ  in  such  a  way  that  all  its  elements  contract  simultaneously, 
producing,  by  this  very  means,  a  total  shortening  of  variable  extent. 

The  weight  susceptible  of  neutralizing  the  movement  which  results  from 
this  gives  the  measure  of  what  is  vulgarly  called  the  contractile  force  of  the 
muscle.  Whence  it  follows  that  the  force  of  a  horse,  in  relation  with  a  determined 
effort,  would  be  also  approximatively  indicated  by  the  total  or  the  sum  of  the  in- 
dividual actions  of  the  agents  which  accomplish  this  effort.  In  other  words,  it 
would  be  the  weight  which  he  is  apt  to  move  in  conditions  when  the  speed 
appears  insignificant,  although,  rationally  speaking,  it  is  never  thus. 

In  this  case,  we  see,  force  is  created  at  the  expense  of  speed  ;  in  fact,  we  do 
not  regard  as  important  the  quantity  of  the  space  passed  over ;  it  is  sufficient 
for  us  that  the  animal  moves  the  obstacle. 

Now,  the  manifestation  of  this  phenomenon  obeys  the  two  following 
conditions : 

1st.  The  number  of  the  contractile  elements,  and  the  particular 
nature  of  their  incidences  upon  the  locomotory  levers. 

2d.  The  intensity  of  the  nervous  stimulation. 

All  things  being  equal,  it  is  plain  that,  of  two  muscles  whose  fibres 
have  the  same/orce,  the  one  which  has  them  in  double  quantity  will  be 
twice  as  strong  as  the  other.  It  is  none  the  less  evident  that  if,  by 
some  mechanical  disposition,  one  of  these  muscles  is  placed  in  a  condi- 
tion to  act  in  a  more  perpendicular  direction,  it  will  do  its  work  easily 
or  will  be  able  to  overcome  a  greater  resistance. 

As  to  nerve  stimulation,  physiology  teaches   that  it   reaches  the 


406  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

contractile  organ  by  fractional  portions,  at  equal  intervals,  and  in  very 
close  succession.  But  it  is  certain  that  the  intensity  of  these  portions 
and  the  rapidity  of  their  succession  have  an  influence  upon  the  value 
of  the  effort  to  be  produced.  With  regard  to  this,  every  one  knows 
the  preponderance  of  the  will  over  the  energy  of  physical  exercise. 
We  will  see  farther  on,  in  speaking  of  endurance,  that  the  individual 
differences  bearing  upon  this  influence  are  extremely  variable.  For 
the  present,  we  will  confine  ourselves  to  proving  the  necessity  of  an 
intense  nerve  stimulation  in  those  motors  which  have  to  work  en  mode 
de  masse,  or  perform  force  labor. 

This  being  said,  how  shall  we  appreciate  the  two  preceding  data  in 
the  examination  of  the  external  form  ?  This  is  easily  answered :  by 
the  mass  of  the  muscles,  or,  if  preferred,  by  the  approximative  estima- 
tion of  the  weight,  which  is  generally  proportional  to  the  former ; 
afterwards  by  the  quantity  of  blood  possessed  by  the  animal  examined. 
When  speaking  of  the  mass  of  the  muscles,  we  mean  the  surface  of 
their  transversal  section,  which  is  the  more  extended  as  the  number  of 
elementary  fibres  is  itself  greater. 

These  are  the  two  requisites  which  must  first  of  all  be  found  in  the 
motor  en  mode  de  masse. 

There  are  still  others,  which  are,  however,  only  the  necessary  con- 
sequence of  the  latter.  Thus,  we  will  seek  more  particularly  an  ample, 
short,  cylindrical  body,  close  to  the  ground,  and  with  strong  loins ; 
solid,  thick,  and  wide  members ;  a  base  of  support  a  little  wide,  to 
give  more  stability  to  the  equilibrium ;  developed  extensors,  for  it  is 
by  the  extension  of  the  locomotory  columns,  vigorously  propped  upon 
the  ground,  that  the  animal  moves  his  burden ;  such  are  the  cervical, 
dorsp-lumbar,  scapular,  pectoral,  olecranon,  antibrachial,  gluteal,  crural, 
and  tibial  muscles.  We  must  make  sure  of  their  compactness  and 
their  density,  the  width  and  the  thickness  of  the  articulations ;  the 
approximative  length  and  force  of  all  the  osseous  prominences :  the 
trochiter,  olecranon,  trochanter,  calcaneus,  etc. ;  the  perpendicularity 
of  the  muscular  insertions,  from  a  suitable  inclination  of  the  locomotory 
segments ;  the  delicacy  of  the  skin  ;  the  expression  and  vivacity  of  the 
physiognomy ;  finally,  the  ease,  the  energy,  and  the  power  with  which 
the  subject  will  accomplish  his  work,  wilt  bear  his  collar,  as  it  is 
expressed  in  ordinary  language. 


ISOLATED  EFFECTS  OF  BEAUTIFUL  PROPORTIONS.          407 


B.— Conditions   of   the    Motor  en    Mode    de    Vitesse,   or    of 

Velocity,    Speed. 

We  include  in  the  category  of  motors  suited  especially  for  speed 
all  saddle-horses,  carriage-horses,  and  light  draught-horses,  whose 
habitual  gait  is  the  trot  or  the  gallop.  Here  the  object  to  be  ac- 
complished consists  in  the  distance  which  the  animal,  burdenedTwith  a 
slight  weight,  is  capable  of  travelling  during  a  unit  of  time.  As  to 
the  quantity  of  movement,  mv,  it  remains  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
working  by  the  weight  of  the  mass,  only  the  factor  ra,  mass,  is  reduced 
as  much  as  possible,  while  the  factor  v,  velocity,  which  we  wish  espe- 
cially to  utilize,  is  thereby  correspondingly  increased. 

Now,  the  rapid  moving  of  the  centre  of  gravity  over  the  surface  of 
the  soil  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  the  two  following  conditions : 

1st.  The  length  of  the  strides. 

2d.  The  number  of  strides  taken  during  a  unit  of  time. 

The  extent  of  each  step  is  itself  the  consequence  of  several  second- 
ary mechanical  dispositions  already  known,  and  upon  which  it  would 
be  useless  to  insist.  It  is,  primarily,  the  absolute  length  of  the  columns 
of  locomotion  which  renders  them  more  apt  to  span  over  much  ground  ; 
it  is,  secondarily,  the  considerable  length  of  the  muscles  belonging  to 
the  superior  regions  of  these  columns  and  commanding  their  dis- 
placements ;  finally,  it  is  the  particular  orientation  of  the  articular 
angles,  permitting  the  osseous  segments  to  pass  more  freely  over  the 
space  in  the  direction  of  the  movement  without  losing  force  in  raising 
the  body. 

As  to  the  number  of  steps,  it  depends  exclusively  upon  the  rapidity 
of  the  muscular  contractions, — that  is  to  say,  upon  the  energy  pos- 
sessed by  the  animal,  upon  the  intensity  of  his  nervous  stimulation, 
and  upon  the  time  during  which  he  can  renew  them. 

But  one  feature  which  it  is  important  to  take  into  consideration 
when  speaking  of  the  conformation  of  fast  motors,  is  the  light  weight 
of  the  body.  M.  Sanson l  says  that  "  beyond  a  certain  weight  they 
can  no  longer  be  utilizable,  since  the  strength  which  they  dispose  of  is 
just  sufficient  to  move  their  own  mass  about.  ...  It  is,  then,  no  wonder 
that  the  heavy  French  cavalry  horse  has  never  been  able  to  endure 
the  hardships  of  a  campaign  if  at  all  prolonged,  and  that  even  when 
in  garrison  their  mortality  is  50.57  per  thousand,  whilst  that  of  the 
light  cavalry  horse  is  only  23.33.  .  .  .  The  smaller  and  lighter  saddle- 


1  A.  Sanson,  Traite  de  zootechnie,  t.  iii.  p.  330,  et  suiv. 


408  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

horses  are  the  greater  will  be  the  ratio  of  their  actual  work.  The 
light  cavalry  of  Africa  has  for  a  long  time  furnished  us  with  a  prac- 
tical proof  of  this.  Cavalrymen,  chasseurs,  or  spahis  do  not  weigh,  as 
a  rule,  less  than  the  dragoons ;  a  large  number  of  them  weigh  as  much 
as  the  cuirassiers.  In  all  the  campaigns  in  which  they  have  taken  a 
part  with  the  dragoons  and  the  cuirassiers,  in  the  Crimea,  Italy,  and 
France,  the  chasseurs'  horses  have  always  borne  the  fatigues  of  warfare 
better  than  the  others,  whilst  being  employed  in  a  longer  and  more 
severe  service.  ...  It  is  therefore  very  injudicious,  in  the  selection  of 
cavalry  horses,  not  to  lower  the  minimum  of  size  now  exacted  to  the 
limit  of  that  which  is  necessary  so  that  the  horseman  may  retain  his  seat, 
even  though  the  latter  has  to  be  raised  by  some  such  device  as  that 
practised  by  the  Arabians,  the  Cossacks,  the  Hungarians,  etc.  The 
cavalry  of  these  people  has  always  been  the  most  durable  and  the  most 
indefatigable  of  all,  precisely  because  it  is  composed  of  very  small 
horses. 

"  The  large  and  heavy  saddle-horses,  besides  being  so  difficult  to 
obtain  sound  and  well  formed,  render  the  poorest  service  in  the  cavalry. 
They  should  be  reserved  as  pleasure-horses,  which  have  to  perform  but 
very  little  work.  In  such  service  they  are  well  nourished  and  sur- 
rounded with  the  best  care,  and  their  principal  function  is  to  satisfy 
the  self-pride  of  the  wealthy  who  use  them." 

The  race-horse  (the  English  thoroughbred)  has  been,  until  the 
present  time,  the  most  successful  variety  which  human  industry  has 
developed  with  reference  to  speed  as  the  main  quality.  The  prin- 
cipal characters  of  his  conformation  are  useful  to  us  in  distinguishing 
our  rapid  motors  from  among  all  others.  They  should,  in  fact,  have 
high  chests  and  members ;  short  and  well-supported  body  and  loins ; 
neck,  shoulder,  croup,  thigh,  buttock,  leg,  and  forearm  long  ;  without 
too  much  bulk  to  the  body ;  strong,  dry,  and  clean  members ;  wide 
and  thick  articulations ;  they  must  be  closed  in  their  superior  angles, 
open  in  their  inferior ;  have  a  deep  chest ;  a  small  abdomen ;  skin, 
hairs,  and  mane  thin ;  an  intelligent,  expressive  physiognomy ;  must 
be  graceful,  active,  excitable'  (blood),  energetic,  impetuous,  and  of  an 
inexhaustible  endurance. 

C. — Conditions  of  the  Mixed  Motor.     (Combination  of  Force 
and  Speed  Realized.) 

The  improvement  of  roads,  the  construction  of  railroads,  the 
facility  of  travelling,  and  the  industrial  and  commercial  activity  of 
our  epoch  have  rendered  the  use  of  draught-horses,  capable  of 


ISOLATED  EFFECTS  OF  BEAUTIFUL   PROPORTIONS.          409 

moving  at  a  certain  rate  of  speed,  more  and  more  possible  and  neces- 
sary. It  is  rightly  said,  at  the  present  day,  that  time  is- money.  It 
is  preferable  to  lessen  the  weight  and  multiply  the  number  of  animal 
motors  to  eifect  large  transportations,  and  compensate,  by  the  distance 
travelled  over,  the  expense  and  maintenance  of  a  larger  number  of 
animals.  Heavy  horses  whose  weight  reaches  900  and  1000  kilo- 
grammes will  very  soon  be  a  rarity ;  they  are  reserved  for~  hauling 
those  heavy  burdens  which  can  be  moved  only  at  a  walk ;  their  high 
price,  besides,  bears  witness  to  the  difficulty  of  their  production  and 
to  the  competition  carried  on  against  them  by  the  lighter  varieties. 
Among  the  latter  it  has  been  attempted  to  establish  a  sort  of  happy 
medium  by  the  combination  of  the  principal  elements  of 'the  heavy 
draught-horse  with  those  of  horses  which  possess  considerable  speed. 
The  two  factors  of  the  quantity  of  movement,  mv,  supposing  that  they 
be  comparable  at  all,  have  been  practically  calculated  in  such  a  manner 
that  one  of  them  should  not,  in  the  product,  predominate  over  the 
other.  This  problem,  so  complicated  in  its  material  realization,  has 
been  resolved  with  much  sagacity  by  our  French  breeders ;  we  have 
as  evidence  those  magnificent  specimens  of  our  Percheron  race,  of  the 
Breton  race  along  the  coast,  and  even  the  Boulonnais  horse,  which 
large  manufacturing  concerns  use  so  extensively  all  over  the  country. 

The  principal  distinction  between  the  mixed  motor  and  the  two 
preceding  is  a  mass  relatively  large,  supported  by  a  strong  and  almost 
slender  set  of  members;  the  former  is  the  elements  of  strength 
(volume  of  muscles)  acting  upon  the  machinery  of  speed  (length  and 
direction  of  the  bony  segments).  The  body,  less  voluminous,  less  close 
to  the  ground  than  that  of  the  slow,  heavy  draught-horse,  is  more 
powerful  and  more  muscular  than  that  of  the  race-horse ;  the  members, 
longer  and  their  bones  more  inclined  than  those  of  the  first,  are,  on  the 
contrary,  shorter,  less  oblique  than  those  of  the  second. 

Strictly  speaking,  two  types  of  conformation  may  be  recognized 
in  the  category  of  mixed  motors :  the  one,  light  draught-horses,  finer, 
more  energetic,  and  more  active,  especially  resemble  coach-horses  ;  the 
other,  fast,  heavy  draught-horses,  which  are  more  common,  heavier,  and 
slower,  would,  on  the  contrary,  have  more  affinity  with  the  slow 
draught-horse.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  habitual  gait  is  the  ordinary 
trot,  but  the  short  trot  of  a  speed  almost  below  the  mean  for  animals 
whose  weight  approaches.  700  kilogrammes ;  it  is  a  little  more  elon- 
gated for  those  whose  weight  is  close  to  500  kilogrammes. 

We  cannot  indicate  in  a  precise  manner  the  conformation  of  the 
mixed  motors  on  account  of  the  numerous  varieties  which  they  present. 


410  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

In  the  study  of  the  regions,  we  have  taken  care  to  insist  upon  the  dis- 
position of  the  angular  openings  and  upon  the  proportions  of  some  of 
their  parts,  principally  of  the  neck,  the  shoulder,  the  arm,  the  croup, 
and  the  thigh.  We  therefore  refer  the  reader  to  them.  But  there  is 
a  danger  against  which  we  desire  to  warn  him :  it  is  in  endeavoring 
to  lighten  and  improve  these  animals  by  crossing  injudiciously  with 
races  which  are  too  distinguished,  too  fine ;  a  certain  number  of  subjects 
have  been  produced  which  are  lanky,  deficient,  especially  in  the  length 
of  their  loins,  the  slight  amplitude  of  their  chest,  and  the  weakness  of 
their  members.  Of  course,  this  defect  is  not  of  a  nature  to  cause  them 
to  be  entirely  rejected,  since,  for  their  intended  utilization,  they  are  not 
called  upon  to  carry  heavy  loads.  However,  they  none  the  less  become 
sway-backed  ;  as  they  are  used  on  the  paved  streets  of  large  cities,  their 
locomotory  apparatus  will  very  quickly  manifest  its  weakness  by  the 
appearance  of  numerous  blemishes,  and  by  an  early  ruin  of  their  hocks 
and  their  fetlocks.  For  these  reasons,  the  purchaser  should  give  pref- 
erence to  those  motors  which  are  short,  more  compact,  and  closer  to 
the  ground ;  with  the  same  speed  as  the  others,  they  possess  superior 
endurance,  will  do  more  work  and  at  less  expense. 

D. — Excitability  ;   Impressionability  ;   Irritability. 

The  normal  relations  which  exist  between  the  living  matter  and  its 
animating  principle,  between  the  physical  bulk  and  the  blood,  as  it  is 
expressed  in  vulgar  language,  are  not  equally  balanced  in  all  subjects. 

Excitability — that  is  to  say,  that  faculty  which  the  organism  has  of 
showing  to  the  desired  degree  its  activity  under  the  influence  of  the 
internal  stimulant,  the  nervous  system — is  of  primary  importance  as  the 
indispensable  complement  of  its  mechanism,  however  perfect  it  may 
be,  for  this  faculty  renders  it  eminently  adapted  to  all  the  exigencies 
of  the  external  world.  The  animal  which  possesses  marked  excitabil- 
ity can  at  once  be  recognized  by  his  intelligent  physiognomy  ;  his  affec- 
tionate character ;  his  expressive  head  ;  his  delicate,  supple,  and  vascular 
skin;  his  hard  hoof;  his  silky,  not  overabundant,  mane;  his  slender, 
harmonious  form  ;  his  powerful  chest ;  his  firm,  dense,  well-outlined 
muscles ;  his  neat,  clean,  strong,  solid  members  ;  his  small,  proportioned 
feet ;  his  easy,  lengthened,  brilliant  gaits.  Gentle  and  quiet  when  at 
rest  and  during  work ;  active,  energetic,  even  impetuous,  if  necessary, 
always  docile  ;  of  a  robust  constitution,  well  nourished,  adapting  him- 
self without  difficulty  to  the  most  diverse  conditions  of  existence,  he  is 
prompt  to  begin  his  task,  able  to  keep  up,  and  ready  to  resume  again 
on  the  morrow  the  work  of  the  day  before. 


ISOLATED  EFFECTS  OF  BEAUTIFUL  PROPORTIONS.          411 

But  nervous  excitation  is  not  constantly  distributed  throughout 
the  living  machine  in  such  a  way  that  its  manifestations  are  in  exact 
equilibrium  with  the  resistance  of  its  machinery.  Two  opposite  de- 
fects, equally  prejudicial  to  the  proper  action  of  the  motor,  result  from 
this,  for  they  both  restrict  the  play  of  the  means  at  its  disposal. 

If  it  is  the  blood  which  predominates  over  the  common  element ; 
if,  as  it  is  also  said,  the  animal  has  too  much  blood,  the  effect~exceeds 
the  aim  ;  the  physiological  excitability  is  too  intense,  too  active ;  it 
becomes  impressionability  to  a  more  marked  degree,  irritability,  or,  in 
other  words,  an  extreme  susceptibility,  an  excessive  reaction,  some- 
times dangerous  in  the  presence  of  even  the  slightest  external  impres- 
sions. "This  great  nervous  excitability/'  M.  Sanson1  says,  "has 
none  but  practical  disadvantages,  contrary  to  the  opinion  entertained 
by  horsemen,  who,  through  their  ignorance  of  physiology,  believe  too 
easily  that  courage  can  take  the  place  of  strength,  or  that  the  latter  has 
its  source  in  the  nervous  system.  No  doubt,  for  a  short  time,  the 
manifestation  of  this  courage  is  brilliant  and  may  be  seductive ;  but 
the  brave  animal  wears  himself  out  with  it ;  he  soon  exhausts  the 
true  soufce,  poorly  sustained,  of  his  strength  and  wears  out  his  insuffi- 
cient mechanism.  It  would  be  better  for  a  useful  employment  of  his 
power,  for  an  economical  utilization  of  the  capital  which  he  represents, 
that  he  should  be  saving  of  both, — be  less  courageous,  and  render  less 
brilliant  but  more  lasting  services. 

"  Among  horses  descended  directly  or  indirectly  from  race-stallions 
of  thoroughbred  blood,  there  are  by  far  too  many  subjects  of  which  it 
is  said  that  the  activity  of  the  nervous  system  is  too  great  for  that  of 
the  body." 

Vallon  adds2  that  "in  such  a  case  the  forms  are  angular;  the 
members  long  and  slender;  the  articulations  narrow;  the  muscles 
well  separated  from  each  other,  but  sparingly  developed ;  the  tendons 
dense  but  of  little  volume ;  the  horn  dry  and  brittle ;  the  skin  deli- 
cate*; the  ribs  flat ;  the  head  expressive,  etc.  When  coming  out  of  the 
stable  the  horse  performs  disorderly  movements,  jumps,  skips,  is  all 
excitement.  In  the  drill  and  in  the  parade  he  tries  to  pass  his  neigh- 
bors. He  is  of  a  delicate  disposition,  requires  choice  food,  water  of 
good  quality,  etc.  For  all  these  reasons  the  horse  becomes  quickly 
tired,  exhausted.  Often,  after  a  day's  march,  where  he  has  toiled 
a  great  deal,  he  is  quite  broken  down,  and  should  he  be  needed 
he  can  be  of  no  use.  After  a  day's  work  some  of  these  animals  lie 

1  A.  Sanson,  Traite  de  zootechnie,  2e  <§d.,  t.  iii.  p.  197. 

2  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  457. 


412  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

down,  refuse  to  partake  of  their  ration,  and  for  several  days  are  not  in 
a  condition  to  resume  their  service."  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  common 
element  predominates  over  the  blood,  there  is  a  lack  of  physiological 
excitability.  The  setting-up  of  the  machine  may  still  be  good,  its 
substance  of  an  excellent  quality,  its  mechanical  arrangement  harmo- 
nious, but  the  stimulant  is  defective.  Although  endowed  with  a  cer- 
tain stamp  of  fineness  and  some  appearance  of  energy  and  vigor,  the 
subject,  according  to  a  vulgar  expression,  is  a  good-looking  swindler ; 
he  is  the  picture-horse  of  the  dealers.  If  he  be  more  common  still, 
his  form,  although  regular,  is  heavy,  fleshy ;  his  muscles  voluminous 
but  flabby,  -containing  a  large  quantity  of  connective  tissue  or  fat ;  his 
skin  is  thick ;  his  hoof  soft ;  his  temperament  lymphatic ;  his  gait 
indolent;  his  physiognomy  without  expression;  his  extremities  are 
common ;  his  hairs  and  mane  abundant,  stiff,  coarse ;  his  feet  volu- 
minous, badly  conformed ;  he  is  without  reaction,  without  ardor ;  at 
each  moment  he  must  be  urged  on  by  words,  whip,  or  spur ;  finally, 
he  endures  fatigue  and  privations  poorly ;  he  is  a  wretched  servant, 
eating  much,  often  sick,  and  on  the  whole,  renders  a  service,  entirely 
unsatisfactory. 


CHAPTER    III. 

RESULT  OF  BEAUTIFUL   PROPORTIONS   UPON  THE  ANIMAL    MACHINE. 

RESISTANCE  to  fatigue  :  endurance.  Every  animated  motor,  from 
the  action  of  its  machinery  and  its  organs,  is  capable  of  producing 
certain  effects,  developing  force,  speed,  or  both  at  the  same  time,  and 
of  manifesting  its  activity  more  or  less  easily  according  to  the  nature 
and  arrangement  of  its  principal  parts.  But  it  is  important  that  its 
effects  be  combined  in  such  a  way  that  man  may  be  able  to  employ 
them  economically, — that  is  to  say,  in  all  their  intensity  and  for  the 
longest  time  possible.  In  a  word,  it  is  necessary  that  they  terminate, 
through  their  reciprocal  concordance,  in  a  useful  and  durable  mechan- 
ical result :  to  the  latter  has  been  given  the  name  endurance. 

Opinion  of  the  Laity  upon  Endurance.  —  In  ordinary 
language,  endurance,  like  the  temperament  and  the  blood,  is  that, 
in  a  manner,  mysterious,  concealed,  hidden  faculty  which  one  animal 
seems  to  have  in  reserve,  and  by  the  aid  of  which  he  resists  fatigue 
better  than  another  horse.  This  occult  power  arms  him  for  the 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS.  413 

fight,  endows  him  with  his  most  essential  qualities,  and  manifests 
externally  his  power  and  his  vital  equilibrium  ;  it  is  this  accumulated, 
inappreciable  quality  of  which  we  can  judge  only  by  the  greatness  of 
his  abilities  and  the  superiority  of  his  attitudes.  It  is  therefore  con- 
stantly opposed  to  the  form,  even  as  fitness  is  contrasted  with  beauty, 
.the  contents  with  the  container,  the  true  with  the  false,  the  solid  with 
the  brilliant,  certainty  with  illusion,  talent  with  knowledge.  Form 
and  appearances  are  often  deceptive  ;  without  endurance  they  are 
always  so  ;  the  horse  becomes  tired  all  the  sooner  as  he  possesses  less 
of  it,  and  works  all  the  better  as  he  has  more,  precisely  like  the  day- 
laborer,  limited  against  his  will  in  his  enterprises,  if  he  be  compared 
to  a  capitalist,  whose  greater  power  of  action  is  due  to  his  possessing  a 
greater  number  of  available  resources. 

Such  is  the  notion  possessed  by  the  mass  of  people  upon  this  sub- 
ject. It  is  reduced,  as  we  see,  to  the  pure  and  simple  statement  of  a 
result  without  any  attempt  to  examine  its  nature.  We  feel  that  the 
question  is  a  difficult  one,  that  its  data  are  numerous,  complex,  delicate, 
and  profound  ;  but,  through  the  ignorance  existing  at  the  present 
time,  a  primary  cause  has  been  substituted  for  the  secondary  ones,  and, 
as  in  many  other  embarrassing  questions,  in  default  of  being  able  to 
surmount  the  difficulty  inherent  to  the  determination  even  of  this 
primary  cause,  we  have  been  satisfied  with  a  word  in  which  truth, 
prejudice,  errors,  everything  has  been  summed  up  :  endurance  !  This 
word  no  more  interprets  the  phenomena  which  it  aims  at  conveying 
than  the  conception  of  the  soul  explains  psychical  facts  ;  that  of  force, 
movement  ;  that  of  life,  living  organisms  ;  and  no  more  than,  within 
our  own  domain,  the  conception  of  blood  explains  energy  and  ardor. 
The  time  has,  however,  come  for  exacting  more,  and  penetrating 
deeper,  by  a  methodical  analysis,  into  the  very  essence  itself  of  things. 

Work.  —  First,  what  is  work  f 

To  work  is,  essentially,  to  overcome  a  resistance,  an  action  which 
is  defined  in  two  ways,  either  as  a  force  acting  over  a  certain  space,  Fs; 
or  as  mass  moving  at  a  certain  velocity, 


In  animal  mechanics,  the  first  of  these  two  formulae,  Fs,  is  gen- 
erally not  very  conveniently  employed,  because  it  is  always  very  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  practically  one  of  the  factors  of  this  product,  the  force 
F,  or  muscular  contraction. 

The  second  formula,  on  the  contrary,  much  more  precise,  shows  us, 


414  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

in  fact,  that  work  increases  in  proportion  to  the  mass,  whilst  it  aug- 
ments as  the  square  of  the  velocity.  This  is  equivalent  to  saying  that 
if  the  mass  be  increased  2,  3,  4,  5  times,  the  work  is  rendered  2,  3,  4,  5 
times  greater,  whilst  if  the  velocity  be  modified  in  the  same  degree, 
the  motor  would  accomplish  a  work  4,  9,  16,  and  25  times  greater;  an 
important  idea,  already  foreshadowing  the  fact  that  an  animal  employed 
at  speed  will  be  able  to  endure  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  effort  only 
during  a  relatively  limited  period  of  time. 

Fatigue. — On  the  other  hand,  what  is  fatigue  f  LittrS  *  defines 
it  a  painful  sensation  accompanied  by  a  difficulty  of  exertion,  and 
caused  by  excessive  work.  Now,  as  this  feeling  is  manifested  by  a 
cessation  of  locomotory  activity,  which,  as  is  known,  is  the  immediate 
consequence  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  it  follows  that  to  obtain 
a  correct  conception  of  the  nature  of  fatigue  we  must  previously  recall, 
in  a  few  words,  the  physiological  conditions  of  muscular  contraction. 

Muscular  Contraction.— The  fundamental  property  of  a  muscle,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  the  power  of  contracting  under  the  influence  of  certain  stimuli.  In 
the  organism,  it  is  the  nervous  system  which  presides  over  every  contraction ;  but 
its  role  is  facilitated  or  retarded  according  to  different  conditions.  Thus,  it  is 
proved  that  contractility  is  increased  by  an  active  circulation  of  the  blood,  by 
the  presence  of  oxygen,  a  moderate  temperature,  a  proper  rest,  etc.  It  is  slack- 
ened or  diminished  by  diametrically  opposite  causes,  an  arrest  of  circulation, 
carbonic  acid,  lactic  acid,  cold,  prolonged  inactivity,  excessive  functional  activity, 
etc.  During  the  physiological  contraction  the  nervous  impulses  are  communi- 
cated to  a  muscle  interruptedly,  but,  at  the  same  time,  to  all  its  elements,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  organ  is  shortened  proportionally  to  its  length,  and  with 
a  power  which  depends  upon  the  number  of  its  primitive  fibres.  But  under  the 
influence  of  fatigue  the  contraction  becomes  slower  and  less  energetic.  Similar 
effects  are  produced  by  cold  and  all  interferences  with  a  free  circulation.  Whilst 
the  muscle  is  contracted  it  becomes  acid,  consumes  oxygen,  hydrocarbon  prin- 
ciples, and,  in  default  of  these,  albuminous  substances ;  its  circulation  increases, 
and  the  venous  blood  is  much  darker.  Its  chemical  composition  is  also  very 
different  from  that  of  the  inactive  muscle.  There  are  formed  carbonic  acid,  lactic 
acid,  urea,  creatine,  as  well  as  other  azotic  and  non-azotic  waste  products ;  all  of 
them  results  either  of  oxidation,  or  of  a  particular  fermentation,  or,  finally,  of 
a  pure  and  simple  disassociation  of  the  elements  which  the  muscle  had  assimi- 
lated and  which  constitute  the  complete  aliment. 

However  this  may  be,  the  products  of  respiration  and  muscular  contraction 
have  to  be  reabsorbed  by  the  veins  and  the  lymphatics,  without  which  the  organ 
becomes  overloaded  and  loses  its  contractility. 

Muscular  contraction,  to  be  produced,  requires,  then,  a  supply  of  blood  and 
an  excitation ;  to  be  continued,  it  implies  a  free,  active  circulation,  and  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  the  exciting  principle.  As  the  proportion  of  waste  is  propor- 
tionate to  the  rapidity,  the  intensity,  the  duration,  and  the  repetition  of  the  con- 


Littr6,  Dictionnaire  de  la  langue  frangaise. 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS.  415 

traction  ;  and  as,  on  the  other  hand,  the  work  of  depurating  the  muscular  system 
devolves  upon  the  circulatory  apparatus,  the  economy  must  be  provided  with  the 
special  organs  through  which  the  blood  can  eliminate  with  facility  the  products 
of  tissue-change  with  which  it  is  burdened. 

These  are  the  organs  which  Professor  Baron  l  calls  automatic  cleansers.  By 
their  intervention  the  living  machine  is  cleared,  without  its  knowledge,  of  what 
its  functional  activity  would  clog  it  with.  Such  are  the  lungs,  the  external  and 
internal  tegumentary  surface,  the  different  cutaneous  glands,  and  the  kidneys. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  results  that  prolonged  exercise  is 
always  accompanied  by  an  expenditure  of  food,  of  blood,  and  of  nerve- 
tissue,  by  an  increased  circulation,  by  an  acceleration  of  respiration,  by 
a  rise  in  temperature,  and,  finally,  by  a  greater  activity  of  the  different 
emunctory  surfaces,  principally  the  sudorific  glands  and  the  kidneys. 

Cessation  of  Locomotory  Activity. — The  above  principle 
being  admitted,  it  is  plain  that  the  cessation  of  locomotory  activity  will 
be  due  to  the  indirect  influence  of  one  of  the  two  following  causes  : 
the  animal  will  stop  either  from  nervous  exhaustion  or  from  an  ex- 
cessive accumulation  of  waste  products  in  the  muscles  (as  was  said 
above,  by  the  dogging  of  his  muscles). 

Nervous  exhaustion  evidently  varies  according  to  the  quality  and 
the  abundance  of  force-accumulation  of  the  cerebro-spinal  system  and 
the  way  in  which  the  nervous  force  is  expended.  All  subjects,  as  we 
know,  are  not  equally  gifted  in  this  respect ;  but,  as  to  equality  of 
blood,  it  is  certain  that  the  more  the  contraction  is  sudden,  intense, 
prolonged,  and  repeated,  the  more  will  the  exciting  principle  of  the 
organism  diminish  and  the  quicker  will  it  reach  its  last  limit.  As 
to  muscular  accumulation  of  waste  products,  it  is  caused  by  the  in- 
sufficiency of  the  emunctories,  the  circulatory,  respiratory,  urinary,  and 
sudorific  apparatus.  Sometimes  the  blood  does  not  carry  away  the 
excretions  as  rapidly  as  they  are  formed ;  sometimes  it  is  not  thor- 
oughly purified  in  the  lungs,  the  kidneys,  the  sudorific  glands  ;  some- 
times, finally,  it  is  not  rich  enough  in  primary  constituents.  Then 
one  of  two  things  will  occur :  either  it  returns  to  the  muscle  still 
loaded  with  waste  materials, — that  is  to  say,  with  products  which 
cause  the  latter  to  lose  its  contractility, — or  it  reaches  it  not  properly 
provided  with  the  substances  (oxygen  and  other  muscular  aliments) 
without  which  this  quality  cannot  be  put  into  action.  In  each  of 
these  cases  locomotory  activity  is  diminished  and  prevented,  even  by 
the  fact  of  the  functional  unfitness  of  the  organs  whose  co-operation 
it  necessarily  requires. 

1  R.  Baron,  La  DynamomStrie  biologique,  in  Archives  vele'rinaires,  ann£e  1877,  t.  ii.  p.  754. 


416  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Conditions  of  the  Economical  Production  of  Work. — 
Let  us  attempt  now  to  determine  what  must  be  exacted  from  the 
motor,  in  order  that  he  may  produce,  in  the  best  conditions,  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  with  the  least  possible  fatigue.  In  other 
words,  let  us  see  under  what  circumstances  the  work  will  be  the  least 
onerous  for  the  animal,  and  therefore  the  most  economical. 

Professor  Baron ]  has  well  explained  this  important  question.  In 
his  opinion  resistance  to  fatigue  is  more  or  less  a  function  of  the  fol- 
lowing conditions : 

a.  A  powerful  faculty  of  dynamic  accumulation  of  the  nervo-muscular 
system, — blood. 

b.  Innate  or  acquired  ability  of  the  muscular  fibre  to  make  use  at 
once  of  the  nervous  or  plastic  elements  (excitable,  firm,  dense  muscles ; 
rapid  reflex  action). 

c.  A  good  construction  of  the  members  and  beautiful  proportions 
(perfection  of  the  mechanism  rendering  it  fit  to  act  with  force,  ease, 
precision). 

d.  Innate  or  acquired  ability  of  the  organism  to  rid  itself  quickly 
and  thoroughly  of  the  waste  materials  through  its  emunctories  (spacious, 
active  lungs ;  surface  of  the  body  relatively  extensive). 

e.  Facility  of  the   locomotory   apparatus  to   execute   easily    certain 
movements  (training  of  the  horse ;  economy  of  force  and  time  for  the 
execution  of  a  determined  work). 

/.  The  quality  of  the  food  and  that  of  the  tissues,  both  of  which  tend 
to  lessen  the  formation  of  the  waste  matters  or  permit  the  organism  to  rid 
itself  of  them  at  shorter  intervals  (substantial  food  of  little  bulk ;  a 
good  assimilation). 

The  horse  which  will  answer  best  to  all  these  conditions  will  also 
be  able  to  perform  the  greatest  work  and  resist  for  the  longest  time 
the  fatigue  which  results  from  it. 

Endurance  in  Different  Kinds  of  Animal  Motors. — Does 
endurance  oifer  the  same  interest  in  horses  of  force  as  in  those  of 
speed  ?  Incontestably  it  does  not,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand 
this.  In  animals  which  a*re  utilized  only  as  force  factors  the  muscular 
contractions  are  slow,  inextensive,  not  frequent,  and  of  an  intensity 
rarely  excessive.  Their  work  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  weight  to 
be  displaced,  their  speed  is  always  very  ordinary.  Consequently,  their 
expenditure  is  never  very  great  in  ordinary  circumstances.  When  it 
becomes  so, — for  example,  when  they  have  to  ascend  an  acclivity  or 

1  R.  Baron,  loc.  cit.,  p.  756. 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS.  417 

to  pull  upon  soft  ground, — their  muscles  have  time  to  depurate  them- 
selves and  their  lungs  to  oxygenate  the  blood  which  flows  through 
them,  without  the  difficulty  of  breathing  being  exaggerated.  Hence 
it  requires  a  long  time  to  produce  fatigue  in  them,  and  their  work  can 
continue  for  a  considerable  time, — ten,  fifteen,  and  even  eighteen  hours 
a  day, — provided  they  are  properly  nourished.  Nervous  exhaustion 
is  almost  the  only  thing  that  requires  a  certain  amount  of  reparative 
rest ;  besides,  the  necessities  of  daily  labor  oblige  both  animals  and 
people  to  interrupt  their  work  at  certain  hours,  principally  during  the 
night.  Hence  it  is  very  seldom  necessary  to  work  the  draught-horse 
to  the  utmost  extent  of  his  powers  of  endurance.  However,  this  does 
not  always  imply,  as  De  Curnieu  humorously  says,1  that  it  is  foolish- 
ness to  speak  of  the  inexhaustible  endurance  of  horses  which  have  no 
speed,  or  which  go  long  distances  at  a  slow  pace.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  important  to  know  exactly  what  these  animals  are  capable  of  doing 
at  a  certain  moment  in  view  of  unforeseen  circumstances  which  may 
happen  at  any  instant.  Where  is  the  teamster  who  has  not  become 
stuck  in  the  mud  after  a  rain-storm,  brought  to  a  stand-still  by  a 
slippery  pavement,  an  accidental  snow-storm,  a  frost,  a  rather  steep 
and  slippery  slope  ?  Which  of  them  has  never  been  left  on  the  road, 
discouraged,  obliged  to  go  for  additional  horses,  despairing  of  over- 
coming the  obstacle  with  his  own  team  ?  Who,  finally,  being  con- 
fident of  his  team  and  convinced  of  their  vigor,  has  not  come  out 
victoriously  from  the  trial  by  suddenly  imposing  upon  them  an  excessive 
labor?  These  facts  are  too  common  and  too  well  known  to  dwell 
upon.  Let  us  proceed. 

But  in  the  horse  which  is  employed  as  a  factor  of  speed  endur- 
ance is  of  the  greatest  importance,  for  the  work  is  more  considerable, 
the  expenditure  of  tissue,  and  therefore  the  fatigue,  greater.  The 
muscular  contraction  is  always  extensive,  intense,  sudden,  and  repeated ; 
the  muscles  need  much  blood,  exact  a  rapid  absorption,  are  quickly 
exhausted ;  the  lungs  should  double  their  activity  in  order  to  avoid 
congestion,  effect  their  interchange  with  the  air,  eject  their  waste 
products,  and  absorb  the  oxygen  in  sufficient  quantity.  As  to  nerve 
force,  when  quickly  exhausted,  it  very  soon  renders  the  mechanism 
unable  to  perform  its  work. 

"It  is  the  pace  that  kills !"  say  the  English,  those  judicious  con- 
noisseurs, thus  expressing  the  enormous  losses  which  this  kind  of  work 
causes.  As  the  animal  can  sustain  his  gait  only  when  endowed  with, 

1  De  Curnieu,  Lecons  de  science  hippique  geue'rale,  3e  partie,  p.  82. 
27 


418  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

so  to  speak,  inexhaustible  endurance,  it  is  not  astonishing  to  see  this 
quality  considered  only  in  fast  horses,  since  this  is  the  sine  qua  non 
condition  of  their  utility,  therefore  of  their  value. 

The  External  Form  as  an  Index  of  Endurance. — We 
have  studied  the  question  under  most  of  its  aspects ;  let  us  now  return 
to  the  external  form  and  try  to  analyze  it  in  so  far  as  it  is  an  indicator 
of  endurance,  in  order  to  call  the  attention  of  the  beginner  to  the 
features  which  will  permit  him  at  first  sight  to  recognize  that  essential 
quality  in  the  animals  submitted  to  his  examination. 

We  must  first  consider  the  muscles.  Firm,  dense,  compact  muscles 
will  be  sought  for ;  clearly-defined  outlines ;  deep  interstices,  not  filled 
with  fat  or  connective  tissue.  In  draught-horses  especially,  care  will 
be  taken  not  to  mistake  for  a  genuine  development  of  the  muscular 
system  at  large  that  excessive  corpulence  which  results  from  an 
aliment  that  is  little  nutritive,  little  exciting,  or,  again,  from  that 
especial  preparation  which  precedes  the  sale.  Small  faith  must  be 
placed  in  those  thick,  clumsy,  rounded  forms  which  so  often  please 
inexperienced  persons,  and  give  rise  to  an  idea  of  vigor,  energy,  and 
power.  At  the  end  of  a  few  days  all  these  beautiful  appearances  dis- 
appear, and  then,  but  too  late,  the  error  committed  is  perceived. 

Then  the  chest,  in  its  length,  its  height,  and  its  width,  as  well  as 
the  other  parts  of  the  respiratory  apparatus,  will  be  considered.  The 
horse  runs  as  much  with  his  lungs  as  with  his  members,  let  it  not  be 
forgotten.  Without  good  wind  he  is  incapable  of  accomplishing  the 
least  laborious  work,  for  his  muscular  system,  although  well  disposed, 
will  be  quickly  overloaded  with  effete  material  and  soon  rendered  inert. 

Then  we  must  appreciate  in  what  proportions  the  blood  and  the 
coarse  elements  exist  in  the  animal, — that  is  to  say,  that  part  of  the 
influence  which  is  exerted  by  the  nervous  system,  the  condenser  of 
that  energy  which  the  muscles  discharge  little  by  little.  Thinness  of 
the  skin,  the  hair,  and  the  mane ;  bright,  expressive  physiognomy ; 
energetic  countenance,  mobility  of  the  ears  and  the  nostrils ;  general 
sensitiveness,  docility,  attention,  intelligence,  prompt  and  easy  reac- 
tions :  such  are  the  principal  characteristics  of  distinction,  without 
which  he  cannot  possess  great  power  or  endure  severe  trials. 

Finally,  the  perfection  of  the  mechanism  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  harmony  of  the  details  and  of  the  whole  must  be  ascertained. 
If  the  muscles,  the  lungs,  and  the  blood  are  the  active  elements  of 
power,  they  can  manifest  it  externally  only  through  the  harmony  and 
the  energy  of  the  machinery  of  locomotion ;  one  of  these  elements  is 
of  no  value  without  the  others,  and  vice  versa.  Beautiful  proportions 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS.  419 

also  furnish  us  with  the  degree  of  functional  and  reciprocal  relation 
of  the  parts.  By  them  we  judge  of  the  precision  of  action,  the  entire 
utilization  of  the  force,  and  the  longevity  of  the  machine ;  they  imply 
a  resultant  which,  without  them,  all  isolated  effects  could  not  attain. 

Sometimes,  however,  everything  seems  to  be  well  adjusted  in  the 
horse ;  vigor,  good  wind,  and  energy  appear  fortunately  combined 
with  the  elements  of  form,  grace,  and  elegance ;  the  animal  is  brilliant, 
impetuous,  all  excitement  when  taken  out ;  in  his  stepping,  his  move- 
ments, force,  and  speed  he  is  second  to  none ;  and  yet,  we  distinctly 
state,  these  fine  qualities  are  only  the  vain  appearances  of  a  fictitious 
ardor,  the  eye-deceiver  of  an  imaginary  power  of  endurance. 

Similar  to  a  Leyden  jar  slightly  charged,  he  differs  in  no  way  from 
the  subject  which  possesses  true  endurance.  He  is  no  doubt  deficient 
in  something ;  only  this  lack  is  not  seen  externally,  and,  on  that  ac- 
count, will  lead  the  most  skilful  into  error.  He  possesses  all  the 
materials  of  power;  their  fault  consists  in  not  being  of  a  superior 
quality.  The  organism  has  not  the  fine  composition  indispensable  for 
the  constitution  of  dynamical  or  vital  equilibrium  ;  here  it  has  too 
little,  there  too  much,  elsewhere  none  at  all.  In  reality,  the  statical 
conditions  are  good  ;  there  is  sufficient  material,  whilst  there  is  an  ab- 
sence of  certain  properties.  Levers,  muscles,  nerves,  blood,  and  wind 
exist  in  sufficient  quantity,  but  not  with  the  necessary  qualities.  There 
is  a  harmony  of  forms,  there  is  no  harmony  of  forces,  no  free  outlet 
for  their  manifestation.  The  muscle  is  irritable,  but  its  contractility  is 
perhaps  too  exacting ;  the  temperament  is  sanguine,  but  is  too  poor 
in  quality ;  its  composition  is  wanting  in  something ;  the  nervous  sys- 
tem is  well  constructed,  but  it  is  not  trained  for  long  action ;  the  lung 
is  spacious,  but  its  fundamental  elements  are  poorly  adapted  for  the 
interchange  of  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide,  etc.  We  might  go  on  with 
such  suppositions  almost  ad  infinitum. 

Whatever  interpretations  there  may  be,  no  mystery,  nothing  ex- 
traordinary or  occult,  should  be  imagined  to  exist  in  this  problem.  All 
these  effects  have  their  causes,  but  all  enter  into  the  domain  of  infinitely 
small  factors,  as  yet  unknown  to  modern  science,  which  judges  of  them, 
on  the  whole,  only  by  their  manner  of  existence. 

To  return  to  our  first  comparison.  Let  us  again  take  our  Leyden 
jar.  If  we  touch  it,  it  will  be  discharged.  The  moment  afterwards 
it  appears  the  same  as  it  was  before,  and  yet  it  no  longer  contains  this 
imponderable  electrical  fluid,  this  particular  vibratory  movement  which 
it  is  impossible  for  our  senses  to  take  cognizance  of  otherwise  than  by 
its  effects.  It  is  by  a  fresh  electrical  shock  that  we  can  now  distinguish 


420  THE    EXTEK'OR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

it  from  another  charged  jar,  and  thus  appreciate  the  difference  of  their 
internal  condition  ;  the  simple  examination  of  the  external  form  will 
be  no  criterion  to  us. 

The  same  conditions  exist  for  endurance.  Until  now,  we  have 
considered  it  only  as  a  total  or  a  product.  The  study  of  the  conforma- 
tion may,  of  course,  cause  us  to  suspect  its  existence ;  experiment  alone 
is  capable  of  proving  it.  Now,  among  horses  (pardon  this  metaphor) 
there  are  so  many  empty  Leyden  jars  that  one  is'of  necessity  compelled 
to  touch  and  to  test  them,  in  order  to  avoid  the  inconveniences  resulting 
from  purchasing  them. 

Practical  Determination  of  Endurance. — In  what  way  shall 
we  make  a  practical  determination  of  endurance  ?  Evidently,  by  sud- 
denly increasing  the  expenditure  and  pushing  the  animal's  work  as 
much  as  possible.  In  the  draught-horse,  for  example,  it  can  be  proved 
by  making  the  animal  pull  a  heavy  load  up  a  hill  at  a  fast  walk.  In 
the  fast  horse,  by  obliging  him  to  pull  or  carry  a  somewhat  heavy 
weight  at  an  unusually  fast  gait,  the  trot  or  the  gallop. 

It  is  well  understood  that  these  kinds  of  experiments  should 
never  be  carried  to  the  point  of  becoming  prejudicial  to  the  animals. 
Hence,  in  order  to  render  the  experiment  less  severe,  without  making 
it,  on  that  account,  less  decisive,  it  is  important  to  examine  the  condi- 
tion of  the  respiration.  What  takes  place  in  the  muscles  and,  for  still 
greater  reason,  the  nervous  centres  cannot  be  seen ;  but,  as  the  contrac- 
tion supposes  a  proportionate  excitation  and  circulation  ;  as,  besides,  the 
blood  before  returning  to  the  muscles  is  obliged  to  pass  through  the 
lungs  and  to  absorb  from  them  as  much  material  as  it  gives  off,  the 
result  of  this  is  that  the  activity  of  the  thoracic  bellows  is  in  close  cor- 
relation with  the  amount  of  the  work,  the  quantity  of  tissue- waste, 
and  the  degree  of  fatigue.  It  follows  from  this  that  difficult  breathing 
shows  to  the  observer  the  state  of  exhaustion,  and  gives  him  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  reserve  strength  which  the  animal  still  has  at  his  disposal. 
It  is  true,  then,  that  the  flank  is  to  the  horse  as  the  manometer  is  to 
the  steam-engine,  since  it  indicates  the  tension  of  the  functional  activity 
of  the  horse,  as  the  manometer  indicates  that  of  the  steam. 

As  to  the  nerve  conductibility,  its  feebleness  or  its  disappearance  is 
seen  in  unequivocal  signs  on  the  locomotory  apparatus :  the  muscular 
contractions  are  weaker  and  slower ;  the  efforts  diminish  in  intensity 
and  rapidity ;  the  intervals  between  the  steps  are  no  longer  equal  and  in 
co-ordination  ;  the  members  meet  and  strike  each  other ;  the  gait,  at  first 
uncertain,  becomes  tottering ;  the  head  hangs  low  ;  the  subject  becomes 
more  and  more  insensible  to  the  surroundings ;  soon  he  falls  in  a  heap 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS.  421 

and  dies  at  his  task.  But,  before  reaching  this  point,  his  steps  are  less 
free,  heavy,  and  uncertain ;  he  forges.  All  these  signs  should  be  suffi- 
cient, and  their  appearance  demands  an  immediate  cessation  of  the 
experiment. 

Performances  or  Examples  of  Endurance. — Veterinary 
annals  are  full  of  examples  showing  the  feats  accomplished  by  certain 
horses.  It  is  interesting  to  become  acquainted  with  some  of  them,  so 
as  to  know  about  how  much  an  animal  is  capable  of  accomplishing 
in  certain  exceptional  circumstances. 

We  know  that  at  a  walk  the  work  can  be  continued  almost 
indefinitely  without  exhaustion;  we  have  given  the  physiological 
reason  for  this.  However,  this  gait  is  sometimes  maintained  with  a 
remarkable  velocity. 

De  Curnieu  has  seen,  especially,  two  horses  travel  8  kilometres  in  64 
minutes,  and  he  considers  the  distance  of  two  leagues  in  an  hour  as  almost 
impossible.1  This  is  also  our  opinion. 

Still,  Youatt 2  relates  that  in  1793  a  hackney  mare,  named  Sloven,  travelled 
at  a  walk  the  distance  of  22  miles  (35  kilometres,  398  metres)  in  3  hours  and 
52  seconds,  which  represents  a  speed  of  11  kilometres  per  hour !  In  the  face 
of  such  a  case,  we  may  well  wonder  whether  the  unsuspecting  nature  of  this 
estimable  author  has  not  been  imposed  upon,  or  whether  the  gait  employed  was 
indeed  truly  the  normal  walk. 

At  the  trot,  De  Curnieu  considers  that  4  kilometres  in  7  minutes 
is  the  maximum  distance  which  a  horse  can  realize.  He  asserts  that  in 
France  a  trotter  of  the  first  rank  alone  is  capable  of  travelling  over  a 
distance  of  7  kilometres  in  8  minutes. 

We  have  noted  several  instances  of  speed  superior  to  these.  Verny,  an 
Orloff  trotter,  of  the  Chainbaudoin  (Loiret)  stud,  has  trotted  in  harness  at  the 
Bois  de  Boulogne  a  distance  of  4  kilometres  in  6  minutes  and  14  seconds. 

Bedouin,  of  the  same  stud,  has  trotted  at  Vincennes,  October  10,  1881,  a 
distance  of  5500  metres  in  8  minutes  and  41  seconds. 

De  Curnieu  says  that  "  4  leagues  per  hour  (16  kilometres,  10  miles)  should 
be  done  quite  easily,  upon  flat  ground,  by  any  horse  of  a  certain  value.  ...  To 
travel  3  leagues  an  hour  on  smooth  roads,  and  maintain  this  speed  for  2,  3,  or  4 
consecutive  hours,  demands  a  very  good,  an  excellent  horse." 3 

In  1822,  M.  Bernard  rode  on  a  trot,  with  his  mare,  9  miles  (14  kilometres,  481 
metres)  in  27  minutes  and  40  seconds.  (Youatt.) 

Some  years  previous,  Phenomenon,  twelve  years  old,  trotted  16  miles  (25 
kilometres,  744  metres)  in  53  minutes.  (Youatt.) 


1  De  Curnieu.  loc.  cit.,  2e  partie,  p.  379. 

2  William  Youatt,  History  of  the  Thoroughbred  Horse. 

3  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  2e  partie,  p.  377 


422  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

In  1827,  General  Oudinot  rode  on  a  trot  at  Saumur,  on  his  mare,  28  kilome- 
tres in  65  minutes.  (De  Curnieu.) 

Two  years  later,  Rattler,  an  American  horse,  was  engaged  to  trot  over  a  dis- 
tance of  10  miles  (16  kilometres,  90  metres),  which  he  accomplished  in  30 
minutes  and  40  seconds.  (Youatt.) 

Tom  Thumb,  harnessed  to  a  sulky  of  50  kilogrammes,  with  a  driver  weigh- 
ing about  60  kilogrammes,  trotted  the  distance  of  100  miles  (160  kilometres,  900 
metres)  in  10  hours  and  3  minutes,  which  is  more  than  40  leagues !  The  time 
taken  for  feeding  having  been  about  37  minutes,  the  100  miles  were  actually 
travelled  in  9£  hours.  (Youatt.) 

At  the  gallop,  if  the  distance  has  reached  6  kilometres,  and  the 
speed  is  very  great,  the  test  may  be  considered  one  of  distance,  of 
endurance.  Sometimes  the  trials  are  made  successively  with  several 
horses,  and  then  the  distance  is  long ;  sometimes  one  horse  accomplishes 
the  whole  distance  alone,  and  this  is  the  most  common.  Here  are  some 
remarkable  examples : 

In  1755,  Bay-Malton  ran  4  miles  (6437  metres)  in  7  minutes  and  43  seconds. 
(Youatt.) 

Flying-Childers,  the  fastest  horse  of  his  time,  had  a  few  years  previous  run 
6761  metres  in  7  minutes  and  30  seconds.  (Youatt.) 

A  similar  speed  was  shown  by  Ten  Broeck,  an  American  horse,  which  ran 
in  1876,  in  Louisville,  Kentucky,  4  miles  (6437  metres)  in  7  minutes  and  15 
seconds. 

In  1847,  Renard,  11  years  old,  and  carrying  64.500  kilogrammes,  ran  over  a 
distance  of  9000  metres  in  15  minutes  and  35  seconds,  at  Aries. 

In  December,  1786,  Hull's  Quibler  ran  23  miles,  which  is  a  little  more  than 
37  kilometres,  in  57  minutes  and  10  seconds,  upon  the  circular  race-course  at 
Newmarket.  (Youatt.) 

In  1771,  Wilde,  in  Ireland,  with  ten  horses,  rode  in  the  saddle  the  distance  of 
127  miles  (207  kilometres,  743  metres)  in  6  hours  and  21  minutes.  (Youatt.) 

In  1745,  Thornhill  accomplished  more  than  this :  he  rode  with  several  horses 
230  miles,  more  than  370  kilometres  (92  leagues),  in  6  hours  and  21  minutes. 
(Youatt.) 

In  1762,  Shaftoe  rode  on  ten  horses,  five  of  which  were  mounted  twice,  a 
distance  of  50£  miles  (80  kilometres,  874  metres)  in  1  hour  and  49  minutes. 

The  following  year,  in  1763,  he  wagered  to  ride  on  horseback  100  miles  a 
day  (more  than  160  kilometres)  for  29  days,  with  twenty-nine  horses  of  his  own 
choice.  He  won  this  bet  by  using  only  fourteen  horses,  and  one  day  he  was 
obliged  to  ride  160  miles  (more  than  250  kilometres)  on  account  of  the  ex- 
haustion of  his  first  horse.  (Youatt.) 

Exotic  won  at  Peterborough  a  race  of  four  successive  trials  of  4  miles  each,  or 
16  miles  in  all  (25.744  kilometres). 

Finally,  to  end  this  enumeration,  we  will  also  mention  a  few  more 
extraordinary  feats  performed  by  exceptional  subjects,  and  in  which  the 
gait  employed  has  been  alternately  the  gallop,  the  trot,  or  the  walk. 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS.  423 

De  Curnieu  reports  the  case  of  a  mare  of  three-quarters  blood  which  travelled 
a  distance  of  24  kilometres  per  hour  for  3£  hours. 

The  same  author  gives  the  account  of  Schaklari  Amdan,  an  Arabian  stallion, 
which  came,  it  is  said,  to  Alep,  from  a  distance  of  600  kilometres,  in  40  hours, — 
27  hours  of  actual  travelling. 

One  of  the  most  severe  performances  that  have  ever,  perhaps,  been  recorded 
conscientiously  is  that  of  Sharper,  which  may  be  read  in  volume  iii.  p.  151  of  the 
English  "Stud- Book."  This  horse  had  to  travel  at  St.  Petersburg,  on  August  4, 
1825,  a  distance  of  75  versts  (80,100  metres),  a  little  more  than  20  leagues, 
against  Cossack  horses  from  the  Don,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Ural.  He  alone 
finished  the  race  in  2  hours  and  48  minutes!  And  yet  the  horses  he  ran  against 
were  famous  competitors. 

Verny,  a  Russian  trotter  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  won,  in  1879,  a 
famous  race  against  an  English  horse ;  harnessed  to  a  carriage,  and  mounted  by 
two  persons,  he  made  the  distance  from  Paris  to  Rouen,  128  kilometres,  in  9 
hours  and  5  minutes.  His  competitor  died  on  the  road  ;  he  himself,  from  want 
of  care,  died  the  next  day. 

Youatt  relates  that  a  hackney-horse  travelled  the  enormous  distance  from 
London  to  York — that  is  to  say,  196  miles  (more  than  315  kilometres) — in  40 
hours  and  33  minutes. 

He  relates,  also,  that  a  man,  in  1827,  made  a  small  Hungarian  horse  travel 
the  distance  of  95  miles  (more  than  152  kilometres)  while  keeping  up  with  ths 
Limerick  stage. 

Another  man  is  said  to  have  started  at  the  same  time  as  the  Exeter  mail- 
coach,  upon  a  Galloway  horse  1.40  metres  high,  and  to  have  reached  Exeter  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  mail,  having  travelled  172  miles  (more  than  276 
kilometres)  at  a  rate  of  more  than  7  miles  (1 1  kilometres,  263  metres)  an  hour. 

A  Galloway  horse  also  travelled,  in  1754,  100  miles  a  day  (160  kilometres, 
900  metres)  for  three  consecutive  days.  (Youatt.) 

It  was  also  a  Galloway  horse  which  accomplished,  at  Carlisle,  the  extraordi- 
nary feat  of  going  1000  miles  (1609  kilometres,  or  402  leagues)  in  1000  hours  (41 
days  and  16  hours).  (Youatt.) 

Finally,  recently  M.  Prieur  de  la  Comble,  left  Luneville  on  the  3d  of 
April,  1882,  upon  a  Hungarian  mare,  the  Mascotte,  and  reached  Paris  three  days 
after,  having  gone  over  388  kilometres,  which  is  the  distance  between  the  two 
cities,  in  72  hours.  Our  friend,  M.  Bizard,  who  knew  this  mare,  assured  us  that 
her  owner  could  certainly  have  made  the  distance  in  50  hours  if  he  had  wished 
to  do  so,  the  Mascotte  sustaining  with  the  greatest  ease  periods  of  trotting  of  30 
to  40  kilometres. 

These  instances  are  sufficient  to  show  what  feats  the  horse  is  capable  of  per- 
forming when  he  is  endowed  with  those  incomparable  qualities  which  constitute 
endurance.  But,  however  marvellous  these  examples  may  be,  they  do  not  equal 
those  which  man,  as  &  pedestrian  by  profession,  has  already  given. 

The  weekly  journal,  The  Field,  which  is  published  every  Saturday  at  Lon: 
don,  and  which  is  an  authority  on  such  matters,  has  given  us  the  three  following 
facts : 

1st.  Mr.  Robert  Vint,  of  American  origin,  accomplished,  in  1881,  a  journey 
of  578  miles  and  605  yards  (about  930  kilometres,  721  metres)  m  144  consecu- 
tive hours, — that  is  to  say,  in  6  days.  * 


424  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

2d.  Another  American,  Mr.  Fitzgerald,  travelled  582  miles  (about  936  kilo- 
metres, 612  metres)  in  the  same  time  (144  hours). 

3d.  Finally,  an  Englishman,  Mr.  Hazael,  established  a  new  record,  Febru- 
ary 27,  1882,  in  New  York,  travelling  the  prodigious  distance  of  600  miles  and 
one  lap  (about  965  kilometres,  580  metres)  in  144  consecutive  hours,  which  cor- 
responds to  a  distance  of  more  than  100  miles  per  day,  continued  during  six 
days,  at  a  medium  speed  of  6  kilometres,  706  metres  per  hour! 

It  is  useless  to  detail  any  more  instances  to  prove  the  superiority  of  the 
endurance  of  man  To  formulate  the  problem  otherwise :  no  horse  could  go,  for 
example,  from  Amiens  to  Marseilles,  passing  through  Paris  and  Dijon  (or  994 
kilometres)  in  the  six  consecutive  days.  This,  however,  is  about  the  distance 
realized  by  Mr.  Hazael ;  upon  a  tan-bark  track,  it  is  true,  and  under  special  cir- 
cumstances, but  this  does  not  prevent  it  from  being  a  very  astonishing  perform- 
ance. 

Its  Aggregation  acting  as  Mechanical  Individuality.— 
Endurance  of  a  Troop  in  Campaign. — Until  now,  we  have 
examined  endurance  in  a  single  individual.  It  would  seem  interesting 
to  us  to  speak  of  this  precious  faculty  as  seen  in  a  certain  number  of 
subjects,  whose  synergetic  actions  should  result  in  a  general  determined 
movement.  We  will  consider,  in  other  words,  its  aggregation  or  its 
sum  total,  in  a  certain  number  of  animals,  acting  as  a  mechanical  indi- 
viduality, to  formulate  the  conditions  which  are  the  most  unfavorable 
for  the  production  of  fatigue,  and  therefore  the  most  advantageous 
for  an  economical  achievement  of  the  work  of  the  mass. 

This  particular  point  of  view  finds  its  application  in  the  question 
of  knowing  how  to  proceed  in  order  to  obtain  from  a  troop  in  cam- 
paign the  greatest  amount  of  effort  on  the  part  of  those  which 
compose  it. 

General  Bonie1  has  treated  the  subject  practically,  and  with  numer- 
ous experiments  for  its  support.  As  most  of  his  statements  constitute 
very  wise  general  indications,  we  consider  it  our  duty  to  give  a  resume 
of  them. 

This  worthy  officer  estimates  that  the  cavalry  horse  should  move 
at  a  walk  at  the  rate  of  1  kilometre  in  10  minutes,  and  can  thus 
travel  48  kilometres  in  10  hours,  interrupted  by  2  hours  of  rest. 

The  trot  should  be  made  at  the  moderate  rate  of  a  kilometre  in 
about  4  minutes  and  15  seconds,  if  the  march  is  to  be  continued  for  a 
long  time.  All  the  horses  follow  in  this  manner,  provided,  neverthe- 
less, that  they  be  walked  in  ascending  or  descending  steep  hills,  so  as 
to  avoid  wounds  and  falls.  But  it  is  evident  that  this  gait  cannot  be 


1  T.  Bonie,  Fond  et  Vitesse  d'une  troupe  de  cavalerie  en  canipagne,  Paris,  1872,  ehez  Amyot 
rue  tie  la  Paix. 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS.  425 

prolonged  beyond  a  certain  limit,  for  all  effective  companies,  more  or 
less  incongruous  with  regard  to  their  composition,  scarcely  comprise 
more  than  one -fourth  of  good  subjects. 

It  is  important,  then,  to  combine  the  walk  and  the  trot  in  such  a 
way  that  the  animals  may  recover  their  breath. 

Experience  demonstrates,  in  this  respect,  that  few  horses  forge  before  having 
travelled  a  distance  of  1500  metres  at  a  trot ;  if  this  pace  is  pushed  farther,  the 
number  of  those  which  make  this  noise  will  increase  without  cessation.  The 
result  will  be  that  the  walk  must  be  resumed  at  this  moment.  Let  us,  then, 
examine  the  lungs ;  we  will  see  that  5  minutes  will  be  necessary  for  the  respi- 
ration to  become  calm,  normal,  and  again  permit  the  horse  to  trot.  A  distance 
of  1500  metres,  followed  by  a  walk  of  500  metres,  alternately  repeated,  is,  then, 
the  combination  which  will  furnish  the  most  prudent  pace. 

The  number  of  halts  is  also  to  be  taken  into  very  serious  consideration.  We 
know  that  their  object  is  to  rest  the  horse  by  unloading  him  of  a  part  of  the 
weight  which  he  carries  (the  rider)  and  by  the  cessation  of  all  work.  They 
permit  also  a  readjustment  of  the  harness. 

General  Bonie  says  that  in  times  of  peace  the  horses  should  be  walked  at  the 
first  start  1500  to  2000  metres,  in  order  to  train  the  animal  and  prepare  his  organs 
for  more  rapid  movements.  Then  a  trot  of  1  kilometre  will  be  made.  The  walk 
will  be  resumed  for  5  minutes,  to  be  followed  by  a  second  kilometre  at  a  trot.  A 
five-minutes'  walk  will  now  re-establish  the  normal  respiration.  This  will  be  the 
time  for  the  first  halt.  At  the  end  of  5  minutes,  the  walk  will  be  resumed  for 
from  500  to  600  metres,  after  which  the  trot  will  be  used.  If  the  ride  does  not 
exceed  28  kilometres,  two  halts  will  be  sufficient :  one  at  5  or  6  kilometres  from  the 
place  of  starting,  the  other  at  10  kilometres  from  the  place  of  arrival.  Above 
28  kilometres  and  up  to  50,  almost  the  extreme  limit  of  our  rides  between  the  two 
halts  spoken  of,  a  third  one  will  be  made  midway,  and  the  riders  dismount  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  to  allow  the  horses  to  rest.  The  horses  should  not  be  allowed 
to  trot  within  2  or  3  kilometres  of  their  destination,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
calm  and  dry  on  their  arrival.  The  velocity  of  the  march  will  thus  be  8  kilome- 
tres per  hour,  including  the  halts. 

In  times  of  war  the  distance  travelled  over  should  be : 

12  kilometres  in  1  hour. 


22 


"  2  hours. 


32 

,    "  1  hour  and  20  minutes  of  rest,  divided 


into  six  halts. 


Then  a  rest  of  4  or  5  hours  will  be  taken,  after  which  a  march  of  60 
kilometres  could  be  completed  in  10  hours,  at  a  walk,  with  50  minutes  for  five 
halts  made  every  12  kilometres. 

Concerning  the  gallop,  the  troop  being  supposed  to  run  upon 
smooth  and  firm  ground,  and  not  to  have  done  any  work  on  that 
day  ;  under  these  circumstances,  the  following  is  what  it  is  able  to 
accomplish  : 


426  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

For  a  distance  of  1000  metres  and  less,  they  can  travel  very  fast  from  the 
starting-place.  For  longer  distances,  it  will  be  indispensable  that  the  charging 
gallop  be  run  only  in  the  following  proportions  : 

For  1500  metres,  800  at  the  ordinary  gallop ;  700  at  the  charging  gallop. 
"    2000        "      1500    "  "  "          500      " 

"    2500        "      2200    "  "  "          300      "  "  " 

"   3000       "     almost  the  whole  distance  at  the  ordinary  gallop ;  the 
remainder  at  the  charging  gallop. 

For  3500  metres,  an  ordinary  gallop  for  2000  metres ;  the  remainder  at  a 
gallop  of  500  metres  per  minute.  The  rate  cannot  increase  just  before  the 
arrival. 

For  5000  metres,  the  gallop  is  slackened  for  the  whole  distance.  No  charge 
is  possible  upon  the  arrival. 

"  After  1000  metres  of  charging,  it  will  be  necessary  to  stop  or  resume  the 
walk,  because  the  lungs  are  engorged,  but  the  muscles  still  have  enough  vigor  to 
act.  From  20  to  25  minutes  will  be  required  for  the  respiration  to  return  to  its 
normal  state,  but,  after  10  minutes'  rest  the  animals  can  start  again  and  with 
still  enough  freedom  of  respiration  to  go  a  distance  of  400  to  500  metres  with  great 
speed;  or,  if  the  ordinary  gallop  is  sufficient,  1200  to  1500  metres,  since  the 
charge  exacts  a  triple  expenditure  of  strength.  After  10  minutes'  rest,  a  third 
charge  may  be  made  of  from  300  to  400  metres. 

"  After  a  journey  of  3500  metres  at  a  gallop  (medium  speed  7  minutes),  the 
muscles  and  the  lungs  are  tired  out.  The  animal  is,  however,  very  capable  of 
galloping  again,  but  he  will  feel  it  the  following  days.  Fifteen  minutes  after 
this  journey  the  animal  is  calm  and  in  normal  condition. 

"  During  a  journey  of  5000  metres  at  a  gallop  the  maximum  power  of  the 
horse  has  been  called  into  activity.  It  is  the  work  of  a  whole  day.  Neverthe- 
less, whatever  the  fatigue,  a  cavalry  troop  can  always  continue  to  march  at  a 
walk.  Twenty  minutes  after  the  arrival  calm  is  restored. 

"  Such  is  the  power  of  the  cavalry  horse  when  at  a  gallop.  As  may  be  seen, 
it  is  immense.  But  we  must  emphasize  the  fact  that  it  is  often  necessary. 

"  In  a  campaign  we  seldom  travel  over  ground  which  allows  great  speed,  but 
the  divisionary  cavalry  may  be  called  upon  to  go  long  distances  at  a  gallop.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  should  be  sheltered  as  much  as  possible  so  long  as  its  co- 
operation is  not  needed ;  it  should  be  500  or  600  metres  from  its  infantry,  which 
itself  is  700  or  800  metres  from  the  enemy. 

"  If  the  latter  retreat,  the  interval  increases  from  300  to  400  metres.  At  this 
moment  there  will  be  1700  or  1800  metres  between  the  body  of  the  cavalry  and 
the  troops\  who  flee.  But  to  produce  a  great  effect,  instead  of  approaching 
these  troops  in  front,  they  should  be  attacked  from  behind,  and  a  turn  made  from 
500  to  600  metres  at  a  gallop,  making  a  total  of  2500  metres,  for  two-thirds  of  the 
horses  will  not  be  able  to  follow  at  a  trot.  These  2500  metres  will  be  gone  over 
as  much  through  the  fields  as  the  roads,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  gallop  of  3500 
metres  upon  level  ground." 

General  Bonie  estimates  the  power  which  still  remains  available 
upon  the  arrival  of  the  troop,  according  to  the  distances  travelled,  in 
the  following  manner : 

He  considers  that  a  company  of  cavalry  can  march  seven  hours, 


RESULT    OF    BEAUTIFUL    PROPORTIONS. 


427 


without  any  rest  other  than  the  halts,  at  the  rate  of  8  kilometres, 
600  metres  per  hour.  He  estimates,  in  round  numbers,  that  each  hour 
of  work  represents  7  kilometres  at  a  trotj  1900  metres  at  a  gallop, 
or  450  metres  at  a  charge.  One  or  other  of  these  distances  may  be 
travelled,  at  the  corresponding  gait,  as  many  times  as  there  remain 
hours  in  which  to  perform  the  work.  The  following  is  therefore  the 
available  power  at  the  end  of  each  ride : 


DISTANCE. 

EACH  REPRESENTING 

At 

the  Trot. 

At 
the  Gallop. 

Metres. 
1900 

1900 
1900 
1900 

1900 

At 
the  Charge. 

After  12  kilometres,  travelled  in  1  hour,  a  troop  can  travel 
45  kilometres,  walking  and  trotting  combined,  with  five 
halts  to  rest  the  horses  .  .  .  ... 

Kilometres. 
7 

7 
7 
7 

7 

Metres. 
450 

450 
450 
450 

450 

After  22  kilometres,  travelled  in  2  hours,  a  troop  can  travel 
33  kilometres,  walking  and  trotting  combined,  with  four 
halts  .  . 

After  32  kilometres,  travelled  in  3  hours,  a  troop  can  travel 
22  kilometres,  walking  and  trotting  combined,  with  two 
halts  

After  40  kilometres,  travelled  in  4  hours,  a  troop  can  travel 
14  kilometres,  walking  and  trotting  combined,  without 
halting  

After  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  last  three  distances, 
and  having  regained  breath,  it  can  repeat  two-thirds  of 
the  same. 
After  45  kilometres,  travelled  in  5  hours,  a  troop  can  travel 
12  kilometres,  walking  and  trotting  combined,  with  no 
halt 

After  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  last,  take  such  repose 
as  is  necessary. 
After  54  kilometres,  travelled  in  6  hours,  and  60  in  7  hours, 
a  troop  will  scarcely  be  able  to  march,  only  at  a  walk. 
It  will  travel  2  or  3  kilometres  at  a  trot,  200  or  300  metres 
at  a  gallop,  but  no  charge  is  possible.    Whatever  may 
be  its  fatigue,  a  troop  can  always,  as  a  demonstration, 
continue  to  march  at  a  walk. 

Finally,  the  weight  carried  is  extremely  burdensome  to  the  troop- 
horse.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  charge  does  not  sensibly 
modify  the  speed,  but  it  greatly  augments  the  fatigue  and,  conse- 
quently, the  waste  of  endurance.  The  proof  of  the  latter  is  furnished 
by  a  study  of  the  respiration.  After  trotting  a  certain  number  of 
kilometres,  the  respirations,  in  horses  not  on  a  charge,  rise  to  a  mean 
of  60  per  minute ;  in  the  same  subjects,  when  charging,  they  attain  74. 
Whence  it  follows  that  this  time  of  trotting  has  winded  these  horses 
as  much  as  the  same  distance  would  have  done  at  a  gallop. 

General  Borne  adds,  "  In  the  face  of  such  a  diminution  of  endurance,  hesi- 
tation is  no  longer  allowable,  and  the  horses  should  at  once  be  disburdened  of 
their  campaign  traps.  This  question  is  so  little  appreciated  that  custom  pre- 
scribes such  a  weight  that,  by  considering  the  undressed  rider  as  weighing  P>/> 
kilogrammes,  which  is  certainly  not  an  exaggeration,  and  adding  the  harness, 
clothing,  arms,  ammunition,  and  provisions,  it  aggregates  152  kilogrammes. 


428  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Tf  the  rain  increases  the  weight  10  kilogrammes,  an  astonishing  total  of  162 
kilogrammes  is  obtained.  How  can  we  make  horses  run  that  are  loaded  twice 
as  heavily  as  the  mules,  which  only  walk?  It  seems  impossible  that  this  rule 
should  not  be  revised. 

"  In  foreign  countries  four  wagons  are  assigned  to  each  regiment,  and  one  to 
each  squadron  of  cavalry,  to  carry  the  accessories  ;  why  not  follow  this  example? 
The  objection  will  be  made  that  the  wagons  cannot  always  follow ;  but  whilst 
admitting  that  they  do  not  immediately  rejoin  them,  cannot  the  rider,  shel- 
tered by  his  cloak  if  the  weather  be  inclement,  be  deprived  for  two  or  three  days 
of  this  supplementary  stock  of  clothing  which  crushes  the  horse  ? 

"The  increase  of  power  which  results  from  this  diminution  of  weight  is 
really  prodigious.  With  the  routine  campaign  burden  a  horse  expends  as  much 
force  as  does  one  without  such  load  and  moving  at  a  gallop.  By  relieving  him 
of  this  difference  of  weight  his  power  is  tripled." l 

Such  are  General  Bonie's  general  indications.  On  the  whole,  in 
their  ensemble,  they  are  perfectly  founded.  To  cite  an  example,  we  will 
say  that  we  have  seen,  during  the  Franco-German  war  (1870-1871), 
the  first  squadron  of  the  Eighth  Hussars,  mounted  on  Arabian  horses, 
who  were  ordered  into  the  environs  of  Chateaurenatilt,  start  in  the 
morning  at  half-past  six  o'clock  and  return  in  the  evening  at  half-past 
four,  having  accomplished  in  ten  hours  a  distance  of  95  kilometres 
without  leaving  behind  a  single  horse.  At  the  same  time,  the  first 
platoon  of  the  same  squadron  accomplished  with  like  success  a  distance 
of  about  106  kilometres,  calculated  as  accurately  as  possible. 

The  preceding  indications  need  not  be  taken  &  la  lettre  as  an  inva- 
riable line  of  conduct ;  they  are  only  nearly  so,  nothing  more.  The 
commanding  officer  should  especially  adapt  himself  to  circumstances  in 
order  to  ward  off  the  most  pressing  difficulties.  We  therefore  give 
him  this  information  only  as  a  pocket-book  jotting ;  it  is  his  place  to 
appreciate  in  what  degree  he  may  deviate  from  the  statements  which  it 
contains,  in  one  sense  or  the  other,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  the  state  of  the  temperature,  its  dry  ness,  its  dampness,  etc. 

Endurance  considered  as  an  Innate,  Acquired,  or  Lost 
Aptitude. — A  final  question  presents  itself,  that  of  the  endurance 
examined  as  an  innate,  acquired,  or  lost  aptitude. 

If  we  remember  what  has  already  been  said  above,  we  cannot  at  first 
deny  that  this  aptitude  is  a  resultant  whose  many  effects  proceed  from 
three  different  sources  :  the  first  consists  directly  of  ancestral  heredity  ; 
the  second  is  the  consequence  of  training  ;  the  third  comes  from  the 
external  medium. 

The  horse  inherits  from  his  ancestors  the  temperament,  the  form, 


1  See,  for  further  details,  the  work  already  cited. 


DEFINITIVE    SYNTHESIS.  429 

the  constitution,  the  mechanism,  the  primary  material  of  the  tissues, 
the  blood,  and  the  reflex  power  of  the  nervous  system. 

By  training  (functional  gymnastics)  he  acquires  the  habit  and  the 
ability  to  work,  to  economize  strength  and  use  it  with  all  its  intensity. 

Finally,  from  the  medium  conditions  he  borrows  the  nutriment  for 
his  activity  and  the  repairing  materials  for  his  incessant  losses,  as  well 
as  that  continual  influence  which  blunts  the  too  great  susceptibility  of 
his  organism  and  permits  him,  already  strong  and  adapted  to  resist 
external  modifying  causes,  to  struggle  victoriously  against  fatigue  and 
privations. 

Endurance  is  composed,  then,  of  two  kinds  of  qualities :  the  one 
innate,  more  permanent,  and  stronger,  is  bequeathed  by  ancestors ;  the 
other  acquired,  less  constant,  and  also  less  durable,  is  the  result  of  that 
special  gymnastics,  training. 

Now,  the  horse  may  lose  this  principal  faculty.  First,  his  own 
reserve  stock  will  disappear,  then  will  come  the  turn  of  what  he  has 
inherited  from  his  ancestors.  And  even  though  the  elements  of  the 
latter,  less  transitory,  should  still  remain  with  him  in  substance,  we 
may  readily  understand  how  the  neglect  of  certain  elementary  precau- 
tions might  depreciate  them  or  deprive  them  entirely  of  their  value,  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  objects  of  art  which  are  allowed  to  spoil, 
or  those  monuments  which  are  not  preserved  against  the  injuries  of 
time. 

This  is  why,  through  want  of  exercise  and  particular  care,  by  an 
ill-regulated  hygiene,  the  animal  becomes  weakened,  the  tissues  lose 
their  properties,  the  articulations  their  suppleness,  the  nerves  their 
excitability,  the  muscles  their  vigor,  and  the  chest  its  wind.  The 
horse  is  now  but  the  shadow  of  his  former  self;  force,  energy,  en- 
durance, ardor,  nobility,  distinction,  all  those  brilliant  faculties  which 
he  possessed  at  first,  disappear,  little  by  little,  never  more  to  return. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

DEFINITIVE   SYNTHESIS. 


LITTLE  remains  to  be  said  about  the  proportions  of  the  horse.  We 
have  indicated  in  what  they  consist,  and  what  their  isolated  or  their 
combined  effects  upon  the  living  machine  are ;  we  have  analyzed  with 
care  the  details  and  the  whole,  shown  the  importance  of  each  fact  in 


430  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE'. 

particular,  initiated  the  reader  into  the  difficulties  which  he  will  meet 
with,  and  established  the  principles  which  it  is  indispensable  to  know. 
Now,  we  must  complete  this  study  by  some  general  reflections  upon 
the  method  to  be  pursued  in  order  to  properly  utilize  the  ideas  which 
we  have  presented  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

Balance  of  the  Good  and  of  the  Bad.— Whilst  insisting,  as 
we  have  done,  upon  a  search  for  beauty,  we  did  not  mean  to  advise  the 
beginner  to  pursue  absolute  perfection,  ideal  beauty.  This  would  have 
been  launching  him  upon  a  path  without  issue,  and  leading  him  into 
error  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  for  that  kind  of  perfection  is  imagi- 
nary. In  fact,  there  is  no  horse  which  combines  all  qualities,  for  the 
latter  are,  so  to  speak,  infinite.  But  we  meet  subjects  which  have  many 
of  them,  and  are  therefore  relatively  more  perfect  than  others.  And 
again,  this  superiority  is  a  rarity  which  we  must  not  delay  too  long  in 
seeking ;  for  we  would  often  run  the  risk  of  not  attaining  it,  which 
would  mean  a  sheer  loss  of  time  and  money.  It  is  useful,  however, 
to  be  acquainted  with  ideal  beauty  ;  he  who  has  no  knowledge  of  it 
allows  to  pass  before  his  eyes  some  of  the  very  features  by  which  it 
shows  itself,  and  this  at  his  expense ;  since  another  person,  better 
informed  than  he,  may  discover  them. 

In  every  horse  we  find  some  good  qualities  and  some  faults.  In 
whatever  proportion  they  are  mixed,  the  animal  is  never  worthless. 
He  always  has  a  value  based  upon  the  existence  of  the  good  qualities  and 
upon  the  depreciation  which  the  faults  cause  in  him.  It  is  necessary, 
from  an  economical  point  of  view,  to  establish  this  value.  By  what 
means  can  we  accomplish  this  ?  By  weighing  the  good  and  the  bad. 
This  weighing  must  not  consist  in  the  pure  and  simple  ascertaining  of 
the  one  and  of  the  other,  but  in  a  mechanical  and  physiological  bal- 
ancing of  the  two ;  it  must  be  the  result  not  of  observation  alone,  but 
of  a  careful  analysis,  a  judicious  and  thorough  comparison. 

The  purchaser  cannot  be  too  deeply  impressed  with  this  principle, 
that  the  fitness  of  the  whole  is  derived,  above  all  else,  from  the  degree 
of  equilibrium  of  its  details.  If  the  latter  does  not  exist,  the  motor 
is  only  capable  of  disconnected  efforts ;  the  greatest  part  of  his  force  is 
lost,  producing  a  result  injurious  to  himself  and  prejudicial  and  burden- 
some to  those  who  employ  him ;  it  means  his  more  or  less  immediate 
ruin,  and,  in  all  cases,  incompetency. 

Compensations. — In  order  to  appreciate  the  vital  and  dynamical 
equilibrium,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  make  a  simple  subtraction,  to  reckon  up 
separately  the  beauties  on  the  one  hand  and  the  defects  on  the  other, 
to  see  which  total  is  in  excess,  and  to  judge  by  the  amount  of  the 


DEFINITIVE    SYNTHESIS.  431 

difference.  It  is  necessary,  on  the  contrary,  to  endeavor  to  ascertain 
whether  the  defects  are  not  compensated  by  the  good  qualities,  and  if 
so,  to  what  degree  this  compensation  exists. 

It  is  known  that,  in  a  locomotive,  for  example,  the  velocity  depends 
upon  the  diameter  of  the  wheels  and  the  number  of  strokes  of  the 
piston  in  a  given  unit  of  time.  Now,  we  can  conceive  a  machine 
quite  as  fast,  with  smaller  wheels,  provided  the  latter  are  constructed 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  number  of  their  revolutions  redeems  what 
they  lose  by  the  smallness  of  their  circumference.  It  is  known,  also, 
that  the  diameter  of  the  wheels  diminishes  the  conditions  of  stability. 
Nevertheless,  we  can  construct  a  locomotive  quite  as  large  and  as 
stable  by  lessening  this  inconvenience  by  a  device  of  some  kind  which 
will  augment  the  bulk  without  rendering  it  excessive,  or  which  will 
bring  the  centre  of  gravity  nearer  to  the  soil.  The  piston,  whose 
force  is  in  relation  with  the  extent  of  its  surface  and  the  intensity  of 
the  pressure  which  is  exerted  upon  it,  will  be  of  equal  power,  although 
smaller,  provided  we  have  a  boiler  in  which  the  steam  can  be  raised  to 
a  higher  tension.  In  each  of  these  circumstances  we  have  compensa- 
tions which  render  the  mechanism,  if  not  perfect  from  a  theoretical 
point  of  view,  at  least  very  useful,  economically  speaking,  since  we 
have  succeeded  in  adapting  its  wheels,  somewhat  defective,  to  the  kind 
of  service  for  which  they  were  at  first  insufficient. 

Likewise,  in  the  horse,  it  frequently  happens  that  a  good  quality 
annuls  a  defect,  or  that  one  defect  may  be  counterbalanced  by  another 
whose  influence  is  diametrically  opposite.  Let  us  explain  this  by  some 
examples.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  will  present  them  in  tabular 
form,  placing  on  one  side  the  defects,  on  the  other  the  principal  corre- 
sponding compensations.  The  reader  must  now  be  sufficiently  familiar 
with  all  these  facts  to  spare  us  the  necessity  of  entering  into  details 
which  would  lead  us  too  far  away.  Besides,  he  always  has  the  oppor- 
tunity to  refer  to  our  descriptions  of  the  regions,  in  case  he  should  not 
be  able  readily  to  grasp  the  value  of  these  compensations. 

EXAMPLES   OF   COMPENSATIONS. 

DEFECTS.  CORRESPONDING  COMPENSATIONS. 

Too  voluminous  head Neck  rather  short,  well  muscled. 

Head  too  common Ears  well  placed,  eyes  expressive,  physiognomy  bright. 

Neck  too  short Head  light,  well  attached:  withers  prominent,  shoulder 

beautiful. 

Withers  thick  and  fleshy High  in  front,  beautiful  shoulder  and  good  axes  in  front. 

Withers  low Hind-quarters  powerful,  fore-quarters  light,  good  equi- 
librium, members  strong. 


432  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


EXAMPLES  OF  COMPENSATIONS — Continued. 

DEFECTS.  CORRESPONDING  COMPENSATIONS. 

Back  long  and  sway-backed Croup  strong,  body  muscular,  loins  short,  well  attached  ; 

abdomen  small. 

Back  short  and  narrow Chest  high  and  long 

Loins  long Body  well  muscled  ;  loins  well  attached  ;  ribs  very  pro- 
jecting behind :  croup  oblique ;  shoulder  beautiful ; 
hind-quarters  powerful ;  fore-quarters  light. 

Chest  narrow Ribs  long,  very  projecting  backward  ;  intercostal  spaces 

wide. 

Chest  scarcely  low  enough Chest  wide  and  long. 

Abdomen  very  voluminous Body  short  and  strong,  well  supported ;  flanks  short, 

chest  spacious,  members  strong. 

Greyhound  abdomen Good  condition,  good  appetite,  firm,  dense  muscles,  but 

not  too  nervous  a  temperament. 

Breast  rather  narrow Chest  spacious,  muscles  dense,  energetic  ;  good  anterior 

equilibrium. 

Breast  somewhat  wide Body  of  rather  small  volume,  gaits  easy,  not  rocking, 

strong  members. 

Shoulder  short High  in  front,  withers  prominent,  neck  long,  shoulder 

oblique  and  muscular,  arm  long. 

Shoulder  straight  .  . Body  short,  hind-quarters  powerful,  withers  prolonged 

backward  and  high,  neck  long  and  straight. 

Arm  short  and  too  straight Shoulder  long,  oblique,  muscular ;  beautiful  neck  and 

withers,  good  equilibrium. 

Forearm  a  little  short Beautiful  shoulder,  arm  long,  humero-radial  angle  large, 

forearm  muscular. 

Forearm  slender Shoulder  and  arm  muscular,  canon  short,  tendons  well 

detached,  good  anterior  axes. 

Canon  long  and  slender,  tendons  weak  .  Forearm  wide,  thick,  muscular;  members  solid,  muscu- 
lar, good  axes ;  neck  well  carried,  head  light,  high  in 
front. 

Croup  a  little  short Thigh  rather  low  down,  muscular,  rather  straight ;  loins 

short,  supported,  well  attached,  fore- quarters  light, 
hocks  good. 

Croup  a  little  oblique Ischium  straightened,  thigh  inclined,  hocks  good,  axes 

regular,  tail  well  attached,  croup  long. 

Croup  a  little  narrow Croup  long,  with  sides  inclined,  muscular ;  loins  well 

attached. 

Croup  too  horizontal Thigh  long,  little  inclined,  muscular ;   leg  long,  good 

axes,  body  a  little  long  to  avoid  forging. 

Thigh  too  straight Croup  horizontal,  leg  long,  inclined ;  good  equilibrium. 

Thigh  thin  and  short Croup  and  leg  long,  powerful ;  body  short,  well  sup- 
ported, fore-quarters  light. 

Leg  short  and  too  oblique Thigh  long,  straight,  muscular ,  hocks  strong,  good  axes. 

Leg  too  straight Thigh  oblique,  hocks  wide,  good  axes,  body  a  little  long 

to  avoid  forging. 

Hock  weak -Leg,  thigh,  and  croup  muscular;  loins  strong,  well  at- 
tached ;  fore-quarters  light,  a  little  low,  but  of  good 
equilibrium. 


DEFINITIVE    SYNTHESIS.  433 

EXAMPLES  OF  COMPENSATIONS—  Continued. 
DEFECTS.  CORRESPONDING  COMPENSATIONS. 

Pastern  long Heels  high,  tendons  well  detached,  good  axes,  fore-quar- 
ters light,  withers  high,  fetlocks  wide. 

Pastern  short Heels  low.  axes  regular,  withers  high,  fore-quarters  light. 

Heels  too  low Pastern  straight,  horn  good,  frog  large,  sole  concave. 

Body  somewhat  long Chest  deep,  flank  short,  body  well  supported,  croup  and 

shoulders  long,  oblique,  muscular. 

Body  rather  short Members  short,  locomotory  angles  convenient,  gaits  easy. 

A  little  low  in  front Head  light,  neck  long,  straight,  well  attached;  withers 

prominent,  shoulder  oblique,  arm  straight,  articula- 
tions wide,  thick,  tendons  well  detached,  good  axes, 
hind-quarters  powerful. 

Too  low  behind Fore-quarters  light,  croup,  thigh,  and   leg   powerful: 

hocks  strong,  loins  strong,  good  posterior  axes. 

Members  too  long Body  light,  chest  developed ;  tendons  detached,  muscu- 
lar development  good. 

Horse  under  himself  in  front Neck  straight,  well  attached ;  shoulder  oblique,  fore- 
quarters  powerful,  and  elevated  in  relation  to  the 
hind-quarters ;  articulations  thick,  wide,  tendons  well 
detached. 

Horse  knee-sprung Powerful  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  the  arm,  the  forearm; 

neck  straight,  withers  prominent,  body  well  supported. 

Horse  under  himself  behind Fore-quarters  light,  rather  low  than  high ;  hind-quarters 

very  muscular,  loins  powerful,  hocks  wide,  thick,  clean. 

Shortened  gaits Energy,  vigor,  rather  nervous  temperament. 

We  could,  without  difficulty,  have  extended  the  list  of  these  com- 
pensations. Nearly  every  defect  may  be  ameliorated,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  by  a  better  or  inverse  disposition  of  another  region.  There  are, 
nevertheless,  some  which  it  is  impossible  to  remedy,  on  account  of  their 
influence  upon  the  very  essence  of  the  motor  apparatus  or  upon  the 
most  essential  qualities  which  it  should  possess.  How  can  we  make 
good,  indeed,  a  defect  of  absolute  development  of  the  respiratory 
apparatus  or  the  muscular  system,  a  bad  quality  of  the  hoof,  a  want 
of  endurance,  energy,  and  vigor,  too  great  excitability,  certain  vices  of 
character,  etc.  ?  Can  a  horse  breathe  sufficiently,  move,  react,  feed, 
obey,  and  work,  if  he  is  not  provided  with  good  lungs,  good  muscles, 
large  blood-vessels,  an  excitable  nervous  system,  a  spacious  digestive 
apparatus,  a  docile  character,  or  a  good  temperament  ?  Evidently  not. 
There  are  fundamental  conditions  without  which  the  animal  is,  so  to 
speak,  useless ;  and  if  they  do  not  exist  in  him  from  the  first,  it  is 
useless  to  attempt  to  find  a  compensation  ;  we  must  pass  on  and  reject 
him  as  improper  for  service. 

By  the  side  of  these  essential  requirements  there  are  secondary  ones 
whose  absence  does  not  make  the  motor  absolutely  inefficient,  but 

28 


434  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

simply  diminishes  his  mechanical  aptitudes,  and,  for  this  reason,  his 
value.  It  is  in  the  latter  case  that  the  system  of  compensations  can  be 
a  valuable  aid,  for  it  enables  us  to  appreciate  accurately  the  degree  of 
adaptation  of  the  horse  to  the  end  for  which  he  is  destined. 

Eye  and  Judgment. — But  those  who  must  decide  upon  the 
qualities  or  defects  of  the  horse  have  not  always  the  necessary  qualifi- 
cations for  the  solution  of  this  problem.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they 
must  be  endowed  with  certain  natural  aptitudes  in  order  to  perceive 
readily  the  relations  of  the  parts  and  of  the  whole,  and  to  discern  and 
recognize  them  promptly  ;  they  needs  must  have  the  faculty  to  appreci- 
ate, without  previous  preparation,  the  good  or  the  bad,  the  beauty  or 
the  ugliness  of  the  form  which  strikes  their  eyes.  This,  in  technical 
language,  is  called  the  eye.  It  results,  more  especially,  from  an  innate, 
peculiar,  exceptional  acuteness  of  their  senses,  which  enables  them  to 
see  exactly  that  which  others  would  require  a  much  longer  time  to  find, 
and  perhaps  would  never  distinguish. 

The  eye  is  not  only  a  special  gift  of  a  delicate  nature  ;  it  also  results 
from  education  and  experience,  and  on  this  account  it  may  be  acquired, 
like  all  other  attributes  of  the  kind.  We  would  therefore  suggest  to 
those  who  desire  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  horse,  that 
they  perfect  their  senses  and  exercise  them  by  intelligent  and  patient 
observation,  and  examine  the  same  types  over  and  over  again  until  the 
mind  preserves  a  clear,  perfect  image  of  the  very  variable  combinations 
which  characterize  them. 

But  the  aptitude  to  see  vividly  the  external  conformation  is  in 
itself  powerless,  perfect  as  it  may  be,  to  constitute  the  true  connoisseur. 
The  latter  must,  besides,  possess  a  keen  and  sure  judgment  in  order  to 
duly  appreciate  the  degrees,  the  shades,  to  avoid  the  variations  of  too 
excitable  a  temperament,  to  weigh,  in  a  suitable  manner,  without  an 
unguarded  impulse  or  Avithout  excessive  reserve,  the  influence  of  the 
good  qualities  and  of  the  defects.  One  is  not  born  a  man  of  tact, 
one  becomes  such ;  for  the  faculty  of  judging  rightly  and  accurately, 
of  expressing  our  mind  upon  the  suitableness  or  the  unsuitableness  of 
things,  implies  comparison,  attention,  reflection,  habit,  intelligence,  and 
a  well-balanced  mind. 

Taste,  Prejudice,  Fashion. — Everybody  does  not  judge  of  a 
horse  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  opinions  of  some  are  neither  as 
reliable  nor  as  judicious  as  those  of  others.  Whence  arise  differences, 
the  principal  reason  of  which  depends  upon  the  causes  which  influence 
the  judgment.  Among  these  we  will  cite  more  particularly  taste, 
prejudice,  and  fashion. 


DEFINITIVE    SYNTHESIS.  435 

Taste  is  the  faculty  which  urges  us  to  seek  after  the  beautiful. 
The  glance  of  the  eye  simply  teaches  us  to  perceive  that  which  is 
right,  good,  better,  beautiful,  in  preference  to  that  which  is  ugly.  "  It 
is,  in  some  manner,"  says  J.  J.  Rousseau,  exquisitely,  "the  micro- 
scope of  our  judgment ;  it  places  small  details  within  the  reach  of 
judgment,  and  its  work  commences  where  that  of  the  latter  ends."  1 
This  is  a  very  happy  figure  of  speech,  which  explains  well  th^role  of 
taste  in  all  the  manifestations  by  which  reason,  tact,  and  intelligence 
are  shown.  As  an  infallible  guide  it  enlightens  them  by  placing  them, 
so  to  speak,  right  in  the  focus  of  truth,  in  order  that  they  may  be  pre- 
served from  error.  For  this  very  reason  it  must  naturally  precede  them. 

Taste  not  only  implies  an  intense  perception,  it  also  requires  an  ad- 
miration for  the  beautiful,  with  a  more  or  less  clear  consciousness  of  the 
qualities  which  must  have  been  combined  and  of  the  difficulties  which 
the  breeder  must  have  overcome  in  order  to  realize  the  beautiful  mate- 
rially. When  we  see  a  beautiful  horse,  it  is  not  only  his  form,  his  grace- 
fulness, his  elegance,  his  vigor,  etc.,  which  arrest  our  attention ;  it  is  the 
scarcity  of  the  model,  the  skilled  labor  of  the  man  who  produced  it  or 
found  it.  The  connoisseur  possesses  this  advantage  over  the  layman, 
that  he  appreciates  with  greater  competence  the  result  both  of  natural 
aptitude  and  of  study,  the  details,  the  technical  points  which  make 
little  or  no  impression  upon  the  latter.  Why  ?  Because  his  taste  has 
been  better  trained.  Hence  his  judgment  is  more  accurate  and  less 
liable  to  error.  And  this  superiority  is  far  from  being  always  the  result 
of  solid  theoretical  studies.  How  many  horsemen  and  horse-dealers 
surprise  us  by  their  good  selections !  Go  into  their  stables,  you  will 
find  none  but  good  horses,  and  yet  from  what  books  have  they  learned, 
by  what  teachers  have  they  been  instructed  ?  The  truth  is,  they  have 
good  taste,  they  "  take  in"  a  horse  and  understand  him  at  a  glance ; 
the  surroundings  amid  which  they  have  lived  have  developed  their 
special  aptitudes  and  corrected  their  mistakes ;  they  have  unknowingly 
acquired  an  idea  of  the  beautiful,  this  rara  avis,  and  have  applied  their 
efforts  to  discover  and  cultivate  it. 

A  person's  judgment  may  be  misleading  when  his  taste  becomes 
depraved  or  is  influenced  by  prejudice  and  fashion ;  it  is  as  though  it 
were  guided  by  a  wrong  light,  and  then  sees  everything  under  a  color 
which  is  not  the  true  one.  It  is  therefore  of  great  importance  to 
develop  taste,  to  cultivate  it  by  the  ever-renewed  spectacle  of  the 
beauties  of  nature.  In  this  connection  especially  is  the  guidance  of  a 

1  J.  J.  Rousseau,  La  Nouvelle  Heloise,  12e  lettre  a  Julie. 


436  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

teacher  useful,  and  frequent  association  with  horsemen,  whoever  they 
may  be,  is  likely  to  render  signal  service  to  the  beginner. 

"Prejudice,"  says  Littre,  "is  an  opinion,  a  belief,  acquired  with- 
out examination."  l  In  most  cases  it  rests  upon  a  pure  coincidence  or 
upon  a  simple  probability,  never  upon  a  demonstrated  truth,  and  varies 
according  to  persons,  places,  and  times.  The  result  of  routine  and 
ignorance,  it  encumbers  the  advancement  of  science,  and  should  bo 
regarded  as  the  greatest  obstacle  to  progress.  "  It  wages  war  against 
any  bold  spirit  that  declines  to  bow  before  it,  and  men  whose  taste  is 
most  delicate  and  best  trained  are  unable  to  shake  off  the  tyranny  of 
a  preconceived  idea."  2 

Prejudices  abound  in  respect  to  the  external  form  of  the  horse. 
What  has  not  been  said  about  the  forms  of  the  head,  the  withers,  the 
shoulder,  the  croup,  the  tail,  the  chest,  the  flank,  the  blemishes,  the 
dress,  the  white-foot,  the  horse-hairs,  etc.  ?  What  an  accumulation  of 
errors,  the  more  difficult  to  eradicate  as  they  are  based  on  the  unknown, 
always  so  full  of  attraction  for  the  laity  ! 

Prejudice  is  the  most  redoubtable  foe  of  reason.  Hence  we  must 
battle  against  it  to  the  last,  but  without  allowing  ourselves  to  be  too 
deeply  moved  by  the  opposition  of  our  contemporaries.  "It  is  in 
reality,"  adds  Eug.  Ve"ron,  "  only  a  question  of  a  momentary  disturb- 
ance, which  is  explained  by  the  very  effort  necessary  for  any  innovation 
we  undertake  in  order  to  establish  the  general  concordance  of  our  ideas, 
exactly  in  the  same  way  as  a  current  of  air  passing  over  a  stream  is 
sufficient  to  make  the  water  lose  its  transparency." 3 

Nevertheless,  this  does  not  mean  that  we  must  delude  ourselves 
into  the  belief  that  all  is  prejudice.  It  would  be  wrong  to  reject  an 
opinion  point-blank  under  the  pretence  that  it  lacks  probability  or 
certainty,  or  for  the  sole  satisfaction  of  creating  something  new,  for 
this  opinion  may  prove  true  as  well  as  erroneous.  Hence  the  advisa- 
bility of  verifying  everything,  jof  examining  everything,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  worth  of  this  opinion  and  profit  by  it,  if  we  may. 

Fashion  is  a  transient  custom  prompted  by  fancy  and  caprice 
(Littre).  It  is  the  symptom  of  a  sort  of  wandering  of  the  imagina- 
tion, this  "  madcap  of  the  house,"  stimulated  by  vanity  and  ennui  much 
more  frequently  than  by  the  expression  of  a  true  a?sthetic  sentiment. 
Its  characteristic,  in  truth,  is  to  change  for  fear  of  monotony  and  not 
for  the  sake  of  discovering  something  better.  Rarely  are  its  innova- 

1  Littr6.  Dictionnaire  de  la  langue  fran^aise. 
a  Eug.  V<§ron,  L'esthetique,  p.  73,  Paris,  1878. 
3  Loc.  cit.,  p.  74. 


DEFINITIVE    SYNTHESIS.  437 

tions  happy,  and,  should  they  be  so,  it  would  be  imprudent  to  consider 
them  even  as  accidental  signs  of  beauty,  for  that  beauty  is  not  of  the 
kind  which  satisfies  the  eye  of  the  competent  man,  which  indicates  the 
perfect  adaptation  of  the  thing  to  the  end  for  which  it  is  intended, 

And  still,  how  many  people  become  the  victims  of  this  fancy  and 
sacrifice  everything  to  pride  and  to  appearance!  It  is  in  good  style,  for 
example,  to  have  a  team  composed  of  horses  of  the  same  form  and  of  the 
same  color.  You  go  to  select  them  from  a  horse-dealer.  He  is  ever  so 
ready  to  satisfy  your  wishes,  but  especially  the  above,  since  you  have 
begun  by  laying  great  stress  upon  them.  What  happens  then  ?  It 
happens  that,  in  most  instances,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  two 
subjects  absolutely  identical  in  other  respects  than  the  two  you  have 
mentioned,  he  will  supply  you  with  horses  which  will  be  a  match 
neither  in  the  gait  nor  vigor,  energy,  solidity,  dressing,  etc.  And  for 
the  sake  of  being  able  to  display  a  team  exactly  uniform  in  relation  to 
color  and  size,  you  will  have  ignored  defects,  vices  of  character,  or 
some  other  grave  imperfection  ! 

Very  fortunately,  it  is  the  people  of  means,  consequently  the  very 
small  minority,  who  thus  make  themselves  slaves  to  the  fancies  and 
whims  of  their  period.  Indeed,  there  is  perhaps  no  great  harm  in 
their  doing  so ;  all  horses  must  needs  be  utilized,  and  it  is  better,  on 
the  whole,  that  the  bad  ones  should  fall  to  the  lot  of  those  who  only 
use  them  for  public  display. 

Concerning  horses,  fashion,  like  prejudice,  has  tendencies  which  we 
must  struggle  against,  for  it  only  gives  to  the  horse  superficial  qual- 
ities, of  quite  a  transient  kind,  sought  after  to-day  and  condemned 
to-morrow,  according  to  the  arbitrary  conventionalities  of  the  moment. 
All  such  practices  should  be  deprecated,  were  it  but  to  save  the  horse 
from  the  senseless  tastes  of  a  few  renowned  ladies  of  the  demi-monde 
or  of  pretentious  and  ignorant  idlers  ! 


SECTION    FOURTH. 

THE  HORSE  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCOMOTION. 


PART     I. 
ATTITUDES  AND  MOVEMENTS  UPON  PLACE. 


GHlPTEK    I. 

ATTITUDES. 

IN  the  exterior  we  designate  under  the  name  attitudes  the  diverse 
positions  which  the  horse  assumes  when  at  rest,  either  standing  or 
recumbent.  They  comprise,  consequently,  standing  up,  or  station,  and 
lying  down,  or  decubitus. 

A.— Station. 

Definition ;  Divisions. — Station  is  the  attitude  of  the  animal 
standing  almost  motionless,  and  touching  the  ground  with  his  four 
members  or  with  three  of  them  only. 

It  has  been  divided  into  free  and  forced,  according  to  the  number 
of  the  members  which  effectually  support  the  body. 

Free  station  is  the  attitude  of  the  horse  when  left  entirely  to 
himself.  The  trunk  is  usually  supported  by  three  members;  the 
fourth,  which  is  always  a  posterior,  remains  semi-flexed,  touches 
simply  with  its  toe,  and  preserves  this  position  until  its  congener^  tired 
out,  then  assumes  a  semi-flexed  position  itself,  thus  performing  the 
function  which  devolved  upon  it  in  propping  up  the  body. 

The  posterior  foot  which  is  not  in  full  contact  with  the  ground  is 
slightly  displaced  forward  and  inward.  The  haunch  of  this  side  is 
lower  than  that  on  the  opposite  side.  The  base  of  support,  in  such 
438 


ATTITUDES.  439 

cases,  is  reduced  to  a  triangle,  which  renders  the  equilibrium  less  stable. 
Nevertheless,  if  the  body  remain  immobile  and  the  members  change 
their  relative  positions  alternately,  it  is  possible  for  the  horse  to  pre- 
serve this  attitude  for  a  long  time,  and  even  to  sleep  without  being 
obliged  to  lie  down. 

The  anterior  members  do  not  alternate  with  each  other  in  their 
position.  Nevertheless,  if  the  fatigue  be  great,  they  are  alternately , 
lifted  up  and  replaced  in  position  by  a  sort  of  slow  and  regular 
stamping  movement,  which  eases  the  muscles  and  gives  intermittence 
to  their  contraction,  that  intermittence  without  which  it  could  not 
continue. 

As  soon  as  a  member  becomes  tired  out,  or  is  the  seat  of  some 
pathological  alteration,  it  will  take  longer  and  more  frequent  rests,  and 
changes  its  ordinary  direction.  It  is  thus  that  the  posterior  limbs  are 
displaced  forward,  with  the  foot  generally  flat  upon  the  ground  and 
the  fetlock  strongly  projected  forward,  knuckled,  as  if  the  muscular 
system  were  powerless  to  maintain  the  osseous  segments  in  their  normal 
relations  (see  page  295).  The  fore-limbs,  on  their  part,  seek  to  deviate 
from  the  centre  of  gravity ;  they  also  incline  forward,  and  sometimes 
a  little  outward,  in  a  semi-flexed  state,  which  is  vulgarly  expressed  by 
saying  that  the  horse  points,  stands  like  a  dancing-master. 

In  forced  station,  on  the  contrary,  the  four  members  are  obliged 
to  support  the  body,  and  are  symmetrically  disposed  in  each  biped  in 
order  to  receive  a  proportional  share  of  the  body-weight.  The  base 
of  support  is  no  longer  triangular ;  it  becomes  an  elongated  or  shortened 
parallelogram,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  locomotory  column 
in  relation  to  the  vertical  axis.  The  distance  comprised  between  the 
anterior  and  posterior  bipeds  is,  in  this  case,  equal  to  three-fourths  of 
the  height  of  the  horse. 

As  the  separation  of  the  two  fore-feet  is  sensibly  greater  than  that 
of  the  hind-feet,  it  follows  from  this  that  the  polygon  constituted  by 
the  base  of  support  is,  in  reality,  a  trapezoid  and  not  a  rectangle,  which 
M.  Duhousset  has  demonstrated.  This  is  a  fortunate  disposition,  the 
effect  of  which  is  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  in  front, — that  is  to  say, 
at  the  place  where  the  natural  supports  of  the  trunk  are  more  bur- 
dened and  more  liable,  on  account  of  their  proximity  to  the  cervico- 
cephalic  regions,  to  allow  the  line  of  gravitation  to  fall  outside  of  the 
base  of  support. 

Forced  standing  is  always  fatiguing,  although  the  body  may  not 
execute  any  apparent  movement,  because  this  attitude  implies  that  the 
muscular  contraction  is  continued  without  the  necessary  intermissions. 


440 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE, 


Hence  the  animal,  as  soon  as  he  is  left  to  himself,  will  resume  the 
attitude  of  free  station  in  order  to  ease  his  muscles. 
Three  different  conditions  may  present  themselves : 

1.  Either  the  members  approach  the  centre  of  gravity  two  by  two, 
and  thus  converge  more  or  less  by  their  hoofs. 

2.  Or  they  deviate  from  this  centre, — that  is  to  say,  are  inclined  in 
an  inverse  sense,  converge  above  and  diverge  below. 

3.  Or,  finally,  their  direct  axis  is  parallel  to  the  vertical  line. 
These  three  situations  constitute  the  attitudes  in  which  the  horse 

has  been  said,  respectively,  to  "  rassembler,"  or  gather  up ;  to  "  camper/7 
or  stretch  out ;  and  to  "  placer,"  or  stand  right  up.  Let  us  rapidly 
pass  them  in  review. 

In  the  rassembler  (Fig.  144),  or  "gathering  up/7  the  four  feet 
are  brought  towards  the  centre  of  the  base  of  support,  whose  length  is 


FIG.  144.— The  rassembler. 


FIG.  145.— The  camper. 


less  than  three-fourths  of  the  height  of  the  horse.  Hence  there  results 
a  closing  of  most  of  the  articular  angles,  as  well  as  a  lessened  stability 
of  the  equilibrium  :  two  causes  of  fatigue  which  soon  oblige  the  animal 
to  assume  the  attitude  of  free  station.  When  thus  "  gathered  up"  he 
is  ready  to  execute  easily  the  principal  movements, — jumping,  moving 
to  the  right,  to  the  left,  forward,  or  backward.  In  the  riding-school  the 
animal  is  made  to  assume  this  attitude  by  combined  actions  of  the 
hands  and  the  legs. 

In  the  camper,  or  "  stretching  out,"  on  the  contrary  (Fig.  145), 
the  members  are  respectively  lengthened  forward  and  backward  from 
the  body,  which  augments  the  extent  of  the  base  of  support.  The, 
length  of  the  latter  then  exceeds  three-fourths  of  the  height  of  the 
horse.  The  dorso-lumbar  region,  in  this  case,  is  concave,  sway-backed, 
and  progression  becomes  difficult.  The  posterior  members  are  incapa- 
ble of  communicating  to  the  trunk  an  efficacious  impulse,  because  they 


ATTITUDES. 


441 


have  almost  reached  their  limit  of  extension.  As  to  the  anterior,  they 
cannot  take  as  long  a  step,  being  likewise  in  a  state  of  extreme  exten- 
sion. In  order  to  be  able  to  walk,  therefore,  the  horse  must  shorten 
his  base  of  support,  draw  the  feet  towards  one  another,  and  return,  to 
a  certain  degree,  to  the  preceding  attitude,  the  attitude  really  prepara- 
tory to  all  movements. 

To  recapitulate,  the  camper,  very  fatiguing  to  the  back  and  the 
loins,  is  detrimental  to  the  horse  only  in  the  eye  of  the  acute  observer, 
for  it  gives  neither  grace  nor  elegance  to  the  subject.  Still,  dealers 
have  brought  this  particular  attitude  into  vogue  either  to  show  to  the 
purchaser  that  the  animal  will  thus  cover  much  ground  and  should, 
consequently,  take  long  strides,  or  to  take  the  attention  away  from  the 
defect  of  the  axis,  to  mask  some  other  vices,  to  give  greater  prominence 
to  the  obliquity  of  the  shoulder,  the  horizontally  of  the  croup,  the 
strength  of  the  loins,  or,  finally,  to  modify  the  appearance  of  a  trunk 
which  is  not  irreproachable.  At  first  intended  only  as  a  simple  prep- 
aration for  the  sale,  this  custom,  which  we  have  for  a  long  time 
opposed,1  is  at  present  very  fashionable  in  pleasure-horses, — the  coach- 
horse,  for  example.  The  evil  would  not  be  great  if  its  only  conse- 
quence were  to  render  the  horse  ungraceful ;  but  what  is  of  greater 
importance  in  this  attitude  is  that  it  inflicts  a  useless  torture  upon  the 
animal,  even  if  it  be  not  prejudicial  to  him. 

The  placer  (Fig.  146),  or  "upright  stand,"  is  the  station  in  which 
the  direct  axis  of  the  members  has  a  direction  intermediary  between 
the  preceding  two,  and  more  or 
less  approaches  the  vertical. 

We  will  call  the  direct  axis, 
or  line  of  direction  of  the  mem- 
ber, the  line  which  joins  the 
point  of  suspension  of  the  trunk 
upon  this  member  (centre  of 
movement)  to  the  middle  of  the 
foot.'  The  angular  displacement 
of  this  axis  in  front  of  the  ver- 
tical, when  the  animal  walks  or 
trots,  is  equal  to  a  half-step.  FIG.  146.— The  placer. 

We  should  endeavor  to  make 
the  columns  of  support  take  this  direction,  which  is  more  favorable  to 


1  Arm.  Goubaux,  De  1'enrenement  des  chevaux,  in  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  protectrice  des 
animaux,  annee  1872,  p.  126. 


442  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  equal  distribution  of  the  weight,  in  order  to  judge  of  the  soundness 
of  the  animal  and  his  locomotory  aptitudes.  The  part  of  the  exterior 
which  includes  the  study  of  the  axes  is  therefore  full  of  practical 
interest.  We  will  treat  of  them  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Axes,  Equilibrium. 

The  axes  of  a  horse  are  nothing  else  than  the  direction  of  the 
axes  of  his  members  in  relation  to  the  ground. 

It  is  necessary,  in  order  to  appreciate  this  direction,  to  place  the 
subject  previously, — that  is  to  say,  to  make  him  stand  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  feet  of  each  biped,  anterior  or  posterior,  are  on  a  transverse 
line  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  body,  and  occupy  the  four  angles 
of  the  trapezium  represented  by  the  base  of  support.  Besides,  the 
plane  of  the  base  of  support  should  be  perfectly  horizontal. 

The  axes  are  called  regular  when  the  lines  of  direction  of  the 
members  fall  perpendicularly  and  oscillate  in  planes  parallel  to  the 
median  plane.  "  The  trunk  being  a  weight  to  be  supported/7  says  M. 
Sanson,1  "  it  is  a  fact  that  the  members  will  sustain  this  weight  in  a 
manner  all  the  more  efficacious  and  the  more  proportionate  with  the 
preservation  of  their  integrity,  as  this  same  weight  is  always  exerted 
upon  them,  in  station,  in  the  normal  direction  of  its  own  gravitation, — 
that  is  to  say,  as  the  different  pieces  which  compose  the  columns  of 
support  are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  diverse  component 
forces  will  be  resolved  into  a  single  resultant  invariably  parallel  to  the 
plumb-line." 

The  axes  are  styled  irregular,  on  the  contrary,  when  the  lines 
of  direction  of  the  members  deviate  from  the  vertical  and  effect  other 
displacements  in  the  planes  than  those  of  which  we  have  spoken. 

The  line  of  axis  of  a  member  is,  theoretically,  the  vertical  line 
which  passes  through  the  point  of  suspension, — that  is,  the  centre  of 
movement  of  the  trunk  upon  this  member.  If  this  vertical  line  meet 
the  opposite  extremity  of  the  locomotory  column,  here  altogether 
comparable  to  an  ordinary  column,  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  latter 
is  well  placed  under  the  body  to  fulfil  with  efficacy  its  r6le  of  support. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  this  condition  is  dependent 
upon  two  principal  factors :  the  length  of  the  osseous  segments  and 
the  value  of  their  articular  angles.  The  points  of  origin  and  of  ter- 
mination of  the  ideal  broken  line  which  represents  each  member  should, 


1  A.  Sanson,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  de  m£decine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  veterinaires,  t. 
i.  p.  669. 


ATTITUDES.  443 

in  fact,  exist  upon  the  same  vertical  line  (the  angles  not  varying)  only 
on  condition  that  the  segments  maintain  certain  determined  lengths,  or 
that  the  angles  (the  segments  remaining  the  same)  have  an  equally 
determined  opening. 

But,  as  the  variations  of  the  two  factors  of  which  we  have  spoken 
are  always  simultaneous  and  not  independent,  it  follows  that  two  horses 
provided  with  good  axes  are  not  necessarily  identical  in  relation  to  the 
extent  of  the  articular  angles  and  the  length  of  the  bones,  because 
deviations  in  the  one  are  properly  compensated  by  contrary  modifica- 
tions of  the  other. 

a.     Axes  of  the  Anterior  Members. 

Axes  viewed  in  Profile. — It  is  particularly  difficult  to  locate 
the  line  of  direction  of  the  anterior  member  on  account  of  the  more  or 
less  diffuse  points  of  attachment  of  this  member.  What  is,  indeed, 
the  exact  centre  of  the  combined  actions  of  the  trapezius,  the  rhom- 
boideus,  the  angularis,  the  great  serratus,  the  pectorals,  and  the  mas- 
toido-humeralis,  which  fix  the  shoulder  and  the  arm  against  the  sides 
of  the  thorax,  and  almost  make  them  integral  parts  of  the  trunk? 
While  we  know  with  sufficient  precision  the  insertion  of  each  of  these 
muscles,  and  while  we  are  able  to  determine  in  an  approximate  manner 
the  directions  in  which  they  act,  we  are  still  ignorant  of  the  role  which 
each  one  plays  in  supporting  the  trunk.  We  are  therefore  obliged  to 
depend  alone  in  this  respect  upon  empirical  data. 

Consequently,  let  us  choose  that  horse  which  is  recognized  by  uni- 
versal practice  as  having  beautiful  axes  (Fig.  147).  Thus,  as  we  have 
said  above,  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  the  inferior  extremity  of  his  fore- 
members  will  be  situated  in  the  vertical  line  which  passes  through  the 
corresponding  centre  of  movement  of  the  body.  Through  the  middle, 
6,  of  the  anterior  foot  let  us  draw  this  line.  We  will  see  that  it  meets 
the  scapular  segment  at  a  point,  a,  which  is  often  located  at  the  same 
time  with  remarkable  accuracy  upon  the  horizontal  line  ac,  which 
passes  precisely  through  the  coxo-femoral  articulation,  the  known  centre 
of 'movement  of  the  posterior  column  upon  the  trunk. 

It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  centre  of  movement,  a,  of  the  shoulder, 
whose  situation  otherwise  varies  according  to  the  inclination  of  the  latter,  occu- 
pies, in  a  beautiful  conformation,  a  height  equal  to  that  of  the  centre  of  movement 
of  the  haunch. 

If  such  really  be  the  case,  the  plane  of  suspension  of  the  body  upon  the 
members  will  be  a  horizontal  plane.  We  except,  of  course,  those  particular 
cases  in  which  the  withers  are  low  and  the  fore  part  of  the  trunk  larger  or  smaller 
than  the  hind  part.  We  know  that  there  is,  in  the  latter  cases,  an  irregular 


444 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


distribution  of  the  weight  and  an  elevation  of  the  plane  of  suspension,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  given  defect. 

Since  the  appearance  of  our  first  edition,  two  distinguished  veterinary  sur- 
geons, Messrs.  Raabe  and  Bonnal,1  have  published  their  personal  observations 
upon  this  special  subject.  According  to  these  authors,  we  have  placed  the  centre 
of  scapular  suspension  too  low  ;  they  fix  it  empirically  at  the  superior  third  of  the 
shoulder.  If  this  determination  is  exact,  the  plane  of  suspension  of  the  body  will 
therefore  be  slightly  oblique  from  before  to  behind. 


d  h    j  f 

FIG.  147.— Lines  of  equilibrium  of  the  horse  viewed  in  profile. 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  of  M.  Delton.) 


All  this  is  possible.  It  is  very  difficult  to  choose  between  these  two  opinions, 
because  the  centre  of  movement  of  the  shoulder  is  not  an  anatomical  point,  but 
rather  a  surface  which  itself  moves  upon  the  thoracic  parietes  at  the  same  time 
that  the  axis  of  the  scapula  rotates  around  it. 

Besides,  the  direction  of  the  plane  of  suspension  of  the  body  upon  the 
members,  whether  it  be  horizontal  or  slightly  oblique  in  a  normal  state,  only 
offers  interest  from  a  point  of  view  of  its  deviations  in  one  sense  or  the  other. 
As  we  have  treated  of  these  latter  in  connection  with  the  centre  of  gravity,  the 
withers,  and  the  height  of  the  fore-quarters,  we  will  not  return  to  them  here. 


1  Raabe  et  Bonnal,  Determination  des  lignes  de  gravitS  du  cheval,  en  station  r£guliere 
mont6  et  non  monte ;  in  Archives  vele'rinaires,  1883,  p.  535. 


ATTITUDES. 


445 


The  other  deductions  to  be  made  from  the  vertical  ab  lead  to 
results  of  more  practical  value  : 

This  line  is,  in  fact  (Fig.  148),  equi- 
distant from  the  two  perpendiculars  to 
the  ground,  ef,  gh,  which  can  also  be 
demonstrated  by  observations  on  anim'als 
selected  as  the  types  of  good  conforma- 
tion. It  is  also  equidistant  from  rs  and 
tu,  the  thickness  of  the  articulations  at 
these  points  being  equal. 

It  follows  from  this  that  ab  intersects 
eg  (the  humerus)  in  its  middle,  as  well 
as  rt ;  for  eghf  and  rtus  are  trapeziums 
in  which  ab  is  parallel  to  and  equidistant 
from  their  bases. 

It  is  also  seen  that  if  gc  (radio- 
metacarpal  segment)  remain  vertical,  fh 
(a  horizontal  projection  from  the  hume- 
rus) equals  fb  (projection  of  ae)  plus  bh 
(projection  of  be).  And  as  bh  equals  fb, 
it  can  be  said  that  the  horizontal  projec- 
tion from  the  humerus  is  double  the 
horizontal  projection  of  the  phalangal 
segment. 

Let  us  remark,  finally,  that  all  the 
conclusions  drawn  from  these  typical 
axes  are  always  applicable,  with  the 
sole  condition  that  the  articular  angles 
maintain  their  summits  upon  the  lines 
ef  and  gh. 

This  proves  that  any  articular  angles 
whatsoever  can  be  compatible  with  good 
axes.  Here,  also,  the  theory  of  General 
Morris,  which  has  been  advanced 1  as  an 
excellent  criterion  to  judge  of  the  regu- 
larity of  the  axes,  is  evidently  defective. 

The  knowledge  of  the  fact  that 
the  vertical  line  ab  divides  the  hu- 
merus as  well  as  the  distance  rt  into 
two  equal  parts  already  constitutes 
a  factor  which  simplifies  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  mode  of  equilibrium 
of  the  fore  part  of  the  body ;  for 
instead  of  lowering,  from  the  points  e  and  g  or  r  and  i,  two  perpendic- 


FlG.  148. 


1  A.  Sanson,  loc.  cit.,  p.  685. 


446 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


ulars,  and  observing  if  the  point  b  (centre  of  the  foot)  is  midway  be- 
tween /  and  h  or  s  and  u,  it  suffices  to  fix  the  point  k,  middle  of  the 
humerus,  or  the  point  v,  middle  of  the  distance  comprised  between  the 
points  of  the  shoulder  and  of  the  elbow,  and  then  draw  a  vertical  line 
which  should  fall  upon  the  same  foot. 

Now  that  we  have  established  the  rational  principles  which  indicate 
the  location  of  the  axes  of  the  anterior  members,  we  can  formulate 
from  them  practical  rules  in  the  following  manner.  Our  lines  differ 
somewhat  from  those  of  other  authors,  but  in  principle  they  are 
equally  as  simple,  and  have,  besides,  the  advantage  of  being  based 
upon  positive  facts. 

1st.  A  vertical  line,  ab  (Fig.  149  [1]),  lowered  from  the  middle,  k, 
of  the  arm,  should  pass,  above,  through  the  centre  of  anterior  suspension, 


a,  intersect,  below,  the  middle  of  the  hoof,  b,  and  be  located  equidistant 
from  the  verticals  ef,  gh,  coming  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  and  the 
summit  of  the  elbow. 

If  this  line  falls  in  front  of  the  hoof,  the  horse  is  said  to  be  under 
himself  in  front  (Fig.  149  [2]). 


ATTITUDES.  447 

If,  on  the  contrary,  this  line  falls  behind,  it  is  said  that  the  horse 
is  camped  in  front  (Fig.  149  [3]). 

Let  us  observe  the  inconveniences  which  follow  from  these  two 
conformations. 

The  Horse  Under  Himself  in  Front. — The  direct  axis  of 
the  member,  in  this  case  too  much  inclined  downward  and  backward, 
is  too  close  to  the  centre  of  gravity,  which  diminishes  the  aptitudes' of 
the  column  as  a  support.  There  results  from  this  an  evident  over- 
loading, tending  to  flex  the  segments  one  upon  the  other  and  to  close 
the  angle  of  the  fetlock,  two  causes  which  compel  the  muscles  to 
contract  more  strongly,  and  the  tendons  and  the  ligaments  to  sustain 
more  violent  tractions.  Besides,  the  base  of  support  being  shortened, 
the  hind-feet,  during  locomotion,  have  a  tendency  to  meet  the  fore- 
feet, whence  results  forging  ;  the  equilibrium  is  less  stable  and  the  body 
continually  tends  to  swing  forward,  another  reason  which  explains  why 
this  defect  of  the  axis  renders  the  animal  liable  to  fall  upon  his  knees. 

In  addition,  the  locomotory  movements  are  less  extensive,  not 
because  the  step  is  not  capable  of  the  same  amplitude,  but  because  the 
direction  of  the  member  at  rest  approaches  more  that  direction  which 
it  assumes  just  before  the  limb  is  raised  from  the  ground;  this  will 
more  quickly  overburden  the  member  which  is  still  on  the  ground, 
and  precipitate  the  movement  of  the  one  in  the  air.  If  the  speed  be 
accelerated,  the  horse  has  not  sufficient  time  to  extend  the  member  and 
move  the  different  segments  one  upon  the  other  to  their  normal  limit, 
whatever  may  otherwise  be  the  nature  of  his  articular  angles,  the 
dimensions  and  energy  of  his  muscles,  the  beauty  of  their  insertion, 
and  the  length  of  their  lever-arm.  His  steps  are  therefore  low,  close 
to  the  ground,  and  frequently  repeated ;  he  carries  the  toe  close  to  the 
soil,  stumbles  on  rough  roads,  and  so  much  the  more  easily  when  he  is 
used  on  an  inclined  plane  and  carries  more  weight  on  his  back.  Hence 
such  a  horse  is  unfit  for  saddle-work  and  likewise  for  the  shafts,  for, 
in  descending  slopes,  he  is  not  able  to  support  his  burden,  the  resist- 
ance exerted  against  the  collar  being  here  insufficient. 

Thus,  excessive  wear  and  fatigue  of  the  bones,  the  ligaments,  and 
the  tendons,  rapid  wearing  out,  diminution  of  speed,  instability  of 
equilibrium,  insecurity  of  the  foothold,  and  tendency  towards  falling, 
— such  are  the  inherent  defects  of  this  vice  of  the  axis. 

This  does  not  mean  that  we  should,  for  this  reason,  if  no  better  one 
can  be  found,  discourage  the  purchase  of  such  a  horse.  He  can, 
without  doubt,  still  be  employed  for  light-  or  heavy-draught  services ; 
with  many  precautions,  it  is  even  possible  to  mount  him.  We  should, 


448  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

however,  not  forget  that  he  lias  lost  a  notable  part  of  his  value,  in 
consequence  of  the  slight  solidity  of  the  members  and  the  feebleness 
of  their  parts. 

The  Horse  Camped  in  Front. — Here,  the  direct  axis  of  the 
member  is  inclined  forward  and  downward  instead  of  being  vertical. 
This  is  a  defect  which  authors  consider  congenital  or  acquired,  accord- 
ing to  the  point  of  view  they  take. 

Some,  including  Bourgelat  and  Lecoq,  refer  the  diseases  of  the 
foot  which  are  observed  in  such  cases  to  the  primitively  bad  direction 
of  the  locomotory  column ;  others,  including  M.  Sanson,  who  has 
been  the  chief  upholder  of  this  opinion,  think,  on  the  contrary,  that 
the  lesions  of  the  digital  extremity  exist  first,  and  give  origin  little  by 
little  to  the  deviation  of  which  we  speak. 

Which  of  these  two  hypotheses  is  the  most  rational  ?  This  it  is  not 
so  easy  to  answer,  for  both  are  plausible  and  supported  by  facts.  Yet 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other  is  positively  established.  Nevertheless, 
the  opinion  of  M.  Sanson  appears  to  us  to  be  the  one  which  verifies 
itself  the  more  frequently.  Rarely  is  the  camper  in  front  observed  in 
young  horses,  while  it  is  very  common  in  adults,  and  particularly  in 
those  which  are  affected  with  some  chronic  disease  of  the  foot.  "  In 
an  instinctive  manner,  the  object  of  which  is  so  easily  recognizable  in 
the  case  of  founder,  for  example,  the  horse  imposes  upon  the  poste- 
rior limbs  a  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  fore  part  of  the  body,  and 
diminishes  thus  far  the  pressure  supported  by  his  fore-feet."  l 

Whatever  may  be  the  point  of  origin  of  camping,  whether  it 
is  regarded  as  the  cause  or  the  effect  of  superficial  or  of  deep  altera- 
tions of  the  digital  region,  it  is  well  known  that  animals  thus  formed 
are  used  every  day.  And  as  this  defect  does  not  render  the  horse 
unable  to  perform  his  work,  it  is  interesting  to  point  out  to  those  who 
wish  to  purchase  him  the  principal  disadvantages  which  follow  from 
such  a  conformation. 

It  is  seen,  first  of  all,  that  the  foot  is  placed  in  advance  of  the  ver- 
tical axes ;  but  as  these  lines  are  nothing  more  than  the  isolated  direc- 
tions of  the  components  of  the  weight, — that  part  which  is  supported 
by  the  anterior  columns, — it  follows  that  their  resultant,  which  acts  in 
the  direction  a&,  will  fall  upon  the  posterior  part  of  the  hoof.  The 
more  the  deviation  is  marked  the  greater  will  be  the  strain  on  the 
tendons. 

Besides,  the  fore-members  deviating  from  the  line  of  gravitation, 

1  A.  Sanson,  loc.  cit.,  p.  C75. 


ATTITUDES.  449 

the  hind-members  are  overburdened  by  that  portion  of  the  weight  of 
which  the  former  are  relieved.  Hence  we  frequently  see  the  fetlocks 
and  the  hocks  of  such  horses  prematurely  blemished  and  unable  to 
communicate  sufficient  impulsion  to  the  body. 

Finally,  the  anterior  feet  touching  the  ground  principally  by  the 
heels,  and  not  almost  uniformly  the  whole  extent  of  the  plantar  border 
of  the  wall,  it  follows  that  these  feet,  already  surcharged  behind  from 
their  defective  situation,  will  also  be  more  exposed  to  wounds  and 
bruises  of  the  heels. 

The  last  and  most  important  consequence  of  camping  is  the  marked 
slowness  which  it  gives  to  the  gaits.  It  lengthens,  in  fact,  the  base  of 
support,  diminishes  by  so  much  the  length  of  the  lever-arm  which  is 
constituted  by  the  neck  in  front  of  the  centre  of  anterior  suspension, 
renders  the  equilibrium  more  stable,  and  all  this  to  the  detriment  of 
the  speed.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  angular  displacement  of  the 
member,  dependent  upon  the  length  of  its  muscles,  implies  especially 
a  limited  position  beyond  which  it  would  be  very  unfavorably  directed 
in  order  to  take  its  foothold  on  the  ground,  it  follows  from  this  that  a 
member  whose  free  extremity  is  already  carried  forward  will  be  much 
closer  to  the  point  of  extreme  extension,  less  apt  to  utilize  the  long 
muscles,  and  more  disposed  to  take  small  steps. 

The  most  serious  cause  of  slowness  of  the  gait  consists  in  the  pain 
experienced  in  placing  the  foot  upon  the  ground.  Whether  the  lesions 
indicated  above  are  primary  or  secondary,  it  is  non^e  the  less  true,  as 
M.  Sanson  l  said,  that  the  violence  of  the  concussion  and  the  intensity 
of  the  pain  are  in  direct  ratio  with  the  altered  position  of  the  member 
and  the  force  of  the  impulsion.  But,  however  feeble  the  morbid  sen- 
sibility which  is  manifested  in  such  a  case  be  considered,  the  animal 
always  endeavors  to  protect  these  parts  in  proportion  to  the  suffering 
which  he  experiences ;  whence  a  hesitation  in  stepping  and  a  shortening 
of  the  gait. 

To  recapitulate,  fatigue  of  the  anterior  members,  overloading  of  the 
posterior,  premature  ruin  of  their  apparatus  of  impulsion  and  dis- 
persion (hocks  and  fetlocks),  bruising  of  the  heels,  painful  and  uncer- 
tain contact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground,  slowness  of  the  gait, — here 
are  the  principal  inconveniences  of  horses  camped  in  front.  If  the 
vice  be  acquired,  it  can  be  remedied  by  rational  care  and  treatment  of 
the  anterior  feet,  but  even  this  result  is  doubtful  in  many  cases.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  the  subjects  can  only  be  utilized  at  a  walk  and  upon 

>  A.  Sanson,  loc.  cit.,  p.  675. 
29 


450 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


particular  soil ;  they  will  be,  on  the  contrary,  absolutely  unsuitable  for 
the  saddle  or  other  service  requiring  speed. 

2d.  A  vertical  line,  lowered  from  the  articulation  of  the  elbow, 
should  divide  the  knee,  the  canon,  and  the  fetlock  in  their  centre  and  fall 
a  little  posterior  to  the  heels  (ij,  Fig.  147,  and  Fig.  149  [1]). 

This  classical  line,  spoken  of  by  all  authors,  shows  the  direction 
of  the  inferior  part  of  the  member,  and  bespeaks  in  some  manner  the 
axis  of  the  knee  and  of  the  fetlock. 

If  the  knee  projects  in  front  of  this  vertical  line,  the  horse  is  said 
to  be  knee-sprung,  over  in  the  knees  (Fig.  150). 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  knee  is  carried  backward,  it  is  qualified 
hollow,  effaced,  or  sheep-like  (Fig.  151). 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  this  line  falls  too  far  from  the  heels,  the  horse 
is  long-  or  low-jointed  (Fig.  153). 

If,  finally,  it  meets  the  heels  or  the  anterior  parts  of  the  foot,  he  is 
called  short-  or  straight-jointed  (Fig.  152). 

Knuckling  is  only  a  higher  degree 
of  the  last  deviation  of  the  metacarpo- 
phalangal  articulation.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  a  more  or  less  marked  prom- 
inence of  this  articulation  in  front  of 
the  line  of  axis. 


FIG.  150. 


FIG.  151. 


FIG.  152. 


FIG.  153. 


In  the  articles  on  the  knee,  fetlock,  and  pastern  we  have  examined 
in  detail  all  these  vices  of  conformation  and  will  not  repeat  them  here. 

Let  us  only  say  that  the  straightness  of  the  anterior  column,  from 
the  knee  to  the  fetlock,  is  a  condition  of  strength  indispensable  in  all 
cases,  especially  in  horses  which  are  destined  for  saddle-work.  Any 
other  direction  having  for  its  effect  the  formation  of  a  broken  column 
of  support  which,  in  a  physiological  state,  is  disposed  to  act  normally 
between  two  opposing  forces  that  tend  to  incurvate  it,  is  necessarily 


ATTITUDES. 


451 


7f. 


defective,  for  such  direction  favors  the  influence  of  these  forces  instead 
of  resisting  them. 

The  muscles  or  the  ligaments,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  devi- 
ation, are  therefore  required,  in  such  cases,  to  supply  the  insufficiency 
of  the  support  given  by  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the  mem- 
ber ;  whence  more  fatigue  and  more  chances  of  damaging  the  locomo- 
tory  apparatus. 

Let  us  recall,  finally,  that  the  prominence  or  the  efFacement  of  the 
angle  of  the  fetlock  leads  to  consequences  of  the  same  order,  by  throw- 
ing upon  the  supporting  tendons  or  the 
bones  a  large  portion  of  the  weight  of  the 
body,  which,  in  the  case  of  regular  axes, 
— that  is  to  say,  of  a  proper  opening  of 
the  articular  angle, — these  agents  of  dis- 
persion should  distribute  almost  equally 
among  themselves.  We  will  say  the  same 
of  the  excess  or  deficiency  of  the  length 
of  the  phalangal  lever,  so  often  accom- 
panying long  and  low  pasterns.  The 
details,  which  we  have  already  given  in 
their  proper  place,  allow  us  to  dispense 
\vith  any  further  remarks  here. 

Axes  viewed  in  Front. — In  order 
that  the  horse  may  be  regular  in  the 
axes  of  his  anterior  members,  the  direct- 
ing axis  of  the  latter  must  blend,  as  we 
have  seen,  with  the  vertical  line  which 
passes  through  each  centre  of  anterior  sus- 
pension. But  to  judge  of  this  it  is  not 
sufficient  to  regard  these  members  in 
profile,  for  we  would  be  unable  to  per- 
ceive the  outward  or  the  inward  devia- 
tions of  this  axis  which  might  readily 
take  place.  Hence  we  should,  by  all 
means,  complete  our  examination  by  the 
consideration  of  the  animal  upon  his 
anterior  face. 

A  single  line  suffices,  in  this  position, 
to  show  the  regularity  of  the  axis  : 

A  vertical  line  drawn  down  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide 
the  knee,  the  canon,  the  fetlock,  and  the  foot  into  two  equal  parts  (Fig.  154). 


FIG. 154. 


452 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Besides,  it  should  answer  to  this  other  requisite,  that  the  interval 
comprised  between  the  two  feet  be  equal  to  the  width  of  the  hoof  measured 
from  one  quarter  to  the  other. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  this  line  falls  on  the  one  which  most  authors 
draw  from  the  narrowest  portion  of  the  anterior  face  of  the  forearm 
(Fig.  155). 

Such  is  the  reason  why  we  have  not  adopted  this  latter. 

When  the  member,  as  a  whole,  is  outside  of  the  vertical,  or  when 


FIG.  155. 


FIG.  156. 


the  interval  between  the  hoofs  is  more  considerable,  the  horse  is  said 
to  be  too  open  in  front. 

If  it  is  the  region  of  the  knee  alone  which  deviates,  the  horse  is 
called  bow-legged. 

If  it  is  the  toe,  the  subject  is  crooked-legged,  outbow-footed. 

Reversely  : 

When  the  member,  as  a  whole,  is  situated  inwardly  to  the  vertical, 
or  when  the  interval  between  the  two  hoofs  is  too  small,  the  animal  is 
called  closed  in  front. 

If  it  is  the  region  of  the  knee  alone,  the  horse  is  ox-kneed. 

Finally,  if  it  is  that  of  the  toe,  the  animal  becomes  parrot-toed, 
cross-footed  in  front. 

Horse  too  Open  in  Front. — This  defect  of  the  axis  may 
depend  upon  two  opposite  causes.  It  should  most  ordinarily  be 
attributed  to  the  large  development  of  the  pectoral  muscles,  and  it  is 
observed  more  especially  in  heavy  draught-horses.  Here  the  interval 
comprised  between  the  two  hoofs  is  simply  more  considerable  than  is 


A  TTITUDES.  453 

usual,  but  the  vertical  line  still  crosses  the  middle  of  the  knee,  the 
canon,  the  fetlock,  and  the  foot  (Fig.  156). 

In  other  cases  this  conformation  is  due,  on  the  contrary,  to  the 
narrowness  of  the  chest  and  the  small  volume  of  the  pectoral  muscles, 
two  defects  which  diminish  the  separation  of  the  points  of  the  shoul- 
ders and  render  the  members  convergent  towards  their  superior  part, 
fheir  opposite  extremity  being  in  reality  normally  placed,  and  appearing 
divergent  only  in  consequence  of  the  abnormal  relation  of  the  former. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  when  too  large  a  space  between 
the  fore-members  coexists  with  a  large  muscular  development  and  great 
width  of  the  thorax,  the  defect  is  of  little  import.  If  the  transverse 
diameter  of  the  base  of  support  is  increased,  if  the  stability  of  the  equi- 
librium-augments, if  the  walk  is  heavy  and  likewise  accompanied  by  a 
more  or  less  marked  rocking  of  the  body,  from  the  fact  of  this  confor- 
mation, it  is  apparent  that  the  animal  will  be  unfit  to  display  speed, 
but  that  he  will  be  in  good  condition  for  the  development  of  force. 
His  aptitudes  alone  are  changed.  Hence  he  will  lose  scarcely  any  of 
his  value  for  light-draught  services,  especially  if  his  feet  are  good. 

It  is  different,  however,  with  the  horse  in  which  the  separation  of 
the  fore-members  depends  upon  narrowness  of  the  chest  and  flatness 
of  the  ribs.  Such  a  horse  will  always  be  without  wind  and  without 
energy,  and  will  not  be  more  favorably  disposed  in  relation  to  speed  : 
first,  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  his  lungs  and  the  weakness  of  his 
muscles ;  secondly,  because  the  lateral  displacement  of  his  centre  of 
gravity  will  occasion  a  loss  of  time  and  of  force  prejudicial  to  the 
velocity  of  the  gaits.  We  may  add  that  here,  as  in  the  preceding  case, 
the  two  sides  of  the  hoof  will  no  longer  bear  their  normal  pressure. 
The  internal  quarter,  already  overburdened,  will  become  the  more  so 
as  the  member  deviates  the  more  from  its  line  of  axis ;  whence  the 
predisposition  of  the  wall  to  crack  and  of  the  sole  to  become  bruised, 
accidents  that  are  so  common  in  these  subjects  when  they  are  used  for 
fast  work. 

Knee  arched  Outward — Bow-legged  Horse  (Fig.  157). — 
This  outward  deviation  of  the  member,  somewhat  rare,  is  associated 
in  most  instances  with  a  convergence  of  the  two  hoofs,  but  does  not 
always  imply  it.  As  we  have  seen  (page  233),  this  mode  of  con- 
formation of  the  anterior  member  produces  an  unequal  contact  of  the 
foot  with  the  ground,  as  well  as  a  strain  on  the  ligaments ;  it  renders, 
besides,  the  horse  ungraceful. 

Horse  Outbow-footed  (Fig.  158).— This  defect  of  axis,  techni- 
cally called  talipes  valgus,  also  crooked-legged,  we  have  already  exam- 


454 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


ined.     Let  us  recall  that  it  is  ordinarily  accompanied  by  an  inward 
deviation  of  the  knee  and  of  the  elbow,  but  that  it  may  also  be  due 

to  a  simple  change  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  foot  alone.  How- 
ever it  may  be,  the  foot  is  not 
slow  in  becoming  modified  ;  the 
internal  quarter,  bearing  more 
pressure,  has  a  tendency  to  im- 
derlap  the  external  and  become 
contracted.  The  horse  is,  be- 
sides, liable  to  interfere  with  this 
quarter.  Finally,  during  flexion 
of  the  knee,  the  metacarpus  is 
thrown  outward  much  more  than 
in  a  normal  state,  which  means 
a  loss  of  time  prejudicial  to  the 
speed,  as  well  as  the  throwing 


FIG.  157. 


FIG.  158. 


outward  of  the  foot,  which  de- 
tracts from  the  beauty  of  the  gait. 

Horse  Closed  in  Front  (Fig.  159).— The  closeness  of  the  fore- 
members,  as  well  as  their  too  great  separation,  may  result  from  two 
opposite  causes  :  excess  or  deficiency  in  the  width  of  the  chest.  This 
condition  is  vulgarly  called  knock-kneed. 

The  objections  in  the  first  case  are  less  than  in  the  second,  for  the 
divergence  of  the  members  towards  their  superior  extremity  is  often 
due  only  to  the  development  of  the  chest  or  to  that  of  the  pectoral 
muscles.  Nevertheless,  the  approximation  of  their  inferior  extremities 
diminishes  the  stability  of  the  equilibrium,  on  account  of  the  narrow- 
ing of  the  base  of  support  in  front ;  it  also  exposes  the  animal  to  inter- 
fering, cutting,  and  to  the  other  accidents  which  may  result  therefrom. 

This  vice  of  the  axis  is,  however,  much  more  grave  when  it  depends 
upon  a  narrow  chest  and  a  feeble  volume  of  the  muscles.  Besides  the 
preceding  faults,  such  a  horse  must  also  be  regarded  as  being  deficient 
in  wind  and  without  endurance,  which  renders  him  altogether  incapable 
of  performing  the  least  laborious  service. 

Ox-Knee  (Fig.  160). — The  ox-knee,  convex  internally,  is  not 
compatible  (see  page  232)  with  a  regular  distribution  of  the  body- 
weight  upon  the  metacarpal  bones.  With  the  member  on  the  ground, 
the  external  concavity  tends  to  become  greater,  which  makes  more 
pressure  upon  the  external  side  of  the  carpal  bones  and  increases  the 
tension  on  the  internal  lateral  ligament  of  the  articulation. 


ATTITUDES. 


455 


Finally,  during  flexion  the  horse  displaces  the  canon   outwardly, 
uses  it  in  an  ungraceful  manner,  and  loses  time  in  bringing  it  back 


FIG. 159. 


FIG.  160. 


FIG.  161. 


into  its  proper  position.  Let  us  add  that  this  malformation  ordinarily 
implies  an  outward  deviation  of  the  toe,  another  disadvantage  which 
aggravates  this  vice  of  the  axis  and  constitutes  a  more  important 
cause  of  depreciation. 

Horse  Cross-footed  in  Front  (Fig.  161).— This  defective  con- 
formation, characterized  (see  page  332)  by  the  convergence  of  the  two 
hoofs,  is  due  to  too  great  a  separation  of  the  elbows,  or  to  an  outward 
arching  of  the  knees  or  of  the  fetlocks.  It  is  easy  to  understand  the 
evil  results  from  this  conformation  by  the  new  relations  which  each  half 
of  the  foot  assumes  with  the  line  of  gravitation  of  the  member :  the 
external  mamma  is  closer  to  this  line  and  the  internal  is  more  distant ; 
whence  an  apparent  overburdening  of  the  outer  side  of  the  foot  and  a 
corresponding  easing  of  the  inner  side. 

The  cross-footed  or  parrot-toed  horse  does  not  wear  the  inner 
side  of  the  shoe,  and  interferes,  in  a  manner  inverse  to  that  of  the 
crooked-legged  horse,  with  the  internal  mamma.  The  wounds  which 
are  thus  produced,  although  often  insignificant  in  appearance,  consti- 
tute none  the  less,  in  the  long  run,  some  serious  lesions  by  their  con- 
tinued repetition.  Even  when  the  farrier  can  remedy  it,  even  when 
the  inferior  part  of  the  member  can  be  protected  by  means  of  special 
leather  boots  against  the  knocking  of  the  hoofs,  it  is  still  troublesome 
to  use  the  animal,  by  reason  of  the  care  which  he  requires  and  the 
expense  which  he  necessitates.  If  he  is  destined  for  the  saddle,  his 


456  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

employment  is  still  more  difficult,  for,  not  having  perfect  freedom  in 
the  use  of  his  fore-limbs,  and  being  predisposed  to  stumble,  he  exposes 

his    rider   to    falls    which    may    prove 
serious  on  rough  and  uneven  roads. 

b.     Axes  of  the  Posterior  Members. 

Axes  viewed  in  Profile.— The 
principle  which  we  have  employed  to 
establish  the  axes  of  the  anterior  mem- 
ber admit  of  a  much  simpler  applica- 
tion when  referred  to  the  posterior 
member.  The  centre  of  suspension  of 
the  latter  upon  the  trunk  is  known  to 
us  with  sufficient  accuracy ;  it  is  the 
cbxo-femoral  articulation.  We  may 
therefore  conclude  that  the  direct  axis 
of  the  posterior  column  will  be  in  a 
good  position  if  the  digital  extremity 
of  this  column  is  stationed  at  the  bot- 
tom, d  (Fig.  162),  of  the  vertical  line 
which  passes  through  the  articular  cen- 
tre, c.  In  fact,  it  is  this  which  obser- 
vation demonstrates  in  horses  of  good 
equilibrium  of  the  posterior  quarters ; 
a  plumb-line  placed  at  the  level  of  the 
joint  in  question  divides  the  hoof  into 
two  equal  parts. 

As  in  the  anterior  member,  and  for  the 
same  reasons,  the  vertical  line,  cd,  is  also 
equidistant  from  the  perpendiculars  to  the 
ground,  ot  and  s/>,  or  also  ef  and  jh.  It 
intersects  the  leg,  os,  as  well  as  ej,  at  its 
middle.  If  the  tarso-metatarsal  segment 
remain  vertical,  the  horizontal  projection, 
//>,  of  the  leg  is  double  the  horizontal  projec- 
tion, dp,  of  the  phalangal  segment.  Finally, 
any  degree  of  opening  of  the  angles  will  be 
compatible  with  good  axes,  on  condition 
FIG.  162.  that  the  articular  angles  maintain  their 

summits  upon  the  vertical  lines  ot  and  sp. 

The  axes  of  the  hind-limbs  are  based,  as  is  seen,  upon  the  same 
principles  as  those  of  the  fore-limbs.     The  four  locomotory  columns,  in 


A  TTITUDES. 


457 


station,  fulfil  a  role,  if  not  equal,  at  least  identical, — that  of  supporting 
the  body-weight ;  it  is  therefore  but  logical  that  they  obey  the  same 
principles  of  equilibrium. 

Let  us  pass  in  review,  now,  the  vices  of  the  axes  of  the  posterior 
members. 

A  vertical  line,  cd  (Fig.  163  [1]),  passing  through  the  middle,  r,  of 
the  leg,  should  pass,  above,  through  the  centre  of  posterior  suspension,  c 
(coxo-femoral  articulation),  intersect,  below,  the  middle  of  the  hoof,  d, 


\  \  "N-     \ 

\    \---j        A   \     \     i    ••»/    ,  > 


p      d       11 


and  remain  equidistant  from  the  vertical  lines  op,  mn,  lowered  from  the 
patella  and  the  angle  of  the  buttock,  the  latter  tangent  to  the  point  of 
the  hock  and  to  the  fetlock. 

If  the  member,  as  a  whole,  is  placed  in  front  of  this  line  cd,  the 
horse  is  said  to  be  under  himself  behind  (Fig.  163  [2]). 

If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  situated  behind,  the  horse  is  said  to  be 
camped  behind  (Fig.  163  [3]). 

Finally,  if  the  deviation  only  takes  place  from  the  fetlock  down, 
the  subject  is  called  : 

Long-  and  low-jointed  when  the  middle  of  the  foot,  d,  approaches 
the  vertical  line  op. 


458  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Short-  and  straight-jointed  when  it  approaches  the  vertical  line  mn. 

Having  studied  the  last  two  defects  in  connection  with  the  pastern, 
we  will  not  return  to  them  here.  We  will  speak  only  of  the  incon- 
veniences which  follow  from  the  first  two  conformations. 

Horse  Under  Himself  Behind  (Fig.  163  [2]).— The  direct  axis 
of  the  member  in  this  case  is  oblique  downward  and  forward,  instead 
of  being  vertical.  This  disposition  diminishes  the  aptitudes  of  the 
column  as  a  support  and  favors  its  falling  backward,  borne  down  as  it 
is  by  the  force  of  the  body-weight  acting  upon  the  point  c  in  the  di- 
rection cd.  There  follows  from  this  a  weakened  equilibrium,  causing 
the  horse  to  slip  forward,  to  be  hesitating  in  his  steps,  and  the  bony 
segments  to  be  flexed,  two  causes  which  increase  the  strain  on  the  ex- 
tensor muscles,  the  tendons,  and  the  ligaments  from  greater  efforts. 

Besides,  the  metatarsus  being  situated  obliquely  under  the  tibia,  the 
tibio-tarsal  angle  acquires  a  state  of  defective  closing,  characterized  by 
the  angular,  elbowed  hock,  which  renders  this  articulation  liable,  as  we 
have  seen  (page  266),  to  show  the  effects  of  use  the  earlier  and  more 
seriously  in  proportion  as  the  canon  is  more  inclined  under  the 
body. 

The  foot  also  coming  nearer  to  the  centre  of  gravity,  the  base  of 
support  is  shortened  to  the  detriment  of  the  stability,  while  the  over- 
burdened posterior  limb  has  not  the  same  freedom  of  movement, 
which  augments  its  work  and  favors  its  chances  of  being  blemished. 

Finally,  this  vicious  direction  is  also  detrimental  to  the  speed  of 
the  gaits,  in  consequence  of  the  two  following  reasons : 

The  first  is  dependent  on  the  shortness  of  the  stride,  because  the 
member,  advanced  for  a  smaller  distance  than  in  the  normal  state  of 
the  extreme  limit  of  its  forward  oscillation,  is  incapable  of  passing 
over  much  ground. 

The  second  consists  in  the  loss  of  time  determined  at  each  step  by 
the  vertical  displacements  of  the  croup,  the  member  being  able  to  com- 
municate an  efficacious  impulsion  only  on  condition  of  having  attained 
that  particular  degree  of  extension  which  makes  it  underpropped 
against  the  trunk  and  not  inclined  inversely  to  the  direction  of  move- 
ment. 

We  may  add,  in  passing,  a  new  cause  of  fatigue  and  wear  for  the 
hock  and  the  fetlock,  resulting  from  overburdening  these  agents  of 
impulsion,  which  must  here  elevate  the  body  before  projecting  it  hor- 
izontally, the  only  propulsive  line  favorable  to  speed. 

It  follows  from  the  preceding  statements  that  a  horse  under  him- 
self is  hardly  capable  of  doing  good  service ;  but  the  objections  vary 


ATTITUDES.  459 

according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  which  he  is  called  upon  to  per- 
form. Still  utilizable  for  light-draught  work  which,  ordinarily,  exacts 
but  little  effort  and  speed,  he  becomes,  on  the  contrary,  unsuitable  for 
the  saddle,  the  riding-school,  the  hunt,  and  the  race-course,  on  account 
of  the  relative  weakness  of  his  hind-members  and  the  early  develop- 
ment of  blemishes  which  the  bad  direction  of  the  latter  will  soon 
cause.  Even  if  he  be  employed  for  heavy-draught  work,  his  hocks 
and  his  fetlocks  will  not  long  endure  the  great  efforts  which  traction 
on  uneven  ground  necessitates.  Hence  he  will  lose,  from  this  vice  of 
axis  so  prejudicial  to  the  integrity  of  his  locomotory  columns,  a  great 
deal  of  his  value,  and  he  should  be  absolutely  rejected  when  the 
deviation  in  his  posterior  quarters  is  altogether  too  well  marked. 

Horse  Camped  Behind  (Fig.  163  [3]). — The  evil  consequences 
of  this  defect  are  far  from  being  as  serious  for  the  posterior  members 
as  for  the  anterior. 

Here  the  axis  of  the  member  is  separated  from  the  vertical  and  is 
the  reverse  of  that  in  the  preceding  conformation.  In  other  words,  it 
is  oblique  downward  and  backward,  which  predisposes  the  animal  to 
slip  backward  and  carry  a  portion  of  the  weight  upon  the  anterior 
bipeds ;  whence  greater  exertion  for  the  latter  to  fulfil  their  function 
during  station  as  well  as  locomotion,  especially  if  the  weight  of  the 
rider  is  added  to  that  of  the  fore-quarters,  and  if  the  subject,  low  in 
front,  is  obliged  to  go  fast  down-hill,  an  event  which  takes  place 
daily. 

The  deviation  of  the  posterior  feet  from  the  centre  of  gravity  also 
leads  to  other  effects  upon  the  vertebral  column ;  it  imposes  upon  the 
latter  a  portion  of  the  weight  which  the  hind-limbs  would  support  by 
their  resistance  were  they  properly  directed  under  the  trunk.  Hence 
it  will  soon  manifest  the  fatigue  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  back 
by  the  latter  becoming  more  or  less  decidedly  sway-backed,  which 
condition  is  opposed,  as  we  have  seen  (page  1 1 7),  to  the  integral 
transmission  of  the  impulsion  from  behind. 

The  calcaneus  of  the  camped  horse  is  not,  as  M.  Sanson1  believes, 
necessarily  less  developed  than  in  the  case  of  a  limb  with  a  normal 
direction ;  it  is  simply  more  parallel  with  the  tibia,  which  makes  the 
hock  appear  less  wide  and  diminishes  the  perpendicular  incidence  of 
the  muscles  which  produce  its  extension.  Also,  as  the  vicious  inser- 
tions of  these  muscles  only  become  exaggerated  during  extreme  ex- 
tension of  the  canon,  it  follows  from  this  that  the  latter  will  lose  a 

1  A.  Sanson,  loc.  cit.,  p.  682. 


460 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


portion  of  that  power  of  which  it  would  be  capable  if  the  tibio-tarsal 
angle,  less  open,  had  placed  the  calcaneus  in  the  best  direction  for  the 
development  of  force. 

Finally,  the  gaits  will  lack  action  and  speed,  because  the  abdominal 
supports  of  the  trunk,  nearer  to  their  limit  of  extension  than  in  their 
normal  axis,  will  consequently  rotate  through  a  smaller  space  by  their 

superior  extremity,  during  which  they 
propel  the  body,  and  possess  less  propul- 
sive force.  If  they  are  well  situated  to 
pass  over  much  ground,  they  are  unable 
to  profit  from  this  advantage,  since  the 
impulsion  really  only  becomes  efficacious 
when  the  direct  axis  of  the  member  has 
just  passed  the  vertical  to  become  oblique 
downward  and  backward.  Now,  this 
latter  direction  being  precisely  that  in 
which  the  posterior  column  in  this  case 
arrives  on  the  ground,  it  follows  that  this 
position  will  deprive  the  limb  of  all  the 
angular  distance  which  previously  sepa- 
rates its  direct  axis  from  the  normal. 

Axes  viewed  from  Behind. — In 
order  to  determine  whether  the  direct  axes 
of  the  posterior  members  are  well  situated 
in  the  plane  of  the  vertical  line  which 
passes  through  their  centre  of  suspension, 
it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  animal  from 
behind.  In  these  conditions  the  following 
line  suffices  to  show  the  regularity  of  the 
axis : 

A  vertical  line  drawn  down  from  the 
point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  equally 
the  inferior  part  of  the  member,  from  the 
point  of  the  hock  down,  and  leave  between 
the  hoofs  an  interval  almost  equal  to 


FIG.  164. 


the  width  of  the  fetlock  (Fig.  164). 

If  the  member,  as  a  whole,  is  situated  outside  of  this  line,  or  if  the 
separation  of  the  hoofs  alone  be  too  great,  the  horse  is  said  to  be  too 
open  behind. 

If  this  only  involves  the  region  of  the  hock,  the  subject  is  styled 
bow-legged. 


ATTITUDES. 


461 


If  it  is  that  of  the  toe,  he  becomes  crooked-legged  behind. 

Conversely : 

When  the  member,  as  a  whole,  is  deviated  inward  from  the  ver- 
tical, or  if  the  separation  of  the  hoofs  alone  is  too  small,  the  animal 
is  called  dosed  behind. 

If  it  is  simply  the  hock,  the  latter  is 
styled  dose,  close-hammed,  cow-hocked. 

Finally,  if  it  is  the  region  of  the  toe,  the 
horse  becomes  cross-footed  behind. 

Horse  too  Open  Behind  (Fig.  165). 
— Two  different  types  of  conformation  may 
give  rise  to  this  defect,  for  the  direct  axes 
of  the  posterior  members,  in  order  to  be 
properly  situated  under  the  body,  should 
not  only  follow  the  vertical,  but  also  main- 
tain between  them  a  proper  degree  of  sepa- 
ration. In  some  horses  the  line  of  axis 
divides  the  hock,  the  canon,  the  fetlock,  and 
the  foot,  as  in  the  normal  conformation ;  the 
interval  comprised  between  the  two  hoofs  is, 
alone,  greater  than  the  width  of  the  fetlock. 
There  are  others,  on  the  contrary,  whose 
members  are  deviated  to  the  outer  side  of 
the  vertical  line  and  in  which  the  distance 
between  the  two  hoofs  is  too  great.  It  is 
this  disposition  which  is  represented  in  the 
figure. 

In  -the  first  case,  the  injurious  effects 
are  of  little  importance  and  only  depreciate 

horses  used  for  speed,  by  augmenting  to  excess  the  base  of  posterior 
support  and  producing  a  rocking  motion  behind,  detrimental  to  the 
speed  of  the  gait,  but  without  any  unfavorable  influence  upon  the, 
other  services.  The  wide  opening  behind  is  due,  ordinarily,  to  the 
width  of  the  thorax  and  the  croup,  as  well  as  to  the  development  of 
the  muscles.  There  is  nothing  very  unfortunate  in  this,  as  Merche ' 
has  remarked,  in  heavy  draught-horses  and  colts  of  the  common  races. 
It  should,  under  the  circumstances,  even  be  considered  as  a  point  of 
beauty,  if  it  can  be  demonstrated  that  it  is  compatible  with  the  exist- 
ence of  a  regular  axis.  And  as  the  latter  does  not  exclude  it,  this  is 


FIG.  165. 


i  Merche,  Nouveau  Trait<J  des  formes  exterieures  du  cheval,  p.  508,  Paris,  1868. 


462 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


our  only  reason  for  giving  the  preference  to  such  a  conformation  as  the 
one  in  question. 

In  the  second  case,  the  excessive  separation  of  the  members  is  very 
decidedly  objectionable  in  the  animal :  first,  because  the  members  no 
longer  support  the  weight  in  the  direction  capable  of  completely  destroy- 
ing its  effects ;  secondly,  because  the  inferior  divergence  depends  too  often 
upon  a  narrowness  of  the  pelvis  at  the  level  of  the  cotyloid  cavities 
and  upon  the  mode  of  defective  articulation  of  .the  posterior  osseous 
segments.  Besides  the  rocking,  the  lack  of  power,  the  diminished 
velocity  of  the  gait,  and  the  unpleasant  aspect  in 
locomotion,  the  animal  is  also  predisposed  to  be- 
come affected  prematurely  with  diseases  of  the 
hock,  of  the  fetlock,  and  of  the  foot,  whose  in- 
ternal parts  are  more  overburdened  than  when 
in  a  normal  state.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that  he 
becomes  less  serviceable, .  a  fact  which  of  itself 
means  a  notable  diminution  in  his  value. 

Hock  arched  Outward — Bow-legged 
Horse  (Fig.  166). — This  defect  is  characterized 
by  a  curvature  of  the  region  of  the  hock  exter- 
nal to  the  line  of  axis,  as  well  as  by  a  consider- 
able separation  of  the  calcanea.  It  is  sometimes 
found  in  horses  too  open  behind,  and  is  accom- 
panied in  most  instances  by  a  convergence  of  the 
hoofs  in  front,  a  conformation  which  renders 

the  horse  cross-footed  as  well  as  bow-legged.  Hence  the  hock  thus 
arched  is  defective  in  the  first  degree,  on  account  of  the  numerous 
deviations  which  result  from  it  and  which  deprive  the  posterior  limb 
of  a  part  of  its  aptitude  to  support  the  trunk.  Besides,  it  is  rotating 
when  the  foot  is  on  the  ground.  (See  Defects  of  the  Gaits.)  Finally, 
it  renders  the  gait  ungraceful  and  sometimes  induces  rocking. 

Horse  Crooked-legged,  Outbow-footed  Behind  (Fig.  168). 
— We  will  not  detail  here  this  vicious  direction  of  the  foot,  which 
exposes  the  inferior  regions  of  the  hind-members  to  the  same  accidents 
as  those  which  we  have  indicated  in  the  fore-members.  Let  us  only 
recall  that  it  is  often  the  consequence  of  hocks  too  close  together,  which 
corresponds,  as  we  know,  to  the  close  or  cow-hock. 

Horse  Closed  Behind  (Fig.  167). — The  closeness  behind,  like 
the  same  condition  in  front,  presents  two  distinct  cases,  although 
differing  little  in  relation  to  their  gravity.  In  the  one,  the  axis  of 
the  members  remains  normal,  but  it  is  too  close  to  the  median  line. 


FIG.  166. 


ATTITUDES. 


463 


In  the  other,  the  direct  axis  of  the  members  deviates  internally  to  the 
vertical,  and  the  space  between  the  two  hoofs  is  too  small.  It  is  this 
which  is  represented  in  the  figure. 

Whatever  may  he  its  form,  this  defect  of  the  axis  is  to  be  taken 
into  very  serious  consideration.  It  is  in- 
variably observed  in  subjects  with  narrow 
chest,  croup,  and  loins,  with  feeble-  mus- 
cular development,  without  action,  without 
vigor,  and  without  energy,  lacking  stability, 
disposed  to  interfering,  awkward  in  loco- 
motion, and,  especially,  unable  to  trot  on 
uneven  roads. 


FIG.  167. 


FIG. 168. 


Hocks  Close,  or  Hooked— Horse  Cow-hocked  (Fig.  168). 
— The  greatest  disadvantage  of  the  cow-hocked,  close-hammed  horse, 
which,  according  to  the  vulgar  expression,  has  the  legs  en  pieds  de  bane 
(or  is  "  bench-legged"),  is  his  being  ungraceful  in  his  gaits,  at  the  same 
time  that  he  is  outbow-footed  behind.  The  normal  movement  of  abduc- 
tion of  the  canon  is  here  exaggerated  when  this  region  is  flexed.  A 
sort  of  rocking  is  also  produced  from  the  fact  of  the  too  great  separation 
of  the  posterior  feet.  Finally,  the  impulsion  communicated  by  these 
members  is  less  direct,  less  powerful,  less  rapid,  than  when  the  osseous 
levers  move  in  a  plane  almost  parallel  to  the  median  plane. 

Yallon  says,  with  reason,1  that  this  conformation  is  common  to 


1  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  475. 


464 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


many  of  the  horses  in  mountainous  countries,  especially  remarkable  for 
their  aptitude  for  resisting  fatigue  and  privations.  It  seems  to  exist 
likewise  in  the  Barb  horses  and  in  those  of  Central  France.  If  this 
remark  is  well  founded,  we  should  not,  however,  imagine  that  there  is 
a  relation  of  cause  and  effect  between  this  disposition  of  the  hock  and 
the  qualities  to  which  allusion  has  been  made.  The  robustness  and 
the  energy  of  which  Vallon  speaks  pertain  especially  to  the  race,  to  the 
blood,  to  the  conditions  of  existence,  and  to  the  manner  of  rearing.  These 
qualities  would  not  in  any  manner  be  less  if  the  hock,  instead  of  being 
hooked,  were  well  directed. 

Horse  Cross-footed  Behind  (Fig.  166). — The  convergence  of 
the  hoofs  by  their  anterior  part  is  usually  the  consequence  of  the  devi- 
ation of  the  hock  externally  to  the  vertical  line.  It  gives  rise  to  the 
same  accidents  and  disadvantages  as  in  the  fore-members.  The  con- 
tact of  the  foot  with  the  ground  is  uneven ;  it  takes  place  more  espe- 
cially upon  the  external  mamma,  and  the  animal,  awkward  in  walking 
on  uneven  ground,  frequently  strikes  himself  with  the  internal  mamma. 
His  movements  are  ungraceful  and  lack  the  precision  necessary  to  an 
energetic  and  rapid  impulsion  from  behind. 

Following  the  example  of  several  authors,  especially  Vallon,1  we 
will  here  give  the  synoptic  table  of  the  axes,  their  defects  and  their 
principal  inconveniences. 

ANTERIOR   MEMBER. 


Member  viewed  in  Profile. 


REGULAR  AXES. 

A  vertical  line  low- 
ered from  the  middle  of 
the  arm  should  inter- 
sect the  middle  of  the 
hoof  and  remain  equi- 
distant from  the  verti- 
cal lines  drawn  from 
the  point  of  the  shoul- 
der and  from  the  sum- 
mit of  the  elbow. 


A  vertical  line  drawn 
from  the  articulation 
of  the  elbow  should 
pass  through  the  mid- 
dle of  the  knee,  the 
canon,  and  the  fetlock 
and  fall  a  short  dis- 
tance behind  the  heels. 


IRREGULAR  AXES. 


If  this  line  falls  in  front  of 
the  hoof,  the  horse  is  under 
himself. 


If  it  falls  behind  the  hoof, 
the  horse  is  camped. 


If  the  knee  projects  in 
front  of  this  line,  the  horse 
is  arque  or  knee-sprung. 

If  the  knee  is  carried  be- 
hind this  line  it  is  said  to 
be  hollow,  effaced,  a  sheep's 
knee. 

If  the  vertical  line  falls  too 
far  behind  the  heels,  the 
subject  is  long-  or  low-jointed. 

If  it  meets  the  heels  or  the 
anterior  parts  of  the  foot,  the 
horse  is  short-  or  straight- 
jointed. 


DISADVANTAGES. 


Excessive  wear  and  strain  of  the 
bones,  the  tendons,  and  the  ligaments; 
slowness  of  the  gaits;  insecure  foot- 
hold on  the  ground  ;  tendency  to  fall; 
forging. 

Bruising  of  the  heels;  excess  of 
weight  on  and  wear  of  the  hocks  and 
the  posterior  fetlocks ;  pain  in  the  foot 
in  standing  and  uncertainty  of  the 
fore-feet ;  slow  gaits. 

Index  of  use  and  weakness  of  the. 
fore-members;  fatigue;  uncertain  con- 
tact ;  predisposition  to  falls. 

Strain  of  the  lateral  and  posterior  lig- 
aments of  the  knee :  premature  blem- 
ishes of  this  region  ;  lack  of  firmness 
of  the  anterior  members. 

Strain  of  the  ligaments  of  the  fetlock 
and  of  the  flexor  tendons ;  predisposi- 
tion to  overreaching ;  easy  reactions. 

Surcharging  of  the  phalanges ;  pre- 
disposition to  knuckling  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  heels  ;  reactions  hard. 


Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  475. 


ATTITUDES. 


465 


ANTERIOR   MEMBER — Continued. 


Member  viewed  in  Front. 


REGULAR  AXES. 


IRREGULAR  AXES. 


DISADVANTAGES. 


A  vertical  line  drawn 
from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  should  divide 
equally  the  knee,  the 
canon,  and  the  foot, 
and  leave  between  the 
two  feet  an  interval 
equal  to  the  width  of 
the  hoof,  taken  from 
one  quarter  to  the 
other. 


f  If  the  member,  as  a  whole, 
is  situated  outside  of  this 
line,  or  if  the  interval  be- 
tween the  hoofs  is  too  great, 
the  horse  is  too  open. 


If  the  knee  be  deviated 
outward  the  horse  is  said  to 
be  bow-legged. 


If  it  be  the  toe  alone,  the 
subject  is  crooked-legged. 


Conversely : 

When  the  member,  as  a 
whole,  is  situated  inside  of 
the  vertical  line,  or  when 
the  interval  between  the  two 
hoofs  is  too  small,  the  horse 
is  close  or  narrow. 


If  it  is  the  region  of  the 
knee  alone,  the  latter  is 
called  an  ox's  knee. 


Finally,  if  it  is  that  of  the 
toe,  the  horse  becomes  cross- 
L  fooled,  parrot-toed. 


f  Stability  of  equilibrium  ;  slow  and 
ungraceful  gait;  rocking;  standing 
upon  internal  quarter.  Sometimes,  in- 
dicative of  the  volume  of  the  muscles 
and  of  the  width  of  the  thorax ;  at 
other  times,  indicative  of-  opposite 
characters. 

Strain  upon  the  external  ligaments 
of  the  knee;  surcharging  of  the  inter- 
nal   part;    inward    deviation    of   the 
hoof;  ungraceful,  slow  gait,  and  inse- 
[  cure  foothold. 

f  Chest  often  narrow ;  elbows  close  to 
body;  standing  upon  internal  quarter; 
slow  and  ungraceful  gait.  The  horse 
stumbles  and  interferes  with  the  heel 
of  the  shoe. 

f  Diminution  of  the  base  of  support; 
instability  of  the  equilibrium  ;  predis- 
position to  calking.  Frequent  indica- 
tions of  a  want  of  endurance,  defective 
development  of  the  breast,  narrowness 
of  the  chest,  and  feeble  volume  of  the 
muscles. 

(Loss  of  firmness  of  the  step  and  of 
speed;  strain  on  the  internal  ligaments 
of  the  knee  ;  overburdening  and  wear 
of  the  external  parts ;  outward  devia- 
tion of  the  foot;  ungraceful  gaits. 

(  Standing  upon  the  external  quarter; 
elbows  separated;  overburdening  of 
the  phalanges  and  the  external  side 
of  the  articulations;  ungraceful  move- 
ments of  the  canon ;  slow  gaits ;  the 
horse  stumbles  and  interferes  with  the 
internal  mamma. 


POSTERIOR   MEMBER. 


Member  viewed  in  Profile. 


A  vertical  line  inter- 
secting the  middle  of 
the  leg  should  pass, 
above,  through  the 
coxo-femoral  articula- 
tion, cross,  below,  the 
middle  of  the  hoof, 
and  remain  equidis- 
tant from  the  vertical 
lines  drawn  from  the 
stifle  and  the  angle  of 
the  buttock,  the  latter 
being  tangent  to  the 
point  of  the  hock  and 
to  the  fetlock. 


If  the  member,  as  a  whole, 


Shortening  of  the  base  of  support ; 
crooked  hocks;  predisposition  to  slip- 
ping forward  ;  fatigue  of  the  extensor 


is  placed  in  advance  of  this  !   muscles,  the  ligaments,  and  the  ten- 
line,  the  horse  is  under  him-  ]  dons;     surcharging  of    the    posterior 


self. 


If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
placed  behind  this  line,  the 
animal  is  camped. 


If  only  the  parts  below  the 
fetlock  are  deviated,  so  as  to 
carry  the  middle  of  the  foot 
in  advance  of  this  line,  the 
horse  is  long-  or  low-jointed. 


If,  in  the  same  conditions, 
the  middle  of  the  hoof  is 
placed  behind  this  line,  the 
horse  is  short-  or  straight- 
jointed. 


w  gaits;  premature  hlem- 
d  of  the  fetlocks  ; 


niembers;  si 
I   ishes  of  the  hocks  an 
(.  forging. 


Lengthening  of  the  base  of  support ; 
tendency  to  slip  backward ;  sur- 
charging of  the  fore-limbs:  strain  on 
the  back  and  loins;  sway-back  ;  feeble 
impulsion;  slow  gaits. 


Same  evil  consequences  as  in  the  an- 
terior member ;  predisposition  to  wind- 
galls. 


Same,  but  less  serious,  consequences 
s  in  the  anterior  member. 


466 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


POSTERIOR  MEMBER—  Continued. 


Member  viewed  Behind. 


REGULAR  AXES. 


A  vertical  line  drawn 
from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  pass 
through  the  median 
plane  of  the  inferior 
part  of  the  member 
from  the  point  of  the  ^ 
hock  to  the  foot,  and  ' 
leave  between  the  two 
hoofs  an  interval  al- 
most equal  to  the  width 
of  the  fetlock,  taken 
from  one  lateral  face 
to  the  other. 


IRREGULAR  AXES. 


If  the  member,  as  a  whole, 
is  situated  on  the  outer  side 
of  this  line,  or  if  simply  the 
separation  of  the  hoofs  i's  too 
great,  the  horse  is  too  open. 


If  it  concerns  the  region 
of  the  hock  alone,  the  horse 
is  bow-legged. 


If  it  is  that  of  the  toe,  the 
subject  is  outbow-footed. 

Conversely : 

When  the  member,  as  a 
whole,  is  situated  inside  of 
the  vertical  line,  or  when  the 
separation  between  the  two 
hoofs  is  too  small,  the  animal 
is  close  or  narrow. 


DISADVANTAGES. 


Width  of  the  base  of  support  and 
stability  of  the  equilibrium ;  frequently 
outward  deviation  of  the  hock  and  the 
heels ;  slow  and  ungraceful  gaits  in 
consequence  of  the  rocking:  standing 
on  the  internal  quarter  of  the  hoofs. 
Sometimes,  indicative  of  the  width  of 
the  chest,  of  the  loins,  of  tl^e  croup,  and 
of  the  development  of  the  muscles ;  at 
other  times,  indicative  of  a  narrow 
pelvis  and  feebly-developed  muscles. 

Strain  of  the  external  ligaments  of 
the  hock  ;  overloading  of  the  internal 
parts;  inward  deviation  of  the  toe; 
standing  upon  the  external  quarter ; 
gaits  ungraceful ;  impulsion  less  direct. 

Same  evil  consequences  as  in  the 
anterior  member. 

Narrow  base  'of  support;  unstable 
equilibrium;  indications  of  narrow- 
ness of  the  chest,  of  the  loins,  and  of 
the  croup ;  feeble  development  of  the 
muscular  system  ;  members  unsteady  ; 
weakened  foothold.  The  horse  is  dis- 
posed to  interfere. 


If  this  is  true  9f  the  hock  f  Outward  deviation  of  the  foot ;  un- 
alone,  the  latter  is  close,  cow-  J  graceful  flexion  of  the  canon ;  impul- 
hocked,  and  the  subject  is  1  sion  less  direct  and  less  powerful;  slow 
close-hammed.  [  gaits. 


If  it  is  the  region  of  the 
toe,  the  horse  is  cross-footed. 


Same  disadvantages  as  in  the  ante- 
rior member. 


B.— Lying  Down  or  Decubitus. 

These  names  are  given  to  the  attitude  which  the  animal  takes  when 
he  rests,  and  in  which  the  trunk  is  placed  directly  in  relation  with  the 
ground. 

We  often  see  horses  sleep  while  standing,  even  when  harnessed. 
They  usually  stand  in  such  a  manner  that  either  one  foot,  or  the  two 
of  the  same  diagonal  biped,  are  rested,  or  bear  less  weight,  and  remain 
in  this  position  until  the  supporting  columns  are  replaced  by  those 
which  previously  supported  the  body. 

In  general,  horses  do  not  lie  down  much,  unless  they  are  very  tired. 
Yet,  we  have  known  a  mare  with  very  flat  feet  which  laid  down  before 
eating  as  soon  as  she  entered  the  stable. 

A  certain  preparation  is  necessary  for  the  horse  to  execute  the  de- 
<  ubitus :  It  consists  in  drawing  together  the  four  feet  under  the  body 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  diminish  the  extent  of  the  base  of  support. 
Then  the  animal  lowers  the  head,  flexes  the  knees  until  they  touch  the 
ground,  and  gently  allows  himself  to  fall  over  upon  the  side,  the  right 
or  the  left. 


ATTITUDES.  467 

The  subject  will  now  assume  one  or  other  of  the  two  following 
positions  : 

Thus,  in  the  sterno-costal  decubitus,  the  body,  leaning  towards  the 
right,  for  example,  rests  upon  the  sternum  and  the  abdomen,  while  the 
four  members,  all  semi-flexed,  are  directed  towards  the  opposite  side,  the 
right  being  under  the  trunk.  The  head  and  the  neck,  being  a  counter- 
poise, are  inclined  towards  the  left,  although  elevated  and  supported  by 
the  resistance  of  the  elastic  nuchal  ligament. 

In  the  lateral  decubitus,  the  head,  the  neck,  the  trunk,  and  the 
members  of  the  corresponding  side  are  stretched  out  on  the  ground. 
This  variety  of  attitude,  more  rare  than  the  former,  is,  in  general,  only 
observed  in  colts  and  in  debilitated  or  diseased  horses. 

Concerning  the  dorsal  decubitus,  it  is  very  difficult  in  the  horse,  on 
account  of  the  narrowness  of  the  neck,  the  withers,  the  back,  the  loins, 
and  the  croup.  Nevertheless,  it  is  seen  in  circus  horses  and  in  those 
which  are  especially  dressed  for  it,  but  which  are  unable  to  maintain 
it  for  a  long  time.  In  all  other  circumstances,  it  should  be  considered 
that  a  horse  which  takes  this  position  is  suffering  from  serious  colic, — 
principally  from  hernia. 

After  a  more  or  less  prolonged  rest,  the  animal  rises.  To  accom- 
plish this,  he  extends  the  neck  and  the  head  for  the  purpose  of  extend- 
ing and  carrying  forward  his  fore-members,  first  the  upper  and  then 
that  which  lies  under  the  body :  this  is  a  sort  of  preparatory  action. 
By  a  new  effort,  these  members  place  the  body,  as  M.  Colin l  has 
clearly  proved,  in  the  position  which  a  dog  assumes  when  sitting  upon 
his  thighs.  Finally,  the  abdominal  members,  in  their  turn,  by  their 
extension,  raise  the  body. 

Almost  immediately  the  spine  is  extended  and  the  hind-limbs 
stretch  themselves  one  after  the  other ;  sometimes  the  animals  gape,  and 
everything  then  returns  to  its  normal  state. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  see  the  horse  lie  down  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase; nevertheless>  important  indications  could  be  drawn  from  its 
examination.  Certain  horses  have  the  vicious  habit  of  lying  down 
like  a  cow, — that  is  to  say,  of  having  too  great  a  flexion  of  the  feet 
upon  the  forearm,  and  thus  contusing  the  inferior  part  of  the  elbows 
with  the  internal  heel  of  the  shoe.  There  results  from  this,  after  a 
time,  the  formation  of  tumors,  to  which  we  have  already  called  the 
attention  of  the  reader.  (See  page  221.) 

i  G.  Colin,  Physiologie  compare  des  animaux,  3e  6d.,  t.  i.  p.  422. 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


CHAPTER    II. 

MOVEMENTS    UPON    PLACE. 


A. — Rearing. 

REARING  is  an  attitude  in  which  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  raised 
above  the  soil,  is  maintained  in  equilibrium  upon  the  posterior  members. 
It  is  perceived  that,  as  a  rule,  it  can  be  preserved  only  during  a  very 


FIG.  169.— Rearing. 


short  space  of  time,  on  account  of  the  small  base  of  support  represented 
by  the  contact  of  the  two  hind- feet  with  the  ground  (Fig.  169). 

The  horse  rears  under  different  circumstances,  indicative  of  his 


MOVEMENTS    UPON    PLACE.  469 

good  spirits,  of  impatience  to  act,  or  of  restiveness ;  to  defend  himself, 
attack,  leap,  or,  finally,  to  mount  the  mare. 

Its  accomplishment  is  preceded  by  a  very  short  preparation,  during 
which  the  members  are  drawn  together  and  the  head  quickly  lowered, 
often  several  times  repeated.  Then  the  time  of  execution  is  manifested 
by  the  sudden  and  successive  extension  of  the  head,  the  neck,  and  the 
trunk,  and,  finally,  by  the  energetic  contraction  of  the  extensor  muscles 
of  the  fore-limbs,  which  are  at  first  semi-flexed.  The  extensors  of  the 
head,  of  the  spine,  and  of  the  anterior  members,  the  gluteal  and  the 
ischio-tibial  muscles,  are  the  principal  agents  in  this  sort  of  rotation  of 
the  fore-quarters  upon  the  hind-quarters. 

As  soon  as  rearing  is  effected,  the  foothold  exists  only  on  the  pos- 
terior bipeds,  whose  segments,  more  or  less  flexed,  are  maintained  in 
situation  by  the  contraction  of  their  extensors.  We  can  thus  see  the 
amount  of  the  resistance  which  the  animal  must  overcome  and  the 
length  of  the  lever  upon  which  it  acts ;  we  can  also  easily  understand 
the  readiness  with  which  the  line  of  gravitation  tends  to  fall  outside  of 
so  narrow  a  base  of  support.  All  this  explains  the  shortness  of  the 
duration  of  rearing.  Soon  after  it  is  accomplished,  the  fore-part  of 
the  body  is  lowered  and  the  fore-feet  fall  upon  the  ground. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  some  very  vigorous  horses  capable  of  main- 
taining this  attitude  for  a  much  longer  time  than  others.  This  is  true 
on  condition,  as  Borelli l  says,  that  tfye  base  of  support  be  frequently 
displaced.  H.  Bouley 2  adds,  that  it  is  due  to  another  fact,  that  their 
hocks  are  wide,  their  lumbar,  croupal,  and  ischio-tibial  muscles  well 
developed,  and  that  the  fore-part  of  the  body  may  be  relatively  light. 
Those  which  are  weak  in  the  hock  and  in  the  loins  only  accomplish  it 
by  the  energy  of  their  will ;  but  no  sooner  have  they  raised  themselves 
upon  their  hind-limbs  than  they  will  recover  the  quadrupedal  station 
or  else  fall  over  sideways  or  backward.  The  easy,  natural  rearing  is, 
therefore,  a  sign  of  force  and  of  energy.  The  English  hunter  and  the 
Arabian  horse  execute  it  with  great  ease ;  if  these  animals  had  not  this 
aptitude  they  would  be  incapable  of  launching  themselves  into  space 
with  the  marvellous  agility  which  is  peculiar  to  them,  and  could  not  clear 
with  so  much  ease  the  obstacles  which  they  meet  in  the  steeple-chases. 

The  facts  mentioned  above  are  not  very  rarely  observed ;  the  fol- 
lowing are  some  examples : 

A  stallion,  called  Le  Commode,  some  twenty  years  of  age,  and  placed 

1  Borelli,  De  motu  animalium,  1734.    (See  Proposition  CLXVIL,  Tab.  13,  Fig.  11). 

2  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  de  m6decine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v£t6rinaires, 
t.  ii.  p.  655. 


470  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE, 

at  the  school  at  Alfort  for  the  stud  in  1817,  balanced  himself  upon 
his  hocks  as  soon  as  he  saw  the  mare  on  the  ground,  and  walked  to  her 
in  this  bipedal  position.1 

Vallon2  mentions  that  there  was,  at  a  certain  period,  a  stallion, 
named  Molok,  which  walked  upon  his  hind- feet  for  almost  a  minute 
before  mounting  the  mare.  He  has  seen  at  Paris  a  horse,  ridden  by 
a  woman,  walk  over  quite  a  long  space  upon  his  posterior  members. 

Concerning  our  own  experience,  we  have  known  a  small  stallion, 
of  Spanish  origin,  which  was  exhibited  at  a  circus  in  Paris,  and 
which,  having  reared,  walked  across  the  ring,  ascended  a  flight  of 
stairs  consisting  of  fourteen  steps,  described  a  circle  upon  a  platform, 
descended  the  staircase,  and  walked  across  the  ring  without  falling 
upon  his  fore-members. 

A  repetition  of  rearing  is  very  fatiguing,  especially  to  the  loins,  the 
hocks,  and  the  fetlocks.  It  is  also  common  to  see  in  such  horses,  par- 
ticularly stallions,  sway-backedness  as  well  as  premature  blemishes  of 
the  articulations  of  the  hind-limbs. 

The  horses  which  rear  without  any  purpose  are  the  most  danger- 
ous ;  we  will  speak  of  this  when  treating  of  vicious  horses. 

B.— Kicking. 

Kicking  is  an  action  opposite  to  that  of  rearing.  The  horse  which 
kicks  suddenly  elevates  his  hind-quarters  upon  the  fore-quarters,  and 
forcibly  throws  the  two  posterior  members  backward  for  the  purpose 
of  attacking  or  defending  himself,  or  of  dismounting  his  rider,  some- 
times from  simple  impatience  to  act  or  from  playfulness.  It  is  allied 
to  certain  progressive  movements,  such  as  leaping,  galloping,  etc. 

Kicking,  like  rearing,  is  executed  in  two  periods :  the  preparation 
and  the  action  (Fig.  170). 

First  Period. — There  is  first  a  very  rapid  drawing  together 
of  the  bipeds  with  a  view  of  shortening  the  base  of  support  when  the 
kick  is  to  be  low  ;  a  separation,  on  the  contrary,  by  drawing  the 
anterior  members  forward,  if  the  animal '  intends  to  kick  very  high ; 
without  the  latter  precaution  he  will  be  liable  to  fall  upon  his  knees  in 
the  latter  act. 

At  the  same  time,  the  head  and  the  neck  are  suddenly  lowered  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  project  the  centre  of  gravity  forward  and  carry  a 
large  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  trunk  upon  the  anterior  bipeds,  in 

1  Girard.  Anatomic  v£t6rinaire,  4e  £d.,  Paris,  1841,  t.  i.  p.  435. 
a  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  Saumur.  1863,  t.  i.  p.  484. 


MOVEMENTS    UPON    PLACE. 


471 


order  to  free  the  hind-quarters  and  facilitate  their  movement  of  rota- 
tion upon  the  fore-quarters. 

Second  Period. — By  the  sudden  impulsion  from  the  posterior 
members  and  the  contraction  of  the  dorso-lumbar  muscles,  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  croup  now  takes  place,  which  is  a  movement  in  some 


FIG.  170,-Kicking. 

manner  complemental  to  the  previous  lowering  of  the  head  and  the 
neck.  The  extension  of  the  thigh,  of  the  leg,  and  of  the  canon  fol- 
lows almost  immediately,  and  determines  a  vigorous  retropulsion  of 
the  hind-feet,  from  the  sudden  and  simultaneous  contraction  of  the 
gluteal,  the  anterior  femoral,  and  the  gastrocnemius  muscles. 

The  details  into  which  we  have  entered  when  speaking  of  the  role 
of  the  cord  of  the  hock  (see  page  258)  sufficiently  explain  the  power 
of  the  hind-limbs,  comparable,  in  this  respect,  to  an  elastic  spring 
which  recoils  in  an  almost  instantaneous  manner,  in  consequence  of  the 
synergetic  and  sudden  co-operation  of  the  agents  charged  with  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  action. 

The  kick  has  only  a  very  short  duration  ;  the  posterior  members 
return  to  the  ground  almost  immediately.  Certain  horses  can  repeat 
it  frequently  and  without  great  fatigue,  like  the  ass ;  they  are  short, 
wide,  and  powerful  in  the  back  and  the  loins,  long  in  the  croup,  the 


472  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

thigh,  and  the  leg,  strong  and  wide  in  the  hocks,  well  muscled,  but 
relatively  light  in  the  hind-quarters. 

When  we  come  to  speak  of  vicious  horses,  we  will  complete  the 
other  details  which  it  is  necessary  to  know  concerning  kicking. 


PART   II. 

MODE  OF  PROGRESSION,  OR  THE  GAITS  OF  THE  HORSE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GENERALITIES   OF   THE   GAITS. 

Definition. — The  name  gaits  (allures,  from  the  French  oiler,  to 
go)  is  given  to  the  diverse  modes  in  which  progression  is  accomplished 
by  the  play  of  the  locomotory  members. 

Applied  to  the  horse,  their  study  is  of  great  interest.  It  enables 
one  to  appreciate  the  force  which  the  animal  expends,  the  speed  which 
he  employs,  and  the  regularity  with  which  he  executes  these  move- 
ments. Equestrianism  draws  from  it  rational  principles  for  dressing 
the  horse ;  the  artist  deduces  important  facts  for  the  true  representation 
of  the  attitudes  and  the  movements ;  the  horseman  is  taught  to  recog- 
nize his  beauties  and  defects ;  the  veterinarian,  finally,  from  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  their  mechanism,  their  irregularities,  and  their  patho- 
logical modifications,  is  assisted  in  his  diagnosis,  and  can  deduce  from 
them  important  therapeutic  indications. 

Divisions. — The  gaits  are  divided  into  : 

Natural,  when  they  are  executed  in  a  spontaneous  and  instinctive 
manner  without  any  special  education.  Example,  the  walk,  the  trot, 
the  gallop,  at  times  the  amble,  and  the  running  walk. 

Acquired  or  artificial,  when  they  result,  on  the  contrary,  from  a 
special  dressing.  Example,  the  amble,  broken  amble,  running  walk, 
trot,  and  racing  gallop. 

Both  may  be  either  marched  or  leaped. 

They  are  called  marched,  when  the  body  does  not  cease  to  be  in 
contact  with  the  ground  during  their  execution ;  leaped,  when  it  leaves 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  473 

the  ground  entirely  at  certain  moments,  either  during  the  same  step  or 
between  two  successive  steps. 

The  styles  of  horsemanship  is  a  name  given  to  a  certain  number  of 
rhythmical  movements,  comparable  to  dancing  as  performed  by  man, 
and  acquired  by  the  same  education,  which  develop  in  the  horse  har- 
mony of  figure  and  suppleness  of  body ;  they  communicate  to  him 
elegance,  grace,  and  a  good  physiognomy.  The  principal  movements 
are  termed  by  the  French  the  passage,  the  piaffer  (pawing),  the  crou- 
pade,  the  ballottade,  and  the  courbette. 

Their  study  belongs  to  the  domain  of  the  high  school,  a  superior 
equestrianism  which  teaches  how  to  poise  (to  place  without  fatigue)  the 
mounted  horse  in  all  the  attitudes  which  his  conformation  renders 
possible.  The  number  of  exercises  of  the  high  school  belongs  more 
strictly  to  a  treatise  on  riding  and  horsemanship,  and  will  be  omitted 
here. 

A  mounted  horse  is  called  poised  or  in  equilibrium  when  he  is 
capable,  through  the  dressing,  of  obeying  the  aids  of  the  rider  (hands 
and  legs)  without  unnecessary  efforts  and  with  the  absolute  freedom 
of  those  muscular  groups  whose  action  is  necessary  to  produce  the 
desired  effect.  The  animal,  in  such  cases,  preserves  during  his  work 
what  horsemen  call  suppleness  of  the  movements ;  he  becomes,  then, 
from  his  free  and  easy  motions,  altogether  comparable  to  the  gymnast, 
master  of  his  body. 

Diverse  Qualifications  applicable  to  the  Gaits. — Accord- 
ing to  the  forms  which  they  assume  the  gaits  are  called  : 

Diagonal,  when  the  members,  in  executing  them,  move  or  succeed 
one  another  in  diagonal  bipeds.  Example,  the  trot,  the  walk,  the 
gallop. 

Lateral,  when  they  evolve  themselves,  on  the  contrary,  by  lateral 
bipeds.  Example,  ambling,  racking. 

Beautiful,  when  they  are  energetic,  extended,  regular,  harmonious, 
elegant. 

Defective,  when  they  produce  weakness  and  require  great  exertion. 
Example,  racking. 

Long,  elongated,  when  their  strides  are  as  extensive  as  possible. 

Small,  short,  in  the  opposite  case. 

Reacting,  high,  when  they  impress  the  centre  of  gravity  with  strong 
vertical  displacements,  which  at  each  step  very  sensibly  separate  the 
body  from  the  ground. 

Low,  when  the  distance  of  the  displacements  of  the  body  from  the 
soil  is  small. 


474  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

High-strained,  when  the  members  are  greatly  flexed  without  .passing 
over  much  distance. 

Repeated,  if  the  movements  follow  each  other  with  excessive 
rapidity,  with  or  without  the  production  of  speed. 

Hard,  when  they  fatigue  the  rider  by  the  violence  of  their  reactions. 

Easy,  in  reverse  conditions. 

Light,  if  the  percussion  of  the  feet  upon  the  soil  produces  little 
sound. 

Heavy,  if  these  percussions  are  violent  and  resounding. 

Strong,  rapid,  when  the  locomotory  action  is  quick,  easy,  energetic, 
high,  extended,  and  rhythmical. 

Free,  when  it  is  accomplished  without  undue  effort. 

Regular,  when  the  evolution  of  the  members  and  their  mode  of 
association  obey,  for  each  gait,  the  principles  of  scientific  analysis  or 
of  experience. 

Uniform,  when  the  speed  is  uniform  in  consequence  of  the  equal 
length  of  the  steps. 

General  Considerations  relative  to  the  Play  of  the 
Members  during  the  Gaits. — We  recognize : 

The  beat,  the  sound  produced  by  a  foot  or  a  biped  when  coming 
in  contact  with  the  soil. 

The  time,  the  period  between  two  successive  beats. 

The  contact,  the  time  during  which  a  member  or  a  biped  remains 
in  contact  with  the  soil.  Example,  first,  second  contact  of  the  gallop. 

The  imprint,  the  trace  left  upon  the  ground  after  the  contact  by 
the  foot  which  is  rising. 

The  track,  the  succession  of  imprints  indicating  the  character  and 
direction  of  the  gait  of  the  horse. 

The  trail  is  rectilinear,  if  the  progression  takes  place  in  a  straight 
line ;  curvilinear,  when  it  describes  a  curve ;  transverse,  if  the  horse 
moves  sideways  to  the  right  or  to  the  left ;  single  or  double,  according 
as  the  imprints  of  the  hind-feet  are  or  are  not  superposed  upon  those 
of  the  fore-feet. 

When  the  imprints  of  the  hind-feet  are  superposed  on  those  of 
the  fore-feet  (se  juge),  which  many  horsemen,  notably  the  school  of 
Raabe,  term  the  normal  gait,  the  horse  is  said  to  "  cover"  his  steps,  to 
"check"  his  steps  (sejuger,  se  couvrir).1  When  the  hind  imprints  fall 
short  of  the  fore,  which,  according  to  this  school,  is  an  unduly  short 
gait,  he  is  said  to  "ill-check"  or  "ill-cover"  himself  (se  decouvrir,  se 

*» 

*  E.  Ban-oil,  L'art  £questre,  p.  19,  Paris,  1887. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  475 

dejuger).  Lastly,  when  the  hind  are  in  front  of  the  fore  (a  gait  they 
style  unduly  lengthened,),  the  animal  is  said  to  "  overcheek,"  to  u  over- 
cover"  his  steps  (se  mecouvrir,  se  mejuger). 

They  say  also  that  the  horse  trails  himself  (se  piste),  when  one  of 
the  posterior  bipeds  marks  its  imprint  upon  the  same  transverse  line 
as  the  anterior  foot  which  is  diagonally  opposite  to  it;  again,  the  im- 
print of  the  posterior  foot  in  question  may  be  made  in  front  or~behind 
that  of  the  diagonal  anterior  foot,  and  then  the  horse  mistrails  himself 
(se  depiste).  These  terms  are  only  used  for  the  gallop. 

Since  the  time  of  Solleysel l  there  have  been  distinguished  in  the 
evolution  of  a  member  two  principal  phases  or  periods,  the  contact 
with  the  ground  and  the  elevation,  during  which  this  member  supports 
a  part  of  the  weight  of  the  body  or,  on  the  contrary,  is  completely 
lifted  from  the  ground.  We  have  seen  (page  195)  that  as  soon  as  a 
member  has  passed  successively  through  the  two  phases,  the  body  has 
passed  over  a  distance  designated  under  the  name  of  complete  step. 
The  two  bipeds  (anterior  and  posterior)  are,  in  fact,  conjointly  con- 
cerned in  its  execution  ;  and,  even  as  an  anterior  member,  for  example, 
is  incapable  of  taking  two  steps  in  succession  without  the  intervention 


FIG.  171.— Scheme  of  the  movement  of  a  member  during  the  phases  of  contact  and  elevation. 

of  its  congener ;  even  so,  also,  the  anterior  biped  is  unable  to  carry 
itself  a  certain  distance  in  advance  of  its  primitive  position  unless  the 
posterior  biped  accomplishes  exactly  the  same  movement.2 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  known  that  during  the  evolution  of  any 
member  (Fig.  171),  the  centre  of  movement,  H,  of  this  member,  and, 
in  consequence,  the  centre  of  gravity,  progresses  from  H°  to  H", — 

i  De  Solleysel,  Parfait  mareschal,  <5d.  de  1693,  2e  partie,  p.  66. 

3  C.  Bourgelat,  Traitc1  de  la  conformation  exterieure  du  cheval,  p.  245. 


476  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

that  is  to  say,  the  distance  DDf,  equal  to  the  distance  described  by  one 
of  t^ie  feet,  the  distance  comprised  between  two  attitudes,  H°D  and 
H"D',  identical  and  successive  in  this  member.  (See  Generalities  of 
the  Members,  page  194.) 

The  length  of  the  step  is  therefore  measured  by  the  distance 
separating  the  two  points  of  contact,  DI)f,  successive  of  the  same  foot. 
If  the  axis  is  regular,  the  vertical  line  which  passes  through  the  centre 
of  suspension  or  of  oscillation  of  the  member  necessarily  divides  this 
intervening  distance  into  two  equal  parts,  each  one  equivalent  to  a 
semi-step. 

Finally,  we  have  also  seen  that  the  two  principal  phases,  contact 
and  elevation,  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  an  exhaustive  analysis, 
must  be  subdivided  into  equal  secondary  phases,  called  periods,  six  in 
number,  as  follows : 

( 1st  period,  from  0  to  1,  commencement  of  the  contact. 
Phase  of  contact  with  soil.  \  2d  period,  from  1  to  2,  middle  of  the  contact. 
(  3d  period,  from  2  to  3,  end  of  the  contact. 

!4th  period,  from  3  to  4,  raising. 
5th  period,  from  4  to  5,  middle  of  elevation. 
6th  period,  from  5  to  6,  rest. 

Periods  of  Exchange  of  Contact. — If,  after  the  example  of 
M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,  we  study  more  attentively  the  evolution  of  the 
members  of  the  same  biped,  anterior  or  posterior,  during  the  marched 
gaits,  we  notice  two  moments  when  the  weight  of  the  body  passes 
from  one  foot  to  the  other,  and  vice  versa. 

Thus  (Fig.  172),  when  the  posterior  right  foot  is  placed  on  the 
ground,  the  left  is  not  being  lifted,  as  might  be  believed,  but  is  really 

at  the  end  of  its  period  of  con- 
tact; in  the  same  way,  it  is  only 
when  the  right  foot  commences 
its  contact  that  its  congener  rises. 
In  other  words,  in  these  gaits  the 
commencement  of  the  contact  of 
one  member  does  not  wait  until 
that  of  the  other  has  been  com- 
^—'^r^^^l~  i^y*^""**  pleted ;  it  precedes  the  latter  a 

FIG.  172.— Exchange  of  contact  upon  the  posterior    short    time.        But    for    this    the 

bipeds  in,  he  «*.  j^      ^^    haye    m) 

(From  an  instantaneous  photograph.)  • 

during  the  interval  between  the 

successive  movements.  The  consequence  of  this  fact  is  that  the  dura- 
tion of  the  contact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground  is  always  longer  than 
that  of  its  elevation,  contrary  to  the  opinions  of  Vincent  and  Goiffon, 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  477. 

Colin,  and  Raabe  and  his  disciples,  who  admit  the  absolute  equality 
of  the  two  phases  of  contact  and  of  elevation. 

These  two  periods  of  the  walk,  well  explained  by  M.  Lenoble  dti 
Teil,1  have  been  called  by  him  periods  of  exchange  of  the  contact.  In 
the  middle  of  each  of  them  there  evidently  exists  a  moment  during 
which  the  body  is  equally  supported  by  the  two  members  at  the  same 
time.  This  author  has  also  had  reason  to  make  three  groups' of  the 
preceding  six  periods  of  the  complete  step :  two  of  advancement,  two 
of  complete  contact,  and  two  of  change  of  contact. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  change  of  the  contact  with  the 
soil,  in  the  walk,  for  example,  is  all  the  longer  and  easier  to  ascertain 
as  the  gait  is  slower.  As  soon  as  the  latter  is  accelerated  so  as  to  sim- 
ulate leaping,  it  is  then  seen  to  diminish  correspondingly.  Finally, 
it  disappears  immediately  as  soon  as  leaping  is  manifested.  We  will 
explain  the  particular  details  of  this  in  discussing  the  gallop. 

It  is  therefore  through  error  that  Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages2  claim 
to  have  discovered,  in  the  marched  gaits,  the  periods  of  double  contact, 
the  importance  of  which  they  have  besides  enhanced,  by  saying  that 
their  existence  permits  the  step  of  these  quadrupeds  to  assimilate  com- 
pletely that  of  man,  in  whom  these  periods  are  very  evident. 

The  speed,  V,  of  a  gait  is  valued  by  the  distance  passed  over 
during  a  unit  of  time ;  naturally,  it  is  proportional  to  the  length,  L, 
and  the  number,  N,  of  the  steps.  The  predominance  of  one  of  these 
factors  varies  with  the  other  in  an  inverse  sense.  Thus  is  deduced  the 
empirical  formula  V=  LN.  With  equal  speed,  if  N  augments  (as  in 
small  horses),  it  follows  necessarily  that  L  diminishes,  and  vice  versa 
(as  in  large  horses). 

In  gaits  in  which  the  body  is  always  in  contact  with  the  ground,  the 
body  and  the  feet  are  not  advanced  with  the  same  velocity.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  centre  of  gravity  tends  to  move  in  a  uniform  manner. 
Hence  it  is  necessary  that  the  feet  progress  more  rapidly  than  the  body 
to  recover  the  time  which  they  have  lost  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
The  longer  their  contact  the  greater  will  be  their  velocity  compared 
to  that  of  the  body.  This  interesting  fact  has  been  well  established, 
as  early  as  1873,  by  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,  who  has  republished  it 

1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Etude  sur  la  locomotion  de  1'homme  et  des  quadruples  en  general,  Paris, 
1877,  p.  14. 

This  expression  has  also  been  employed  by  M.  Raabe  in  his  work  entitled  M£thode  de 
haute  £cole  d'equitation  (p.  29  et  seq.),  edited  at  Marseilles  in  1863.  This  author,  however, 
appears  not  to  have  deduced  the  results  which  follow  from  it. 

2  Marey  et  Pages,  Mouvement  du  membre  pelvien  chez  rhomme,  1'elephant  et  le  cheval,  in 
Comptes-Rendus  de  l'Acad£mie  des  sciences,  18  Juillet,  1887. 


478  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

since  ; !  M.  Raabe 2  attaches  great  importance  to  this  and  deduces  from 
it  this  principle  :  "  The  relative  velocity  of  the  feet  is  proportional  to 
the  duration  of  their  contact." 

Time  of  Preparation. — The  horse,  before  taking  a  step  in  any 
gait,  first  prepares  himself  by  assuming  an  attitude  which  corresponds 
to  the  point  of  departure  of  this  gait. 

To  use  a  familiar  illustration,  a  man  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
walk,  wishes  to  make  the  initial  step  with  the  left  foot,  must  first  carry 
the  weight  of  his  body  on  the  right  foot.  This  displacement  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  varies  with  each  particular  gait ;  changing  the  situ- 
ation of  the  head  and  a  slight  flexion  of  the  members  produce  it,  but 
these  movements  always  have  for  their  result  the  greatest  possible 
disburdening  of  the  member  which  is  about  to  be  carried  forward. 
This  principle  is  often  applied  in  equestrianism.  Bringing  the  head 
and  neck  of  the  horse  to  the  right  side,  for  example,  facilitates  the 
initial  movement  by  the  left. 

Displacements  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity. — The  movements 
of  the  body  over  the  ground  implies  displacements  of  the  centre  of 
gravity,  and,  consequently,  a  destruction  of  the  initial  equilibrium, 
which  incessantly  compels  the  members  to  form  new  bases  of  support. 
Hence  the  members,  each  in  their  turn,  come  and  prop  it  in  front 
according  to  the  ingenious  comparison  of  Richerand,3  in  the  manner 
of  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  in  relation  to  the  weight  of  the  hub  which 
they  sustain ;  the  rapidity  with  which  they  succeed  each  other  is  so 
much  more  frequent  as  the  imminence  of  a  fall  is  greater.  Here  is  the 
reason  of  the  correctness  of  the  expression,  that  the  instability  of  the 
equilibrium ,  in  these  gaits,  gives  the  measure  of  the  velocity. 

As  Lecoq4  has  easily  recognized,  the  displacements  of  the  centre 
of  gravity  may  take  place  either  in  a  transverse  sense,  in  consequence 
of  the  alternate  support  by  the  right  and  the  left  members,  or  in  a 
vertical  sense,  from  the  successive  degrees  of  the  obliquity  of  the  columns 
of  support.  The  vertical  displacements  at  times  acquire  a  remarkable 
importance,  as  when  the  body  is  raised  from  the  ground  by  the  ener- 
getic impulsion  of  the  hind-limb.  The  name  of  period  of  suspension 
is  given  to  this  phase  of  the  leaping  gaits. 

The  disciples  of  the  school  of  Raabe 5  call  the  displacement  simple 


1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Note  communique^,  et  loc.  cit.,  p.  107. 

*  C.  Raabe,  Regies  du  mecanisme  des  allures  du  cheval,  in  Spectateur  militaire,  ann6e  1883. 

3  Le  Baron  Richerand,  Nouveaux  elements  de  physiologic,  lOe  6d.,  Paris,  1833,  t.  iii.  p.  148. 

4  Lecoq,  Ext£rieur  du  cheval,  5e  6d.,  p.  346. 

6  E.  Barroil,  L'art  equestre,  p.  20,  Paris,  1887. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  479 

when  there  is  perfect  superposition  of  the  imprints  of  the  fore-  and 
hind-feet  (normal  trot),  or  when  those  of  the  diagonal  bipeds  are  in  the 
same  transverse  line  (normal  gallop) ;  projectile,  when  the  imprint  of  a 
posterior  biped  is  in  front  of  that  of  the  corresponding  (elongated  trot) 
or  the  diagonal  (fast  gallop)  anterior  biped.  The  knowledge  of  the 
upward  and  the  lateral  oscillations  of  the  centre  of  gravity  permits  us 
to  understand  how  each  particular  gait  gives  to  the  rider  as  wehhas  te 
his  mount  more  or  less  fatigue  and  exertion  than  any  other. 

Reactions. — This  term  designates  the  more  or  less  strong  concus- 
sions or  tossings  which  the  horse  in  motion  experiences  or  communi- 
cates to  the  rider.  In  a  general  manner,  they  are  proportionate  to  the 
height  of  the  displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  and,  consequently, 
to  the  energy  of  the  propulsive  force,  the  speed  employed,  and,  all 
things  being  equal,  also  to  the  length  of  the  step,  since  the  latter 
augments  the  initial  and  final  obliquity  of  the  members  in  their  contact 
with  the  soil. 

A  gait  is  sufficiently  defined  when  in  it  can  be  recognized  the 
following  characters  : 

1st,  The  number,  the  intervals,  and  the  mode  of  association  of  the 
beats, 

2d.    The  duration  of  the  contact  and  of  the  elevation. 

3d.     The  trajectory  of  the  members  in  the  air. 

4th.  The  trail. 

5th.  The  speed. 

6th.  The  displacements  of  the  centre  of  gravity. 

Let  us  see  how  each  one  of  these  diverse  factors  is  deduced  : 

Analysis  of  the  Gaits. 

1st.  Direct  Observation. — We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  it  is 
by  attentive,  judicious,  and  patient  observation  of  the  horse  in  motion  that  the 
largest  number  of  data  concerning  his  gaits  has  been  collected.  The  veterina- 
rians and  horsemen  of  the  last  century  had  already,  without  recourse  to  any  instru- 
ments of  precision,  discovered  most  of  the  facts  which  the  new  methods  have 
since  only  verified.  They  recognized,  for  each  gait,  the  order  of  raising  and 
resting  the  feet,  the  mode  of  association  of  the  members,  the  number,  succession, 
and  rhythm  of  the  beats,  the  form  of  the  trails,  the  length  of  the  step,  and  the 
nature,  the  extent,  and  the  direction  of  the  base  of  support.  Some  of  them  even 
had  endeavored  to  establish  a  relation  between  the  dimensions  of  the  animal  and 
the  length  of  his  strides. 

Unfortunately,  our  external  senses  being  unable  to  perceive  phenomena  of 
so  short  a  duration  as  those  which  take  place  in  the  rapid  gaits,  the  first  observers 
were  unluckily  led  to  commit  errors  and  to  leave  blanks,  doubts,  and  obscurities 
in  their  writings,  whence  have  originated  some  processes  for  more  thorough 
investigations. 


480 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


2d.  Graphic  Method. — It  is  to  M.  Marey,  the  learned  professor  of  the 
College  de  France,  that  the  merits  of  the  greatest  progress  realized  in  this  new 
direction  must  revert.  In  applying  his  method,  called  the  graphic,  to  the 
study  of  the  locomotion  of  the  horse,  he  has  determined  in  an  almost  definite 
manner  most  of  the  principles  previously  doubtful.1 


FIG.  173.— Two  drums  with  a  lever  and  tubing  to  carry  the  compressed  air.    (Marey.) 

Process  with  Compressed  Air. — Let  us  suppose  two  drums,  A  and  B 
(Fig.  173),  each  one  formed  of  a  metallic  case  closed  above  by  an  India-rubber 


FIG. 174. 


membrane.     Upon  this  membrane  is  fixed  an  articulated  lever,  L,  capable  of 
.executing  ,to-and-fro  vertical  movements. 

1  Marey,  La  machine  animate,  p.  146,  et  suiv. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS. 


481 


Finally,  the  two  drums  are  connected  with  each  other  by  means  of  a  rubber 
tube,  T,  T,  T.  The  apparatus  being  closed  and  full  of  air,  it  is  apparent  that  all 
pressure  exercised  upon  the  drum  A,  for  example,  will  force  the  air  through  the 
tube  TT  into  the  drum  B,  whose  membrane,  as  well  as  its  lever,  it  will  elevate. 
As  soon  as  the  pressure  ceases,  the  two  levers  will  naturally  return  to  their  initial 
position.  From  this  unity  of  action  of  the 
two  drums  any  movement  whatever  can 
therefore  be  transmitted  from  a  distance,  and 
even  amplify  itself  if  the  length  of  the  lever 
be  augmented. 

Moreover,  let  us  imagine  a  cylinder  (Fig. 
174)  covered  by  a  layer  of  smoked  paper, 
turning  circularly  in  a  uniform  movement,  by 
a  sort  of  clock-work,  opposite  to  one  of  the 
levers  transformed  into  a  registering  needle. 


FIG.  175.— Chaussure  exploratrice,  or  pneu- 
matic foot-bulb  of  Marey,  for  the  registra- 
tion of  the  gaits  by  compressed  air. 


FIG.  176.— Bracelet  explorateur,  or  pneu- 
matic bracelet  of  Marey,  for  the  registra- 
tion of  the  gaits  by  compressed  air. 


It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  least  displacement  of  the  latter  will  leave  its 
trace  upon  the  paper.  All  pressure  will  produce  a  more  or  less  marked  deviation 
of  the  point  of  the  needle ;  if  there  is  no  pressure  the  line  traced  will  be  straight 
from  the  point  of  its  origin  to  its  termination. 

The  figure  of  the  tracing  of  a  gait  (Fig.  174)  is  therefore  a  curve  offering  a  series  of  vertical 
undulations,  a,  a,  which  correspond  to  the  pressure  transmitted  to  the  registering  apparatus  by 
the  concussion  and  the  contact  of  the  hoofs  upon  the  ground. 

The  tracing  reads  from  left  to  right.  The  ascent,  6,  &,  6,  of  each  undulation  indicates  an 
increase  of  pressure,  a  contact  of  the  member;  the  descent,  c,  c,  c,  signifies,  on  the  contrary,  a 
diminution,  an  elevation  of  the  member.  For  the  same  velocity  of  the  revolving  cylinder,  the 
more  vertical  the  ascent  is  the  more  sudden  the  percussion  with  the  soil  has  been  ;  the  higher  it 
is,  e,  the  stronger  the  percussion  has  been.  When  the  curve,/,  at  the  summit  of  the  undulation 
becomes  parallel  to  the  horizontal,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  pressure  is  uniform  ;  when  it  is  parallel 

31 


482  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

to  the  horizontal  at  the  base  of  the  undulation,  g,  g,  it  shows  that  the  diminution  of  pressure 
remains  stationary. 

Four  inscribing  needles,  corresponding  to  the  four  feet  of  the  horse,  and  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  trace  upon  the  latter  the  contacts  and  the  elevations  of  the  members. 

Each  foot  is  provided  (Fig.  175)  with  a  pneumatic  bulb  (chaussure  exploratrice),  composed  of 
an  India-rubber  bulb  stuffed  with  hairs  and  maintained  under  the  hoof  by  three  claws  or  catches 
which  fasten  it  to  the  shoe.  Each  time  the  foot  is  placed  on  the  ground,  the  bulb,  strongly  com- 
pressed, forces  a  portion  of  the  air  which  it  contains  into  the  registering  drum.  When  the  foot  is 
raised,  it  again  becomes  filled  with  the  air  which  was  expelled,  and  resumes  its  form. 

This  apparatus  not  being  utilizable  on  the  hard  ground  of  ordinary  roads,  M.  Marey  has 
invented  another  very  ingenious  instrument  which  registers  the  movements  of  the  feet  on  any 
kind  of  soil. 

It  consists  (Fig.  176)  of  a  sort  of  leather  bracelet,  attached  by  means  of  leather  straps  to  the 
canon  of  the  horse.  In  front,  this  bracelet  carries  a  flat  rubber  bulb,  communicating  through 
the  tube  of  transmission  with  the  registering  drum.  Upon  this  bulb  is  laid  a  piece  of  copper 
inclined  at  about  45  degrees  and  articulated  at  its  superior  extremity.  Finally,  upon  a  rod  par- 
allel to  the  plate  of  copper  glides  a  leaden  ball  whose  variable  position  permits  an  augmenta- 
tion or  a  diminution  of  the  pressure  which  this  articulated  apparatus  is  capable  of  exercising 
upon  the  rubber  bulb. 

When  the  foot  touches  the  ground,  the  ball  tends  to  continue  its  course  and  suddenly  com- 
presses the  bulb ;  when  the  foot  is  elevated,  the  inertia  of  the  ball,  in  its  turn,  produces  a  new 
compression. 

Tubes  of  transmission  (Fig.  177),  with  a  thick  wall  in  order  to  resist  twisting,  and  maintained 
along  the  members  by  bands  of  flannel,  are  connected  with  the  registering  drums,  themselves 


FIG.  177.— Registering  apparatus  of  Marey  applied  upon  the  horse  at  the  trol. 

fixed  to  the  cylinder  which  the  rider  holds.  A  ball  of  rubber,  placed  in  one  of  his  hands, 
enables  him,  when  it  is  compressed,  to  bring  the  needles  in  contact  with  the  paper.  In  this  man- 
ner the  tracing  can  commence  or  terminate  at  the  will  of  the  experimenter  as  soon  as  the  gait, 
of  the  horse  has  been  regulated. 

Process  with  the  Electric  Current. — Since  his  first  publications,  M. 
Marey,  always  in  search  of  improvement,  has  written  the  following  on  this 
subject:1 


*  Marey,  La  methode  graphique  dans  les  sciences  experimentales,  et  particulierement  en 
physiologic  et  en  m6decine,  Paris,  1878,  p.  160. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  483 

"  If  I  were  to  commence  again,  at  the  present  day,  experiments  of  this  na- 
ture, I  would  give  up  the  compressed-air  process  and  adopt  the  light  electrical 
needles,  like  those  of  M.  Marcel  Deprez.  Thin  conducting  wires  would  be  more 
easily  arranged  along  the  members  of  the  horse  than  the  rubber  tubes,  and  it 
would  be  more  easy,  I  believe,  to  attach  under  the  hoof  an  apparatus  which  closes 
and  opens  an  electric  current  during  the  contacts  and  elevations  of  the  foot  than 
to  apply  the  pneumatic  foot-bulb.  .  .  .  The  notation  of  the  gait  would  thus  be 
obtained  directly,  in  a  more  precise  and  simpler  manner  than  in  my  first  ex- 
periments." 

This  registration  of  the  gaits  of  the  horse  by  means  of  electricity  has  just 
been  achieved  by  one  of  us.1 

Our  apparatus  is  composed  :  1st,  of  four  chaussures  exploi-atrices ;  2d,  four  dry  piles  of  chloride 
of  silver  carried  by  the  rider  or  placed  in  the  vehicle  drawn  by  the  horse ;  3d,  four  electrical  needles 
of  Marcel  Deprez;  4th,  a  portable  registering  cylinder  revolving  at  a  uniform  and  known  velocity. 

Thin  conducting  wires,  all  well  isolated,  place  the  piles  in  communication  with  the  chaus- 
sures exploratrices  and  the  latter  with  the  needles  of  Marcel  Deprez;  they  follow  the  tract  of  the 
members  against  which  they  are  maintained. 

Our  exploratory  shoe  consists  essentially  (Figs.  178  and  179)  of  a  pedal,  P,  movable  around 
an  axis,  V,  attached  to  the  frame  6,  which  is  solidly  fixed  to  the  shoe  by  means  of  two  screws,  E. 
A  spring,  It,  keeps  the  pedal  separated  whenever  the  foot  is  in  the  air.  In  front,  the  latter  is 
prolonged  by  a  piece,  P',  which  is  slightly  curved  in  front  of  the  wall,  while  at  its  posterior  ex- 
tremity it  is  provided  with  a  point  of  contact,  C,  which  is  placed  in  relation  with  another  point 
of  contact,  well  isolated,  adapted  to  the  frame,  and  united  to  the  knob  B.  A  second  knob,  B', 
receives  the  other  conducting  wire.  Finally,  a  rubber  membrane,  M,  preserves  the  points  of 
contact  from  mud  or  dust. 

It  can  be  seen  that,  in  front  and  on  the  side,  the  pedal  forms  a  box  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  foreign  bodies  between  it  and  the  frame,  a  disposition  which  assures  the  liberty  of  its  move- 
ments.2 

So  long  as  the  foot  is  in  the  air  the  two  points  of  contact  touch  each  other 
and  complete  the  current ;  but  as  soon  as  the  hoof  touches  the  ground  they  are 
separated  and  interrupt  it.  At  each  raising  and  resting  of  the  foot  it  is  again 
closed  and  broken.  The  closing  and  breaking  being  instantaneous,  and,  more- 
over, the  force  of  the  spring  and  the  projection  of  the  pedal  being  capable  of 
modification  at  will,  it  is  easy  to  give  to  this  apparatus  great  strength  with  all 
the  precision  and  sensibility  desirable. 

Although  we  have  not  yet  had  the  opportunity  to  employ  it  in  our  researches, 
its  construction  being  but  just  completed,  we  have  nevertheless  been  able  to 
assure  ourselves  of  its  accuracy,  in  all  the  gaits,  upon  such  a  resisting  surface 
as  that  of  our  macadamized  roads.  By  its  aid  we  expect  to  register  with  more 
accuracy  than  has  heretofore  been  accomplished  the  periods  of  the  change  of 
contact,  the  rhythm  of  the  beats,  the  number,  the  nature,  and  the  diverse  bases 
of  support  which  may  exist  during  the  accomplishment  of  the  complete  step  of 
any  gait,  normal  or  pathological. 

Hydrostatic  Method. — M.  L.  Hoffmann,  of  Berlin,  has  conceived  the  idea 
of  applying  to  the  analysis  of  the  gaits  of  the  horse  the  method  called  the 
hydrostatic,  invented  by  H.  Vierordt  for  the  study  of  the  gaits  in  man.8 

1  G.  Barrier,  Explorateur  electrique  pour  1'enregistrement  des  allures  du  cheval,  in  Bulletin 
de  la  Societe  centrale  de  medecine  v<H6rinaire  ;  seance  du  28  Mars,  1889. 

2  Since  the  construction  of  this  figure,  we  have  given  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  pedal  an 
analogous  disposition,  which  dispenses  with  the  rubber  membrane,  if  needs  be. 

3  L.  Hoffmann,  Das  Exterieur  des  Pferdes,  p.  308,  et  seq.,  Berlin,  1887. 


484 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


To  this  end,  he  places  some  thirty  metres  of  white  paper  along  the  ground  over  which  the 
horse  is  to  travel.    Besides,  he  attaches  to  the  external  side  of  each  hoof  a  brass  tube  directed 


FIG.  178.— Chaussure  exploratrice  for  registering  the  gaits  by  electricity. 


PP',  pedal  with  spring. 

V,  axis  of  the  latter,  unscrewing  for  cleaning. 

O,  frame  for  the  pedal. 

EE',  screws  fixing  it  to  the  shoe. 


F,  parietes  of  pedal  forming  a  box. 

(7,  one  of  the  points  of  contact. 

BB',  knobs  for  attaching  the  con  ducting  wires. 

M,  India-rubber  membrane. 


FIG.  179.— Longitudinal  and  median  section  of  the  chaussure  exploratrice. 
(Same  letters  as  in  Fig.  178,  except  F,  which  represents  the  section  of  the  shoe  at  the  toe.) 


vertically  and  tapering  at  its  extremity  turned  towards  the  ground.  This  tube,  by  its  other 
extremity,  is  connected  with  a  reservoir  containing  a  colored  liquid,  by  means  of  an  India-rubber 
tube  attached  along  the  members.  The  reservoir  destined  to  feed  the  tubes  of  the  anterior  feet 
is  placed  upon  the  withers;  that  for  those  of  the  posterior  is  lodged  upon  the  croup  behind  the 
rider. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  485 

When  all  is  in  readiness,  the  animal  is  made  to  walk  over  the  white  paper,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  diversely-colored  liquids  of  the  receptacles  are  emitted  through  the  pointed  end  of  the 
brass  tube.  The  points  where  the  hoof  touches  the  paper  are  indicated  by  small  pools,  while  the 
elevations  are  marked  lines  of  a  variable  configuration  connecting  the  pools.  These  lines  are 
regarded  as  representing  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  trajectories  described  by  the  feet  in 
motion.  This  method  is  completed  by  the  photographing  of  the  animal  in  motion,  to  obtain  the 
position  of  the  members  in  the  air. 

The  hydrostatic  method,  applied  to  the  horse,  does  not  seem  likely  to 
remain  in  use.  The  tracings  which  it  furnishes  are  complicated,  very  <&fficult 
of  interpretation,  and  often  dissimilar  even  for  the  same  gaits;  they  do  not 
exactly  reproduce  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  trajectory  of  the  hoofs,  from 
the  fact  that  during  the  evolution  of  the  members  the  liquid  jets  are  not  always 
perpendicular  to  the  soil,  the  inferior  face  of  the  feet  looking  sometimes  behind, 
sometimes  inwardly,  at  other  times  forward.  As  to  the  trail,  it  is  possible  to 
note  it  directly  in  a  much  more  simple  and  exact  manner. 

Data  furnished  by  the  Graphic  Method. — The  graphic  notations, 
which  can  be  obtained  by  the  process  of  the  air  needles  or  that  of  the  electrical 
needles,  give  us  important  results.  They  enable  us  to  recognize : 

1st.  The  precise  moment  of  the  elevation  and  the  contact  of  each  member. 

2d.  The  duration  of  each  of  these  phases,  by  the  interval  which  exists  be- 
tween the  instant  of  the  resting  and  the  raising  of  each  foot. 

3d.  The  rhythm  of  the  beats, — that  is  to  say,  the  measure  of  the  cadence 
of  the  gait. 

4th.  The  number  of  feet  in  the  air  and  on  the  ground  at  a  given  moment, 
or  the  nature,  the  succession,  and  the  number  of  the  bases  of  support  formed 
during  the  execution  of  a  complete  step. 

5th.  The  duration  of  each  period  of  suspension  in  the  leaping  gaits. 

6th.  Finally,  the  velocity  of  the  feet  in  relation  to  that  of  the  body.  This 
velocity  is  proportional  to  the  duration  of  their  contact  with  the  soil. 

It  is  possible,  by  calculation,  to  deduce  from  this  last  principle  the  position 
of  the  feet  in  the  air  at  any  moment  during  the  progression.  This  was  known 
long  ago  to  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,1  M.  Raabe,2  and  their  disciples.  But  let  there 
be  no  mistake  here :  if  the  situation  or,  better,  the  relative  distances  of  the  feet 
in  space  can  be  determined,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  attitude  of  the  members 
in  movement  is  recognizable.  Photography  alone  is  capable  of  instructing  us 
on  this  point,  as  we  will  soon  see.  The  graphic  method,  registering  only  the 
duration  of  the  contact,  the  rhythm  of  the  beats,  and  the  number  of  the  feet 
which  participate  in  supporting  the  body,  is  naturally  powerless  to  teach  us  the 
amount  of  space  passed  over  during  the  evolution  of  a  complete  step.  It  tells 
us  the  nature  and  the  duration  of  the  bases  of  support,  but  leaves  us  igno- 
rant of  the  extent  of  these  bases  and  their  direction  ;  it  shows  us  in  the  leaping 
gaits  a  phase  of  suspension  when  the  body  altogether  leaves  the  ground ;  but, 
at  the  moment  when  the  contact  is  re-established,  we  do  not  know  whether  the 
body  falls  upon  the  same  place  or,  on  the  contrary,  has  progressed  while  it  was 
in  the  air. 

Its  indications,  for  example,  will  be  identical  for  the  trot  and  the  trot  upon 
place,  for  the  ordinary  gallop  and  the  gallop  upon  place ;  it  will  be  the  same  for 

1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  loc.  cit.,  1877. 

2  E.  Barroil,  L'art  equestre,  p.  92,  et  suiv.,  Paris,  1887. 


486  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

a  man  who  walks  and  one  who,  without  advancing,  "  marks  the  step"  with  the 
same  cadence. 

Finally,  the  graphic  method  tells  us  nothing  as  to  the  position  of  the  mem- 
bers in  space,  an  important  omission  for  those  whom  the  analysis  of  the  play  of 
the  articular  segments  interests,  either  from  a  point  of  view  of  animal  mechanics 
or  of  the  artistic  representation  of  the  horse  in  motion. 

3d.  Photography.— Photography  has  filled  up  this  omission.  The  extreme 
sensibility  of  the  plates  of  gelatino-bromide  of  silver,  the  perfections  of  the 
objectives  and  of  other  modern  improvements,  have  placed  this  process  above  all 
those  difficulties  which  but  lately  retarded  its  use  in  the  reproduction  of  bodies 
during  locomotion.  It  is  capable  of  representing,  in  fact,  the  vertical  projection 
of  all  the  attitudes  taken  by  the  animal  which  moves  in  front  of  the  instrument, 
according  to  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  latter.  As  the  moving 
object  can  move  along  a  graduated  scale  situated  below  it,  nothing  is  more  easy 
than  to  ascertain  the  space  it  travels  over  during  a  unit  of  time,— that  is  to  say, 
the  velocity  with  which  it  is  animated. 

The  photographic  methods  furnish  two  kinds  of  registrations : 

a.  They  simply  give  the  image  of  one  or  more  successive  attitudes  effected 
by  the  animal  in  motion ;  or 

b.  They  notate  a  series  of  successive  attitudes  with  equal  intervals  of  time. 

This  latter  method,  which  registers  simultaneously  the  time,  the  space  de- 
scribed, as  well  as  the  diverse  phases  of  the  movement,  is  due  also  to  the  wonder- 
ful ingenuity  of  M.  Marey,  who  has  given  to  it  the  name  of  chrono-photography. 

a.  Instantaneous  Photography. — In  1879,  Mr.  E.  L.  Muybridge,  of  San 
Francisco,  effected  a  veritable  revolution  in  the  world  of  physiologists  and 
artists  by  sending  to  Paris  a  collection  of  photographs  taken  instantaneously 
from  horses  moving  at  the  walk,  the  trot,  the  gallop,  and  even  from  race-horses 
going  at  full  speed.1 

Mr.  Muybridge,  in  order  to  arrive  at  this  remarkable  result,  has  arranged 
twenty-four  photographic  apparatus  side  by  side,  all  provided  with  a  system  of 
peculiar  clicks.  Each  apparatus  was  provided  with  a  very  fine  thread,  which 
stretched  across  the  trail  of  the  horse  and  was  attached  to  a  fixed  point  situated 
on  the  opposite  side.  The  mounted  horse,  in  this  manner,  successively  met  and 
broke  each  thread,  producing  thus  the  unlatching  of  the  corresponding  apparatus, 
which  opened  and  closed  almost  instantaneously. 

We  can  understand  from  this  how  Mr.  Muybridge  was  able  to  obtain  the 
truly  surprising  situations  of  the  members,  which  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  acquire  under  ordinary  conditions  on  account  of  the,  at  times,  prodigious  speed 
of  the  extremities  in  certain  gaits.  In  the  gallop,  for  example,  contacts  are  .here 
placed  in  evidence  (Fig.  180)  which  would  readily  be  doubted  if  we  did  not  find 
exactly,  by  following  the  series  of  photographs  in  the  order  in  which  they  have 
been  taken,  the  principal  periods  of  this  gait,  already  known. 

These^  photographs,  however,  instructive  though  they  were,  failed  to  be 
quite  satisfactory  on  account  of  their  small  size.  In  spite  of  their  subsequent 


1  These  photographs  have  been  reproduced  in  several  publications,  notably  : 
L'lllustration,  no.  du  22  Janvier,  1879. 
La  Nature,  1879,  ler  semestre,  p.  83. 
Le  Cheval,  de  E.  Duhousset,  p.  24. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS. 


487 


488  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

enlargement,  they  were  always  wanting  in  details  and  form,  resembling  more  a 
Chinese  chromo  than  a  true  portrait. 

To-day  the  improvements  made  in  the  apparatus  enable  us  to  take  larger 
photographs ;  many  amateurs  have  produced  excellent,  well-formed,  very  dis- 
tinct, and  precise  proofs  for  the  scientific  man  as  well  as  for  the  artist. 

But  these  portraits,  however  well  they  may  have  been  executed,  only  show 
the  isolated  attitudes,  and  not  the  succession  of  all  the  phases  of  the  gait  passed 
through  by  the  animal. 

In  this  respect  the  labors  of  Muybridge  had  not  yet  been  surpassed,  when, 
quite  recently,1  M.  Ottomar  Anschiitz,  of  Lissa  (Germany),  announced  new  results. 
He  sent  to  Paris,  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1888,  a  series  of  beautiful  instan- 
taneous photographs  reproducing  the  fast  walk,  the  trot,  the  slow  gallop,  the  fast 
gallop,  and  leaping.  Each  of  these  gaits  is  here  represented  by  twenty  suc- 
cessive positions,  taken  at  very  short  and  probably  equal  intervals  of  time, 
although,  according  to  the  author,  the  intervals  between  the  various  photographs 
were  not  exactly  measured.  A  scale,  graduated  in  metres  and  decimetres,  placed 
along  the  trail  described  by  the  animal,  allows  the  appreciation  of  the  length  of 
the  diverse  bases  of  support,  the  separation  and  the  position  of  the  members  in 
the  air,  the  total  length  of  the  step,  and,  finally,  the  space  embraced  by  each  of 
the  members. 

xThe  Lissa  photographs,  to  which  we  will  make  numerous  references  in  the 
course  of  this  work,  show  a  considerable  improvement  over  those  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, although  M.  Anschiitz  has  not  yet  divulged  the  secret  of  his  process.  We 
would  find  them  absolutely  irreproachable  if  the  intervals  between  the  photo- 
graphs were  known.  Unfortunately,  this  important  omission  prevents  the  deduc- 
tion from  them  of  a  certain  number  of  interesting  scientific  facts.  Nevertheless, 
such  as  they  are,  artists  will  consult  them  with  advantage. 

The  instantaneous  photographs,  when  multiplied  and  scattered  abroad,  will 
soon  appear  less  fantastical ;  painters  and  sculptors  will  in  the  long  run  draw  from 
them  those  ideas  which  will  give  their  works  that  stamp  of  accuracy  and  truth 
which  is  but  too  often  conspicuous  by  its  absence.  The  attentive  observation  of 
animals  in  motion,  now  that  we  have  been  warned  of  those  phenomena  which  the 
eye  was  at  first  unable  to  seize,  will  become  incontestably  more  perfect.  Little  by 
little  animal  painters  will  abandon  the  fictitious  and  fantastic  attitudes  to  which 
they  have  accustomed  us,  and  will  show  us  more  and  more  animated  Nature  as 
she  is,  and  not  as  the  imagination  or  our  inexperience  leads  us  to  conceive. 

b.  Chrono-photographs. — M.  Marey  has  gone  a  step  farther  in  this  direc- 
tion. By  means  of  an  extremely  ingenious  experimental  process,  he  has  been 
able  to  take  upon  the  same  immobile  plate,  and  at  equal  intervals  of  time,  a  series 
of  photographs  representing  the  different  positions  which  an  animal  in  move- 
ment has  occupied  in  space  during  a  series  of  known  instants. 

"  Let  us  suppose,"  says  he. 2  "  that  an  apparatus  be  turned  towards  the  path  of  a  man  walk- 
ing, and  that  we  take  a  first  image  in  a  very  short  time.  If  the  plate  preserve  its  sensibility,  we 
would  be  able  at  the  end  of  an  instant  to  take  another  image  which  would  show  the  walker  in  a 

1  For  more  details  see  G.  Barrier,  Presentation  de  nouvelles  photographies  instantan^es  rela- 
tives aux  allures  du  cheval,  in  Bulletin  de  la  Soci£t£  centrale  de  m6decine  v£terinaire,  14  FSvrier, 
1889. 

2  Marey,  Comptes-Rendus  de  l'Acad6mie  des  sciences,  3  Juillet,  1882.    Id.,  Developpement  de 
la  melhode  graphique  par  1'emploi  de  la  photographic,  Paris,  1884. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS. 


489 


different  attitude  and  in  another  place  of  the  space ;  this  second  image, compared  to  the  first,  would 
indicate  exactly  all  the  displacements  which  were  effected  at  this  second  instant.  By  increasing 
thus  the  images  at  very  short  intervals  of  time,  we  would  obtain,  with  perfect  accuracy,  the  suc- 
cession of  the  phases  of  locomotion.  Now,  in  order  to  preserve  in  the  photographic  glass  plate  the 


FIG.  181.— Chrono-photograph  of  the  walk  of  a  man.    (M.  Marey.) 

sensibility  necessary  to  receive  the  successive  impressions,  the  space  in  front  of  the  apparatus 
must  be  absolutely  dark  and  the  man  or  the  animal  passing  before  it  must  stand  out  in  white 
upon  a  black  ground. 


FIG.  182.— Chrono-photograph  of  the  leap  of  a  man.    (M.  Marey.) 

"  My  screen  is  a  cavity  whose  walls  are  black.  A  man  entirely  clothed  in  white,  with  the 
light  of  the  sun  shining  brightly  upon  him,  passes,  walking,  running  [Fig.  181],  or  leaping  [Fig. 
182J.  while  the  photographic  apparatus,  provided  with  an  oval  window  rotating  more  or  less 
rapidly,  takes  his  image  at  more  or  less  close  intervals." 

"  This  method  can  be  applied  to  the  study  of  the  different  types  of  locomo- 
tion ;  a  white  horse  or  a  white  bird  will  in  the  same  manner  give  the  series  of 
their  attitudes." 

This  process  has  been  recently  attempted  upon  the  horse  by  Messrs.  Marey 
and  Pages.1 


1  Marey  et  Pages,  Mouvement  du  membre  pelvien  chez  1'homme,  l'e"16phant  et  le  cheval,  in 
Comptes-Rendus  de  1'Academie  des  sciences,  18  Juillet,  1887. 


490 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


With  the  aid  of  distinguishing  marks  applied  upon  the  body  over  the  artic- 
ular centres,  and  united  afterwards  on  the  proof  by  straight  lines,  they  have 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  images  of  the  diverse  positions  of  the  locomotory 
segments  during  the  evolution  of  the  members,  as  well  as  the  exact  trajectory 
of  the  centres  of  movement  (Fig.  183). 


FIG.  183.— Movement  of  the  anterior  member  of  the  horse. 
(Obtained  by  means  of  chrono-photography.) 
A.  Phase  of  contact.       |       B.  Phase  of  elevation. 

This  achievement  is  significant.  It  not  only  permits  us  to  determine  with 
great  accuracy  the  limitary  positions  of  flexion  and  extension  and  icefield  of  oscil- 
lation of  the  osseous  levers  in  the  rapid  motors,  but  it  also  opens  the  way  to  the 
discovery  in  the  future  of  the  scientific  theory  of  locomotion,  which  has  been  so 
ably  treated  in  the  splendid  works  of  the  Weber  brothers.  All  the  investigations 
undertaken  in  this  direction  will  be  rich  in  facts  of  inestimable  value  to  those 
who  pursue  the  rational  study  of  animal  mechanics. 

For  ordinary  requirements,  however,  chrono-photography  can  be  greatly 
simplified,  and  thereby  rendered  intelligible  and  accessible  to  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  individuals.  All  that  this  method  need  do  is  to  record,  always  at  equal 
intervals  of  time,  the  principal  attitudes  characteristic  of  a  given  gait.  The 
images,  in  this  manner,  being  less  numerous,  the  ultimate  results  will  be  less 
confused.  Instead  of  remaining  contented  with  the  axes  of  movements  of  the 
bony  segments,  we  shall  be  enabled  to  obtain  true  portraits,  as  true  to  nature  as 
those  of  Anschutz,  and  quite  as  valuable  to  the  scientific  man  as  to  the  artist. 

Systems  of  Notation  of  the   Gaits. 

In  order  to  interpret  in  a  clear  and  simple  manner  the  indications,  at  times 
very  complicated,  furnished  by  the  registering  apparatus,  we  make  use  of  con- 
ventional symbols  which  represent  the  rhythm  of  the  beats,  the  duration  of  the 
contact  with  the  ground,  the  mode  of  association  of  the  members,  etc.  These 
symbols,  altogether  comparable  to  those  which  are  employed  in  music  to  repre- 
sent the  sounds  and  their  intervals,  constitute,  by  their  mode  of  combination, 
what  is  conventionally  called  the  notation. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS. 


491 


The  systems  of  notation  are  not  very  numerous,  nor  are  they  equally  satis- 
factory. Let  us  rapidly  pass  them  in  review. 

1st.  Method  of  Lecoq.— We  will  do  no  more  than  place 
it  on  record  here,  for  it  does  not  merit  to  be  preserved. 

Upon  two  series  of  vertical  columns  (Fig.  184)  the  contacts 
are  indicated  by  black  ovals  and  the  elevations  by  blank  ovals. 
Each  series  corresponds  to  a  lateral  biped;  the  contact  of  the 
anterior  member  is  noted  above,  that  of  the  posterior  below. 
The  number  of  columns  in  each  series  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
times  of  the  gait  necessary  to  complete  one  step.  Thus  there 
must  be  four  in  the  walk  (of  which  the  figure  reproduces  the 
notation),  two  only  in  the  trot,  etc.,  because  the  times  in  these 
gaits  are  of  different  numbers. 

But  as  all  these  columns  are  of  the  same  width,— that  is  to 
say,  of  the  same  value  in  relation  to  the  duration  of  the  phe- 
nomena which  they  are  destined  to  indicate,— the  method  is  in- 
applicable to  the  gaits  whose  times  are  of  unequal  lengths.  The 
method,  in  such  cases,  is  inadequate,  and  necessitates  the  addi- 
tion of  a  number  of  columns  or  a  width  proportional  to  the 
duration  which  they  represent.  This  complicates  much  the 
reading  and  the  simplicity  of  the  notation. 

2d.  Hodochronometric  Scale  of  Vincent 
and  Goiffon.1 — Two  former  professors  at  the  Alfort 
Veterinary  School,  Vincent  and  Goiffon,  have  con- 
ceived the  ingenious  idea  of  applying  the  musical 
notation  to  the  schematic  representation  of  the  gaits 
of  the  horse. 

They 'have  invented  for  this  purpose  a  scale  called 
the  hodochronometric,12  which  is  nothing  more  than  a 
stave  of  four  horizontal  lines,  AD,  PG,  A  G,  PD,  sim- 
ilar to  those  which  carry  the  notes  in  music,  and  intersected  at  equal  distances 
by  vertical  lines,  /,  //,  ///,  IV,  which  mark  the  time  like,  we  might  say,  so  many 
bars  in  music.     Each  time  or  bar  is  again  subdivided  into  three  spaces,  making 
altogether  twelve  spaces  for  the  whole  length  of  the  stave. 

This  measure  corresponds  to  a  complete  step.  The  ordinary  step,  for  example, 
is  executed  by  the  horse  in  four  bars,  whose  beginning  is  indicated  by  the  beats 
of  the  feet ;  the  latter  are  shown  by  means  of  four  notes,  which  are :  AD,  the 
anterior  right  member ;  PG,  the  posterior  left ;  A  G,  the  anterior  left ;  and  PD, 
the  posterior  right. 

Each  one  of  these  notes  will  be  written  on  the  corresponding  line  of  the 
stave  in  the  order  in  which  it  will  be  given  out,  it  being  understood  that  the 
phases  of  contact  will  be  represented  by  continuous  lines,  and  the  phases  of  eleva- 
tion or  projection  of  the  member  by  dotted  lines.  The  length  of  these  lines  will 
be  equivalent  to  the  time  during  which  each  foot  keeps  up  its  note  (rests  upon  the 
ground),  or,  on  the  contrary,  does  not  keep  it  (is  maintained  in  the  air). 

Let  us  now  interpret  some  of  the  points  of  the  notation  of  the  walk,  as  repro- 
duced in  Fig.  185 : 


/  2 
II 

3 

0 

4 

0 

/ 

0 

2 

0 

S  4 
II 

•  0 

0 

I 

0 

. 

•  0 

FIG.  184. 


1  Vincent  et  Goiffon,  MSmoire  artificielle  des  principes  relatifs  a  la  fidele  representation 
des  animaux.    In-folio,  Paris,  1779,  t.  i.  p.  87. 

2  From  Ofio?,  path;  Xp6»>os,  time;  and  Mtrpov,  measure.    This  word  is  improperly  applied, 
for  the  scale  in  question  does  not  measure  the  path  described  by  the  members.    Moreover,  it 
should  be  written  hodochronometric  and  not  odochronometric,  as  Vincent  and  Goiffon  have  stated. 


492  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

1st.  During  the  first  bar,  the  first  sound  or  beat  is  given  by  the  anterior  right  member,  AD, 
which  commences  its  contact ;  the  posterior  right,  PD,  accomplishes  the  second  half  of  its  rest; 
the  anterior  left,  AO,  commences  its  elevation ;  the  posterior  left,  PQ,  terminates  the  second 
half  of  its  elevation. 


FIG.  185. 


2d.  During  the  second  bar,  the  second  beat  is  given  by  the  posterior  left,  PG,  which  com- 
mences its  contact;  the  anterior  right,  AD,  finishes  its  contact;  the  posterior  right,  PD,  com- 
mences its  elevation ;  as  to  the  anterior  left,  AG,  it  terminates  its  elevation. 

3d.  During  the  third  bar.  the  third  beat  is  given  by  the  anterior  left,  AG,  which  commences 
its  contact;  the  posterior  left,  PG,  finishes  its  contact;  the  anterior  right,  AD,  commences  its 
elevation,  while  that  of  the  posterior  right,  PD,  is  terminated. 

Finally,  during  the  fourth  bar,  the  fourth  beat  is  given  by  the  posterior  right,  PD,  which 
commences  its  contact,  and  that  of  the  anterior  left,  AG,  is  terminated ;  the  posterior  left,  PG, 
commences  its  rising,  while  the  anterior  right,  AD,  is  reaching  the  end  of  this  phase. 

The  step  is  completed ;  the  whole  stave  is  played.  Each  member  has  given  its  note,  has  kept 
it  up  during  two  bars,  and  has  been  silent  during  the  other  two. 

During  each  bar,  also,  the  body  has  rested  on  two  members:  upon  the  right  lateral  bipeds, 
ADIPD  (the  first  bar) ;  upon  the  right  diagonal,  ADIPG  (the  second  bar);  upon  the  left  lateral 
bipeds,  AGIPG  (the  third  bar) ;  upon  the  left  diagonal,  AGiPD  (the  fourth  bar). 

The  beats  or  sounds  of  the  members  have  succeeded  each  other  in  the  following  order:  AD, 
PG,  AG,  PD,— that  is  to  say,  diagonally,  etc. 

All  these  characters  are  those  of  the  ordinary  walk.  A  glance  over  the 
scheme  of  its  notation  suffices  to  comprehend  them. 

Whatever  may  be  the  combinations  of  the  rhythm  of  the  beats,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  relations  and  the  elevations,  the  mode  of  association  or  succession  of 
the  members,  this  scale  will  at  a  glance  indicate  them  in  all  their  modifications, 
and  in  a  manner  clearer  and  more  rapid  than  can  be  depicted  in  ordinary 
language  or  writing.  In  this  consists  the  great  superiority  of  this  system  over 
that  of  Lecoq. 

3d.  Notation  of  M.  Marey.1 — The  method  employed  by  Professor  Marey 
is  based  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  preceding,  although  slightly  modified  in 
its  details. 

First,  the  notations  of  the  anterior  members  are  placed  one  below  the  other ; 
those  of  the  posterior  members  are  treated  in  the  same  manner.  This  method 
allows  an  easier  comparison  of  the  bipedal  locomotion  of  man  with  that  of 
quadruped  animals. 

The  contacts  or  periods  of  the  foot  touching  the  ground  are  represented  by 
the  wide  lines :  the  white  for  the  right  members  and  the  gray  for  the  left.  The 
phases  of  elevation,  during  which  the  body  is  entirely  in  the  air,  are,  on  the  con- 
trary, represented  by  simple  intervals.  Thus  confusion  is  avoided  and  the  read- 
ing and  interpretation  of  the  phenomena  are  much  simplified. 

Finally,  whenever  it  is  possible,  the  tracings  obtained  with  the  registering 
needles  are  annexed  and  superposed  to  the  corresponding  notations. 

1  Marey,  La  machine  animale,  p  147. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  493 

Let  us  represent,  for  example,  the  running  of  a  man  by  using  the  tracing  of 
this  gait,  as  it  was  obtained  by  M.  Marey  (Fig.  186). 

The  continuous  line,  D,  corresponds  to  the  curve  furnished  by  the  contacts  of  the  right  foot ; 
the  interrupted  line,  O,  to  that  of  the  contacts  of  the  left  foot.  The  registering  surface  presents  only 
two  horizontal  lines,  1  and  2,  since  here  only  two  members  are  in  question. 


FIG.  186. 

This  being  said,  let  us  draw  a  perpendicular,  a,  upon  the  plane,  beginning  at  the  point  where 
the  curve  of  the  right  foot  ascends ;  this  indicates  the  commencement  of  the  contact  of  this  foot. 
Draw  another  perpendicular,  b,  from  the  point  where  this  curve  descends,  which  shows  when  the 
foot  is  raised  from  the  ground.  Now  let  us  join  the  bases  of  the  two  perpendiculars  by  a  heavy 
white  line;  this  line,  ab,  will  evidently  have  a  length  proportional  to  the  duration  of  the  contact 
of  the  right  foot. 

By  making  a  similar  diagram  with  the  curve  of  the  left  foot,  we  will  obtain  the  same  rota- 
tion for  its  contacts.  The  same  operation  is  practised  upon  succeeding  curves  of  the  right  or  the 
left  foot. 

The  intervals  between  the  white  lines  correspond  to  the  duration  of  the  elevations  of  the 
right  foot ;  those  between  the  gray  indicate  the  elevations  of  the  left. 

As  to  the  intervals  comprised  between  the  gray  and  the  white  lines,  during  which  each 
member  is  raised,  they  represent  the  duration  of  the  periods  of  suspension  of  the  body. 

This  notation,  applied  to  the  horse,  is  equally  simple.  The  only  difference 
is  that  the  registering  plane  contains  four  lines  instead  of  two,  because  the 
phases  of  four  members  are  to  be  noted. 

Duges !  has  very  appropriately  compared  the  walking  quadruped  to  two  men 
walking  and  placed  one  in  front  of  the  other :  the  one  in  front  corresponds  to  the 
anterior  biped,  the  one  behind  to  the  posterior.  Hence  the  notation  of  the  gaits 
of  the  quadruped  should  be  similar  to  that  which  the  two  men  furnish,  if  they 
walk  with  the  same  rhythm  and  make  the  same  number  of  steps.  In  order  to 
establish  this,  it  will  suffice  to  superpose  the  notations  of  the  one  in  front  to  those 
of  the  one  behind,  keeping  in  view  the  proper  rhythm  and  the  relations  whi-ch 
will  exist  between  the  movements  of  the  one  and  the  other. 

Let  us  select,  for  example,  the  amble,  a  gait  in  which,  says  M.  Marey,2  the  two  pedestrians 
(anterior  and  posterior),  going  at  a  waljc,  both  execute  the  same  movements  with  perfect  con- 
cordance. It  is  apparent  that  the  notation  will  furnish  us  that  in  Fig.  187,  whence  it  is  proved 
that  the  beats  of  the  right  foot  and  those  of  the  left  foot,  produced  in  the  same  time  by  the  man 
in  front  and  the  one  behind,  are  recorded  by  similar  lines  exactly  superposed  and  of  equal 
length. 

1  Duges,  Traite  de  physiologic  compared  de  1'homme  et  des  animaux,  t.  ii.  pp.  170  and  174, 
Montpellier,  1838. 

2  Marey,  loc.  cit..  p.  146. 


494  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  notation  of  M.  Marey,  although  almost  identical  with  that  of  Vincent 
and  Goiffon,  has,  nevertheless,  the  preference  over  the  latter  in  being  clearer  and 
more  explicit. 


FIG.  187. 

4th.  Notation  of  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil.1 — The  method  of  Professor  Le- 
noble  du  Teil,  of  the  School  of  the  Stud  of  Pin,  is  without  doubt  the  most  perfect 
from  a  point  of  view  of  the  intelligence  which  it  imparts  from  mere  ocular  in- 
spection. Its  principle  is  always  that  of  the  musical  notation  invented  by 
Vincent  and  Goiffon,  but  it  adds  a  new  idea :  that  of  the  path  described  by  the 
feet.  Hence  the  name  of  hodochronometric  scale  is  much  more  applicable  to  it  than 
to  any  other,  and  we  would  give  to  it  the  preference,  had  not  its  author  desig- 
nated it  under  that  of  method  of  the  planes  of  the  ground  surface. 

It  consists  as  follows  (Fig.  188) : 

Upon  a  sheet  of  paper  are  traced  a  certain  number  of  vertical  columns  rep- 
resenting equal  fractions  of  time.  To  the  left  of  these  columns  is  indicated  the 
trail  of  the  gait,  by  marking  in  a  known  scale  the  intervals  which  separate  the 
imprints. 

The  line  XY  indicates  the  direction  of  movement. 

We  will  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  two  feet  of  the  anterior  bipeds  have 
left  upon  the  ground  the  imprints  DD'  (for  the  right)  and  GG'  (for  the  left). 

Suppose,  now,  that  this  surface  begins  to  glide  from  right  to  left  at  the 
moment  when  the  foot  G  commences  its  contact ;  this  foot,  instead  of  leaving  a 
simple  imprint  of  its  shoe  upon  the  ground,  will  trace  a  line,  PI',  so  much  longer 
as  the  contact  is  prolonged. 

During  this  period  of  contact,  what  has  the  opposite  foot  done  ?  We  know 
that  it  was  advanced  after  a  short  period  of  exchange  of  contact.  As  the  surface, 
however,  continues  to  glide  during  this  action,  the  foot  Z>,  which  should  rest  at 
D',  will  rest  at  P'  at  the  instant  of  the  end  of  the  contact  (/')  of  G. 

Consequently,  the  horizontal  projection  of  each  of  the  points  described  by 
the  foot  D,  through  the  air,  instead  of  being  a  straight  line  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  trail,  will  be  an  oblique  line,  IP'. 

There  a  new  transverse  line,  P'l",  will  represent  the  duration  of  the  contact 
of  D'  with  the  ground. 

During  the  period  of  contact  of  D',  the  foot  G,  beginning  at  the  point  I', 
will  execute  its  period  of  projection  and  touch  at  P",  the  moment  correspond- 
ing to  the  termination  of  the  contact  of  D' ',  etc. 

It  only  remains  now  to  trace  through  any  point  a  vertical  line,  KL,  to  be 
immediately  informed  as  to  the  respective  positions  of  the  two  feet  with  the  place 
where  this  line  intersects  the  lines  of  contact  and  those  of  projection. 

If  to  the  notation  of  the  anterior  members  alone  were  added  that  of  the 
posterior,  the  phenomena  would  net  be  more  complicated.  Likewise  the  construc- 
tion of  the  diagram  would  be  quite  as  simple  in  cases  in  which  the  number  of 

1  J.  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Locomotion  quadrupede  6tudi6e  sur  le  cheval  in  Journal  des  Haras, 
ann<§e  1887,  p.  224. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS. 


495 


the  feet  was  increased.  It  would  be  sufficient  to  have  a  larger  surface  for 
notation  ;  this  is  always  indispensable  when  it  concerns  the  representation  of  the 
leaping  or  the  elongated  gaits,  the  obliquity  and  length  of  the  notation  augment- 
ing with  the  amplitude  of  the  steps  and  the  projection  of  the  feet. 


Such  is  the  principle  of  the  ingenious  method  of  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil.  It 
has  the  advantage  of  recording  all  the  data  relative  to  the  duration  and  the  space 
passed  over  which  the  registering  apparatus  or  chrono-photography  can  collect 
from  a  given  gait.  When  the  diagram  is  once  constructed,  all  desirable  informa- 
tion relative  to  a  complete  analysis  of  the  phenomena  can  be  obtained  at  a  glance 
in  a  concise  form  and  compared  the  one  with  the  other,  which  is  not  to  be 
overlooked. 

Unfortunately,  the  scheme  which  it  furnishes  has  the  disadvantage  of 
requiring  a  large  area.  Besides,  the  notations  of  the  anterior  members  are 
intermingled  with  those  of  the  posterior  in  the  same  manner  as  the  imprints 
of  the  trail.  The  reading  of  it  is  also  less  clear  than  in  the  method  of  Marey. 
and  it  is  less  easy  to  compare,  as  in  Duges's  method,  the  particular  characters 


496  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

of  the  walk  of  two  bipeds,  in  order  to  determine  the  general  relation  which  they 
maintain  as  a  whole.  Nevertheless,  it  is  possible  to  ameliorate,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, these  defects.  Nothing  prevents,  for  example,  the  representation  of  the 
contacts  and  the  elevations  of  the  right  members  by  the  continuous  or  the  heavy 
lines,  and  those  of  the  left  by  the  dotted  lines.  In  addition,  it  is  easy  to  differ- 
entiate the  notations  of  the  fore-  and  the  hind-bipeds  by  simply  modifying  the 
width  of  the  tracings  or  lines  which  correspond  to  them.  This  is  precisely  the 
procedure  which  M.  Marey  has  employed  with  success  to  facilitate  the  reading 
of  the  tracing  of  the  mode  of  progression. 

As  to  the  smallness  of  the  diagram,  it  cannot  pass  beyond  certain  limits 
without  danger  of  resulting  in  confusion  of  the  imprints  of  the  trail,  especially 
when  those  of  the  hind-foot  are  in  front  of  or  behind  those  of  the  fore-foot. 
This,  however,  is  more  a  typographical  defect,  and  of  little  importance  as  regards 
the  correctness  of  the  theory  itself  or  its  originators. 

Synthetic  Study  of  the  Mode  of  Progression. 

The  generalization  of  the  materials  collected  by  the  diverse  analytical  methods 
which  we  have  passed  in  review,  their  reconstruction  into  a  unit,  their  relations, 
and  the  reproduction  of  these  facts  into  a  material  form  in  a  manner  to  give  to  the 
mind,  at  first  greatly  confused,  the  actual  reality, — such  is  the  difficult  problem 
which  constitutes  the  synthesis  of  the  modes  of  progression  or  the  gaits. 

Each  analytical  process  offers  its  corresponding  synthetical  process. 

To  the  results  of  direct  observation  are  contrasted,  first,  the  efforts  made  by 
artists  to  represent  the  horse  by  design,  painting,  and  sculpture;  also  those 
whose  object  is  to  simulate  experimentally  the  rhythm  of  the  beats ;  finally, 
those  which  propose  to  retrace,  with  the  eye,  the  imprints  left  upon  the  ground 
by  the  feet. 

With  the  results  furnished  by  instantaneous  photographs  are  combined  the 
diverse  forms  of  animators,  in  which  are  placed  the  photographs  themselves  or 
simply  the  designs  which  are  reproduced  from  them. 

Finally,  to  the  results  given  by  the  registering  apparatus  correspond  special 
instruments,  demonstrating  the  notations  of  the  gaits  or  the  series  of  transitions 
which  show  the  passage  from  one  to  another. 

Let  us  examine  each  of  these  processes  in  particular. 

1st.  Artistic  Processes :  Design;  Painting;  Sculpture.— It  suffices  to 
pass  through  museums  and  expositions  to  assure  ourselves  of  the  errors  of  ancient 
as  well  as  modern  artists  in  the  exact  representation  of  the  movements  of  the 
horse.  This  animal  is  nearly  always  posed  in  false  attitudes  and  in  conditions 
of  impossible  equilibrium.  If  he  is  depicted  moving  at  a  walk,  the  members  are 
placed  in  the  position  which  they  assume  in  the  amble  or  the  trot ;  if  he  is  rep- 
resented at  the  gallop,  the  artist  only  succeeds  in  producing  a  spurious  attitude 
which  is  neither  rearing  nor  leaping.  If  he  is  stopped  on  two  members,  the 
chances  are  it  will  be  on  two  lateral  bipeds,  on  which  station  cannot  exist,  rather 
than  upon  a  diagonal  biped,  which  is  the  more  accurate.  Finally,  even  when 
the  general  movement  is  correct,  the  fault  in  reality  lies  in  the  details :  thus,  one 
foot  is  so  placed  that  it  cannot  be  elevated  in  time ;  another  is  too  slow  in  ar- 
riving on  the  ground ;  again,  it  is  the  axis  of  the  body  which  conflicts  with  the 
direction  of  the  members;  finally,  it  is  that  of  the  neck  or  of  the  head.  We 
should  never  come  to  the  end  if  we  passed  in  review  the  long  series  of  errors  of 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  497 

painters  and  sculptors,  among  whom  so  few  have  abandoned  the  precedents  in- 
culcated by  the  classical  routine.  To  this  end,  we  owe  tribute  to  Colonel  Du- 
housset  for  the  persevering  efforts  with  which  he  led  the  new  school  to  a  more 
correct  interpretation  of  animated  nature.  Little  by  little  the  cause  of  equine 
realism  will  triumph  over  the  conventional  art,  which  censures  with  disdain  the 
innovators  who  assume  the  liberty  of  announcing  its  errors  to  the  public.1 

2d.  Reproduction  of  the  Rhythm  of  the  Beats. — One  of  the  most 
prominent  of  the  phenomena  in  the  gaits  is  the  succession  of  the  sounds  which 
are  audible.  This  succession  does  not  deceive  the  trained  ear,  and  permits  it  not 
only  to  judge  of  the  variety  of  the  gait  which  it  hears,  but  also  to  recognize  if  this 
progression  is  accomplished  with  its  normal  characters. 

With  the  purpose  of  demonstrating,  in  our  course  of  lectures,  the  cadence 
of  each  particular  gait  without  having  recourse  to  the  living  animal,  which 
might  be,  at  times,  not  altogether  free  from  danger  to  the  hearers,  we  have  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  constructing  the  following  small  apparatus : 

It  is  composed  of  a  horizontal  cylinder,  turning  upon  its  own  axis  in  front  of  two  pieces  of 
resounding  board,  placed  the  one  upon  the  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  spring,  as  is  seen 
in  the  instrument  called  the  signal,  and  employed  by  school-teachers  to  call  their  classes  to  silence. 
Small  paddles  or  float-boards  are  fixed  in  succession  in  a  vertical  series  upon  the  circumference 
of  the  cylinder,  whose  number  and  interval  are  calculated  in  such  a  manner  that  when  passing 
by  the  signal  they  produce  sounds  according  to  the  rhythm  desired.  To  obtain  the  beats  of  a 
different  gait,  it  suffices  to  slide  the  cylinder  towards  the  right  or  the  left,  and  fasten:it  by  means 
of  a  cog  on  the  surface  of  the  axis  of  the  crank.  A  new  series  of  paddles  can  thus  be  passed  over 
the  signal,  and  so  on. 

With  the  aid  of  this  instrument,  the  construction  of  which  we  have  been 
obliged  to  postpone  for  pecuniary  reasons,  we  should  have  been  able  to  reproduce 
very  distinctly  the  normal  and  the  defective  rhythms  of  the  walk,  the  trot,  the 
ordinary  gallop,  the  fast  gallop,  the  amble,  the  running  walk,  racking,  | etc. 

It  would  have  been  capable  of  rendering  efficient  service  in  the  study  of 
this  part  of  the  exterior,  for  it  is  difficult  to  procure,  on  a  given  day,  a  horse 
capable  of  executing  all  the  gaits.  It,  besides,  would  have  enabled  us  to  study 
the  varieties  of  each  gait  and  to  make  the  ear  distinguish  the  mode  of  transition 
from  the  one  to  the  other.  Our  instrument,  in  this  relation,  would  have  partaken 
of  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  model  for  notation  of  M.  Marey,  which  we  will 
examine  farther  on. 

3d.  Artificial  Representation  of  the  Trails. — By  differentiating  with 
care  the  imprints  left  upon  the  ground  by  the  feet  of  a  horse  in  motion,  and 
transcribing  these  imprints  upon  paper  in  the  required  scale,  we  easily  succeed 
in  giving  an  exact  idea  of  the  manner  of  their  succession. 

But,  in  order  to  avoid  the  encumbrance  resulting  from  the  accumulation  of 
a  large  number  of  plates,  as  well  as  the  expense  of  their  preparation,  we  have 
invented  a  species  of  vertical,  portable  table  (Fig.  189),  with  the  aid  of  which 
any  trail  whatsoever  can  be  represented  immediately  by  means  of  small  shoes, 
which  it  suffices  to  hang  at  proper  intervals.  By  changing  the  respective  posi- 
tions of  the  shoes,  it  also  becomes  easy  to  show  the  diverse  transitions  presented 
by  the  trails  of  such  or  such  a  normal  or  defective  gait. 

The  apparatus  is  composed  of  a  black-board  about  2.50  m.  in  height,  resting  upon  a  pedestal 
provided  with  three  drawers,  A,  £,  C.  In  the  left,  A,  are  six  nickel-plated  shoes,  three  fore  and 
three  hind ;  in  the  right,  C,  are  six  similar  shoes,  but  for  the  opposite  side.  The  middle  is 

i  For  more  details  see  E.  Duhousset,  Le  cheval,  chap,  i.,  ix.,  and  x. 
32 


498 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  189. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS. 


499 


reserved  for  a  certain  number  of  cards,  upon  which  are  written  all  the  indications  for  the  rapid 
construction  of  the  trail  of  each  gait. 

The  anterior  face  of  the  board  contains  forty-five  lines,  indicated  by  numbers  along  the 
edges.  Finally,  upon  the  middle  of  this  face  also  exist  two  vertical  series  of  hooks,  DE,  FG,  the 
one  indicating  the  trail  of  the  left  feet,  the  other  that  of  the  right.  The  shoes,  whose  light  color 
contrasts  with  the  black  ground  of  the  board,  are  hung  on  these  hooks.  We  will  compose  the 
trail  of  the  amble,  for  example.  From  the  middle  drawer  is  selected  the  memorandum  card 
of  the  gait  upon  which  the  necessary  instructions  are  given,  as  follows: 

ORDINARY   AMBLE. 


SHOES  OF  LEFT  DRAWER. 

SHOES  OF  RIGHT  DRAWER. 

Anterior  Shoes. 

Posterior  Shoes. 

Anterior  Shoes. 

Posterior  Shoes. 

Nos.  3,  17,  31. 

Nos.  8,  22,  36. 

Nos.  10,  24,  38. 

Nos.  1,  15,  29. 

It  suffices  to  hang  each  shoe  to  the  number  indicated  in  order  to  obtain  immediately  the 
desired  trail. 

4th.  Artificial  Reproduction  of  the  Locomotory  Movements; 
Animators  for  Instantaneous  Photographs  or  Drawings  taken  from 
them. — Physiology  teaches  that  the  impressions  received  by  the  retina  last  for 
some  instants  after  the  luminous  body  which  has  produced  them  has  disappeared. 
It  is  thus  that  the  rapid  displacement  of  an  incandescent  coal  appears  to  the 
eye  in  the  form  of  a  stream  of  fire ;  the  descent  of  a  rain-drop,  under  that  of 
streaks  passing  from  the  clouds  to  the  earth,  etc. 

Basing  his  observations  upon  this  fact,  Plateau,  in  1832,  constructed  an 
apparatus,  the  phenakislicope,  in  which  are  placed  a  series  of  pictures,  each  rep- 
resenting a  special  phase  of  a  determined  movement,  the  gallop  of  a  horse,  for 
example.  A  proper  rotation  being  given  to  these  images,  there  will  be  repro- 
duced with  surprising  exactness  the  complete  movements  of  which  we  have,  in 
reality,  only  the  different  periods. 

The  zootrope  is  an  instrument  based  upon  the  same  principle.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  cylindrical  box,  in  the  interior  of  which  is  a  strip  of  paper  with  the 
portraits  of  an  animal  in  different  positions  of  his  gait.  A  certain  number  of 
vertical  openings  or  windows  expose  the  interior  of  the  box  and  allow  the 
observer  to  view  the  series  of  images  on  the  inside.  The  whole  pivots  on  a  ver- 
tical axis  and  can  be  rotated  at  will  more  or  less  rapidly. 

It  is  with  the  zootrope  that  we  can  demonstrate  the  absolute  truth  of  the 
instantaneous  photographs.  It  is  even  possible  to  render  the  movements  result- 
ing from  the  succession  of  these  images  tangible  to  a  whole  audience,  as  we  have 
witnessed  with  M.  Marey,  by  placing  the  animator  in  front  of  an  apparatus  on 
which  the  images  are  projected.  The  effect  is  then  complete :  the  displacements 
of  the  neck,  the  head,  the  members,  the  tail,  the  inflection  of  the  body, — all, 
even  the  movements  of  the  jockey,  give  to  the  spectator  the  sense  of  reality. 

5th.  Schematic  Figures  of  M.  Mathias  Duval. — Knowing,  as  we  will 
verify  farther  on,  that  the  differences  existing  between  the  gaits  are  associated 
with  a  more  or  less  marked  quickness  of  the  movements  of  the  posterior  members 
in  relation  with  those  of  the  anterior,  Professor  Mathias  Duval  has  conceived 
the  idea  of  reproducing  a  gait  in  all  its  details,  by  constructing  a  series  of  designs 
capable  of  gliding  one  upon  the  other,  and  thus  realizing  the  quickness  in  question. 


500  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

All  the  marched  gaits  being  related  to  the  amble,  M.  Duval  first  designed  sixteen  horses  (this 
number  suffices)  in  the  different  phases  of  the  latter.  These  reproductions  are  disposed  in  two 
superposed  sheets  of  paper.  The  upper  is  fenestrated  in  such  a  manner  that  one-half  of  each 
horse  is  visible  on  this  sheet  and  the  other  half  on  the  lower.  The  hind -quarters,  for  example, 
being  on  the  upper  sheet,  the  fore-quarters  are  placed  upon  the  lower,  and  are  visible  through 
the  openings  made  in  the  latter.  Suppose,  now,  that  the  superior  sheet  be  moved  so  that  an 
interval  separates  two  figures  of  the  horse,  and  we  will  have  a  series  of  images  in  which  the 
anterior  members  are  tardy  in  point  of  time  upon  the  posterior,  as  takes  place  in  the  broken 
amble.  If  the  gliding  of  the  sheet  be  increased,  we  have  the  series  of  attitudes  of  the  walk ; 
a  still  further  gliding  will  give  those  of  the  trot.1 

6th.  Reproduction  of  the  Notations. — Estimating  that  the  marched 
gaits  of  the  horse  can  be  classed  in  a  natural  series  whose  first  term  is  the 
amble,  and  in  which  the  difference  between  a  given  gait  and  the  following  con- 
sists in  a  quickness  or  a  slowness  of  the  posterior  members,  according  as  he  accel- 
erates or  slackens  his  movement,  M.  Marey  has  invented  a  model,  valuable  both 
for  artists  and  demonstrators,  by  means  of  which  it  is  easy  to  construct  the  nota- 
tion of  such  or  such  a  variation  of  gait,  even  to  reproduce  voluntarily  the  forms 
of  locomotion  now  unknown,  which  are  perhaps  employed  by  certain  savage  spe- 
cies whose  mode  of  progression  has  not  been  analyzed. 

The  model  for  notation  of  the  gaits2  consists  of  a  small  black-board  (Fig.  190) 
along  which  can  glide  four  small  flat  reglets,  alternately  black  and  white  or  gray 
and  black,  and  placed  two  by  two. 


FIG.  190. 

As  each  of  these  blocks  is  independent,  it  is  easy  to  juxtaposit  or  alternate 
in  several  ways  the  white  segments  (contacts)  and  the  dark  segments  (elevations). 
The  notation  of  any  marched  gait  whatever  can  thus  be  constructed  very 
rapidly. 

In  Fig.  190,  for  example,  have  been  arranged  alternately  the  light  blocks  and  the  black 
blocks  in  both  the  superior  and  the  inferior  reglets.  Then  the  latter  have  been  moved  towards 
the  left  without  changing  their  relations.  In  this  manner  one  variety  of  walk  can  be  obtained. 
If  the  posterior  left  beat  is  produced  opposite  to  the  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  so  many  different 
varieties  will  thus  be  the  result. 

In  Fig.  191  the  blank  blocks  are  semi-superposed  in  each  series  of  reglets.  The  inferior  series 
is  so  disposed  as  to  make  the  beat  of  the  anterior  right  coincide  with  the  posterior  left.  The 
result  is  a  notation  corresponding  to  one  variety  of  gallop, 

But  the  model,  thus  constructed,  is  not  applicable  to  the  notations  of  the 
leaping  gaits,  in  which  intervene  the  phases  of  suspension  during  which  no  foot 
touches  the  ground. 


1  See  Marey,  loc.  cit.,  p.  184.  2  Marey,  loc.  cit. 


GENERALITIES    OF    THE    GAITS.  501 

With  a  view  of  remedying  this  defect,  we  have  constructed  a  model  slightly 
different  from  the  preceding.  The  reglets  are  replaced  by  clear,  independent 
blocks,  but  gliding  freely  in  grooves  with  a  black  surface.  It  becomes  easy,  with 
this  modification,  to  represent  the  notation  of  any  gait  whatever. 


FIG.  191. 

After  these  general  considerations  upon  the  gaits,  we  will  resume 
their  study  in  particular.  Before  doing  so,  it  is  indispensable  to  give 
(Fig.  192),  in  a  table  which  we  borrowed  from  M.  Marey,1  a  synopsis 
of  their  notations,  such  as  most  authors  admit.  Except  the  amble  and 
the  trot,  upon  which  all  are  in  accord,  all  the  others  are  defined  in 
different  manners. 

"  The  variation,"  M.  Marey  very  wisely  remarks,  "  explains  itself 
sufficiently  :  first,  because  the  observation  of  these  movements  is  very 
difficult,  and,  secondly,  because,  in  nature,  the  walk  may,  according  to 
circumstances,  present  the  different  forms  which  each  author  has  arbi- 
trarily taken  as  the  type  of  the  normal  walk.  Each  man,  in  this  case, 
allowed  himself  to  be  guided  by  theoretical  conditions.  Those  who 
admit  equal  intervals  between  the  four  beats  thought  they  saw  more 
clearness  in  this  kind  of  rhythm  and  a  better-marked  distinction  be- 
tween it  and  the  amble  and  the  trot. 

"  Others  have  sought,  in  the  walk  which  served  as  their  type,  the 
realization  of  a  certain  ideal.  For  Raabe  this  ideal  was  the  maximum 
stability  which  is  obtained,  according  to  theory,  when  the  body  rests 
longer  upon  the  diagonal  than  on  the  lateral  bipeds,  hence  his  selection 
of  the  type  represented  by  notation  No.  6.  Lecoq,  thinking,  on  the 
contrary,  that  the  best  step  is  the  swiftest,  chose  as  his  type  that  in 
which  the  body  rests  longer  upon  the  lateral  biped  than  upon  the 
diagonal  (notation  No.  4)." 

The  reader  will  therefore  not  be  surprised  now  that  our  own  views 
differ  from  those  of  the  authors  who  have  preceded  us.  Let  him  not 
for  an  instant  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  gaits,  as  a  whole,  constitute 

i  Marey,  loc.  cit.,  p.  153. 


502 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  192.— Synopsis  of  the  notations  of  the  gaits  of  the  horse,  after  the  authors. 


No.  1.      Amble,  by  all  authors. 

f  Broken  amble,  according  to  Merche, 
No.  2.  4      Vallon. 

I  Running  walk,  Bouley. 

/  Ordinary  pace  of  gaited  horse,  Mazure. 
No.  3.  4  Broken  amble,  Bouley. 

>.  Racking,  Bourgelat,  Lecoq. 
No.  4.      Normal  walk,  Lecoq. 

f  Normal  walk,  Solleysel,  Bourgelat,  Vin- 
cent  and   Goiffon,    Colin,   Bouley, 
NO'  5>  I      Merche. 

I  Running  walk,  Vallon. 


No.    6. 


Normal  walk,  Raabe,  Vallon,  Lenoble 
du  Teil. 


No.    7.      Broken  trot;  racking. 
No     8  I  Orainary  trot-    (The  time  of  projec- 
'  \     tion  has  not  been  noted.) 

No     9   I  Normandy  gait,  Lecoq. 
I  Racking,  Vallon. 

No.  10.      Racking,  Merche. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  503 

a  series  (al  .  .  .,  a2  .  .  .,  a4  .  .  .,  «7  .  .  .,  as  .  .  .,  am)  whose  terms 
are  not  all  named  or  even  known  ;  that  these  terms,  nevertheless,  exist 
and  presumably  constitute  particular  forms  of  adaptation  of  a  gait  to 
such  or  such  service ;  finally,  that  their  list  can  increase  only  by  the 
employment  of  more  delicate  and  more  accurate  processes  of  analysis 
than  our  senses  are.  It  is  with  the  aid  of  the  graphic  method  and 
chrono-photography,  which  are  never  inaccurate  in  their  results,  that 
we  should  pursue  the  long  and  difficult  researches  yet  to  be  made  on 
this  subject. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE   GAITS   IN   PARTICULAR.  • 

THE  horse,  strictly  speaking,  employs  in  a  state  of  nature  only  four 
gaits,  which  are — the  walk,  the  amble,  the  trot,  and  the  gallop.  Domes- 
tication has  modified  these  primitive  gaits,  as  it  has  changed  his'external 
form  and  his  aptitudes ;  it  has  originated  modes  of  progression  which 
are,  in  reality,  mere  varieties  of  the  preceding. 

Their  study  being  most  difficult,  we  will  commence  with  the  simplest, 
and  describe  simultaneously  their  corresponding  varieties. 

First,  we  will  establish  two  great  categories  according  to  the  man- 
ner of  association  or  succession  of  the  members  :  the  lateral  gaits  and 
the  diagonal  gaits. 

Among  the  first  we  include : 

1st.  The  amble,  a  fast  gait,  marched  with  two  times,  and  charac- 
terized by  the  simultaneous  raising  and  resting  of  the  lateral  bipeds. 

The  broken  amble,  a  variety  of  the  preceding,  with  four  times, 
consisting  in  the  disassociation  of  the  lateral  bipeds. 

Among  the  second  we  class  : 

2d.  The  trot,  a  fast  gait  with  two  times,  characterized  by  the 
simultaneous  raising  and  resting  of  the  diagonal  bipeds. 

Ordinarily  it  is  marched,  when  the  posterior  imprints  remain  behind 
the  anterior  of  the  same  side;  leaped,  when  the  posterior  imprints 
cover  or  surpass  the  anterior. 

The  broken  trot  is  a  variety  of  the  preceding,  which  consists  in 
a  disassociation  of  the  diagonal  beats.  According  to  the  length  of  the 
step,  the  posterior  imprints  surpass  or  fall  short  of  the  anterior ;  it  may 
therefore  be  leaped  or  marched. 


504  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HOPSE. 

The  canter  is  an  unusual  or  defective  gait,  in  which  the  hetero- 
chronous  beats  of  one  of  the  bipeds,  anterior  or  posterior,  effect  a 
rhythm  different  from  the  isochronous  beats  of  the  opposite  biped.  It 
is  said,  in  this  case,  that  the  horse  gallops  in  front  and  trots  behind, 
and  vice  versa.  The  canter  can  also  be  denned  as  a  trot  in  which  the 
beats  of  one  of  the  diagonal  bipeds  is  disassociated  instead  of  remaining 
simultaneous. 

The  running  walk,  or  high  step,  a  gait  establishing  a  transition 
between  the  marched  broken  trot  and  the  walk,  in  which  the  diagonal 
beats  follow  in  close  succession  and  the  posterior  imprints  are  always 
but  a  short  distance  behind  the  anterior. 

3d.  The  walk,  a  still  slower  gait,  with  four  times,  in  which  the  mem- 
bers, associated  in  diagonal  bipeds,  are  elevated  and  rested  successively. 

According  as  the  beats  are  closer  laterally  or  diagonally,  it  furnishes 
varieties  which  tend  to  simulate  either  the  amble  or  the  trot. 

Backing,  or  the  walk  executed  backward. 

4th.  The  gallop,  a  fast  gait,  with  three  beats,  and  leaped,  in  which 
the  synchronous  beats  of  a  diagonal  biped  are  interposed  between  the 
successive  beats  of  the  opposite  diagonal  biped,  which  begins  the  step  by 
its  posterior  member. 

The  simultaneous  beats  of  the  second  contact  with  the  ground 
(second  biped)  have  the  greatest  tendency  to  become  disassociated  when 
the  horse  moves  almost  without  advancing,  when  the  equilibrium  is 
bad,  or  when  the  speed  is  very  great.  In  this  case  the  ear  can  perceive 
four  distinct  beats. 

On  the  race-course  the  gallop  is  an  extremely  fast  gait  in  which 
this  separation  of  the  diagonal  beats  is  driven  to  its  utmost  limits. 

A.— The  Amble,  Pacing. 

The  amble  is  a  natural  or  an  acquired  gait,  in  which  the  members 
of  each  lateral  biped  rise  and  reach  the  ground  simultaneously  (Fig. 
193).  Two  beats  only  are  therefore  heard  in  the  complete  step  of  the 
ambling  horse. 

It  is  thought  that  these  expressions  are  derived  from  the  Latin 
ambulare,  to  go  about,  doubtless  because  horses  which  have  this  gait 
were  formerly  employed  for  quiet  riding.  De  Curnieu  says  that  this 
gait  was  in  great  vogue  at  the  time  when  the  horse  and  saddle  were  the 
only  means  of  transport  for  travellers  of  all  ages  arid  all  sexes.1 

Many  authors  affirm  that  horses  which  amble  naturally  have  better 

1  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  t.  i.  p.  161. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


505 


qualities  and  are  more  sought  after  than  those  which  have  acquired  this 
gait  by  education.  The  explanation  for  this  preference,  as  Baron 
d'Eisemberg1  expressed  a  long  time  ago,  is  that  in  the  latter  the  mem- 
bers are  raised  higher  from  the  ground,  and  thus  the  reactions  of  the 


FIG.  193.— The  amble:  contact  of  right  lateral  biped. 

body  are  less  gentle.  The  former  have,  besides,  the  advantage  of 
executing  the  gait  from  the  fact  of  an  innate  aptitude,  a  circumstance 
which  places  them  at  once  in  better  condition  to  profit  by  the  benefits 
resulting  from  their  training  and  dressing.  Amblers  or  pacers  are 
seldom  found  nowadays  but  in  countries  in  which  the  bad  state  of  the 
roads,  the  length  of  the  journeys,  the  distance  between  the  villages  or 
public  taverns,  and  the  want  of  other  means  of  transport,  render  their 
use  necessary.  They  are  excluded  from  the  services  of  the  army  and 
from  the  riding-school  on  account  of  the  difficulty  they  experience  in 
passing  from  this  gait  into  another. 

The  English  called  them  geldings,  or  guilledins,  and  excelled  in  the 
art  of  dressing  them.  Baron  d'Eisemberg 2  relates  that  he  saw  some 
which  maintained  their  gait  during  a  whole  day  with  so  much  ease  and 
speed  that  they  were  accompanied  with  difficulty  by  other  horses  at  a 
gallop.  .  The  gelding  was  emasculated  ;  he  was  dressed,  it  is  said,  by 
fastening  together  the  members  of  the  same  side.  This  practice  is  still 

1  Baron  d'Eisemberg,  Art  de  monter  a  cheval,  1747,  p.  13.    (Quoted  from  De  Curnieu,  t.  i. 
P,  161.) 

2  Baron  d'Eisemberg,  loc.  cit.,  p.  12. 


506  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

employed  in  Brittany  and  in  Algeria.  The  movements  of  the  members 
of  each  lateral  biped  are  associated  by  means  of  a  cord  attached  above 
the  knee  and  the  hock.  This  gelding  does  not  exist  in  our  day  ;  the 
name  remains  simply  to  designate  a  castrated  horse. 

According  to  De  Curnieu,  Napoleon  I.  preferred  amblers  in  a  cam- 
paign for  long  and  quick  reconnoitrings. 

Painters  and  sculptors  have  sometimes  represented  the  amble 
instead  of  the  walk,  which  is  not  extraordinary,  considering  the  large 
number  of  horses  which  employed  the  former  instead  of  the  latter. 
As  an  example  of  this  we  may  cite  the  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XII.,  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  palace  of  Blois. 

Let  us  say,  finally,  that  certain  colts,  at  first  anfblers,  will  at  a 
later  period  learn  to  trot.  Reversely,  some  horses,  primarily  good 
trotters,  amble  towards  the  decline  of  life,  through  fatigue  and  usage.1 
But  this  gait  is  not  peculiar  to  the  horse ;  other  animals,  as  the  camel, 
dromedary,  and  giraffe,  employ  it  naturally.  We  have  also  observed 
it  in  exceptional  cases  in  the  ox  and  the  dog  [it  is  common  in  the  dog]. 

A  complete  step  of  the  amble  has  two  equal,  successive  times,  during 
each  of  which  the  members  of  the  same  lateral  biped  are  raised  and 
reach  the  ground  simultaneously.  Lecoq  was  therefore  quite  right  in 
comparing  this  succession  and  association  of  the  members  to  the  walk 
of  two  men,  one  placed  a  certain  distance  behind  the  other.2 

If  we  represent,  says  M.  Marey,3  the  movements  of  these  two  men 
by  placing  above  the  notations  of  those  of  the  anterior  and  below  the 
notations  of  those  of  the  posterior,  the  following  figure  (Fig.  1 94)  will 


FIG.  194. 

be  obtained,  in  which  the  right  feet  correspond  to  the  white  lines  and 
the  left  to  the  gray.  It  is  seen  here  that  the  ear  can  hear  only  two 
beats  to  each  step,  the  two  members  on  the  same  side  striking  the  soil 
at  the  same  instant. 

But  is  this  gait  marched  or  leaped  f  All  authors  are  not  in  accord 
upon  this  point.  Most  of  them,  however,  maintain  the  first  view,  and 
we  coincide  with  them.  There  are  exceptions  ;  some  amblers  leave  the 


1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  dictionnaire  de  medecine,  de  chirurgie,  et  d'hygiene  ve"terinaires, 
t.  i.  p.  402. 

2  Lecoq,  loc.  cit.,  p.  416. 

8  Marey,  Machine  animate,  p.  148. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  507 

soil  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  lateral  contacts.     M.  Lenoble 
dti  Teil l  has  observed  several  examples. 

It  is  none  the  less,  however,  a  fact  that  if  the  amble  is 
in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  a  marched  gait,  there  must  be, 
between  its  two  times,  a  very  short  period  during  which 
the  four  members  remain  on  the  ground.  This  occurs 
when  the  body  is  shifted  from  one  lateral  biped  to  the  — j-_ ^ 
other.  At  this  instant,  difficult  to  perceive,  so  short  is  it,  \  ' 

the  period  of  exchange  of  contact  is  manifested.     Hence  the 
true  notation  of  this  gait  should  be  like  that  represented 
in  Fig.  195,  and  not  like  that  which  M.  Marey  has  given,  as       f\ 
reproduced  above  (Fig.  194). 


0 


FIG.  195.— Notation  of  the  marched  amble. 

There  are  seen,  in  fact,  short  quadrupedal  bases,  1,  3, 

5  .  .  .,  interposed  between   the  fundamental   bases  2,  4, 

6  .  .  .,  which  were  alone  admitted  hitherto,  save  by  M. 
Lenoble  du  Teil,  who  was  the  first  to  observe  and  formu- 
late the  facts  in  question.2     We  expect  to  register  these 
bases,  as  well  as  their  duration,  by  the  aid  of  our  electric 
shoe  (chaussure  exploratrice). 

The  trail  shows  (Fig.  196)  the  imprints  of  the  poste- 
rior feet  always  surpassing  considerably  those  of  the  corre- 
sponding anterior,  because  the  space  embraced  by  each 
posterior  member  is  about  one-third  longer  than  the  length 
of  the  lateral  base. 

The  length  of  the  step  of  the  ambling  horse,  according 
to  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,3  would  be  equal  to  that  of  the  ordi- 
nary walk,  say  1.80  m.  for  a  horse  of  1.60  m.  at  the 
withers. 


1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  note  communique^.  FIG.  196.— Trail 

2  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Locomotion  quadrupede  etudi6e  sur  le  cheval ;  2e  6d.,     of  the  amble, 
p.  53,  pi.  v.,  Paris,  1877.  after  Lenoble 

3  Lenoble  du  Teil,  loc.  cit.,  p.  58.  du  Teil. 


508  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  displacements  of  the  centre  of  gravity  occur  in  a  trans- 
verse and  an  antero-posterior  sense. 

1st.  In  the  transverse  displacement,  this  centre  is  carried,  during 
each  time,  alternately  from  left  to  right  and  right  to  left,  from  E,  F, 
G,  upon  the  lines  AB,  CD,  A'B',  etc.  (Fig.  197),  which  unite  the  two 


FIG.  197. 


lateral  bipeds  on  the  ground.      This  movement  produces  a  sort  of 
rocking,  which,  when  exaggerated,  may  occasion  a  fall  sideways. 

2d.  The  vertical  displacements  take  place  during  each  period  of 
contact,  and  can  be  represented  by  the  arcs  EF,  FG  (Fig.  198),  whose 


height  is  always  small,  since  the  gait,  being  very  unstable,  is  low  anoj 
quick.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  ambler  is  an  easy  and  pleasant 
mount,  so  appreciated  by  persons  who  object  to  the  stronger  reactions 
of  the  gallop  or  the  trot. 

The  great  speed  of  this  gait  is  explained  by  the  eccentric  position 
of  the  base  of  support,  which  increases  the  instability  of  the  equilib- 
rium, and,  consequently,  the  speed- 
According  to  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,1  the  velocity  should  be  2.40  m. 
per  second,  as  in  the  ordinary  walk,  for  a  horse  1.60  m.  high.  The 
velocity  of  this  gait,  it  is  perceived,  varies  in  a  great  measure  accord- 
ing to  the  conformation,  the  energy,  and  the  endurance  of  the  animals. 
In  1844  and  1845,  in  concert  with  H.  Bouley,  we  observed  a  mare, 
known  in  Paris  by  the  name  of  Americaine,  which  several  times, 
and  with  the  same  success  on  each  occasion,  ambled  the  whole  distance 
from  Paris  to  Fontainebleau  against  thoroughbred  horses  going  at  a 
gallop. 

The  amble,  in  this  instance,  was  leaped,  as,  indeed,  it  appears  to 
be  whenever  its  speed  attains  that  of  the  fast  trot.  According  to  M. 
Lenoble  du  Teil,2  this  particular  form  of  ambling  is  well  known  to 
the  Germans,  who  call  it  \heflyiny  amble. 

1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  loc.  cit,  p.  57.  2  Lenoble  du  Teil,  note  communiquee. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  509 

Disadvantages. — On  the  other  hand,  however,  if 
the  ambling  horse  is  fast,  his  step  lacks  sureness  and  safety. 
Obliged  to  advance  the  members  close  to  the  ground,  he 
is  liable  to  knock  against  the  inequalities  of  the  soil ;  as 
a  consequence,  he  frequently  stumbles,  and  it  requires  the 
continual  attention  of  the  rider  to  select  the  road  and  to 
support  him  when  he  makes  a  false  step. 


fjl  F 


Conformation. — A  strong  and  muscular  frame,  a 
wide  chest,  short  loins,  strong  articulations,  irreproachable 
axes,  and  perfectness  of  action  of  the  members  will  counter- 
balance the  inconveniences  accruing  from  the  instability  of 
his  equilibrium  and  the  lowness  of  his  gait. 

Broken  Amble. 

We  will  call,  with  Vallon  and  Merche,  the  broken 
amble  that  variety  of  the  amble  in  which  the  members, 
still  associated  in  lateral  bipeds,  reach  the  soil  successively, 
the  posterior  a  little  before  the  anterior,  producing  thus  A(J 
four  beats  and  leaving  also  four  imprints  on  the  ground. 
The  only  difference  between  this  gait  and  the  ordinary 
amble  is  that  in  the  latter  the  lateral  lifting  and  resting  of 
the  feet  are  simultaneous,  while  in  the  former  they  are 
effected  separately  with  a  short  interval.  It  follows,  then, 
that  the  posterior  imprints,  in  position,  surpass  much  less 
the  anterior,  since  the  hind-foot  is  arrested  behind  the  point 
where  it  would  go  if  it  met  the  soil  at  the  same  time  as 
the  fore-foot. 

Fig.  199  represents  the  trail  of  the  broken  amble, 
according  to  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,1  who,  in  his  classifica- 
tion, calls  the  latter  broken  walk. 

The  disassociation  of  the  lateral  beats,  AD,  PD  and 
AG,  PG  (Fig.  200),-  gives  origin  to  complex  supplement- 
ary bases  (2,  3,  4  and  6,  7,  8),  which  are  interposed  between    p 
the  ordinary  lateral  bases  (1,  5,  9  .  .  .),  always  of  long 
duration.     Instruments  will  probably  demonstrate  among 
these  supplementary  bases  a  diagonal  base  (3,  7  .  .  .)  placed 
between  two  very  short  tripedal   bases  (2  and  4,  6  and 
8).    If  the  periods  of  exchange  of  contact  (2,  4,  6,  8  .  .  .)    A 
are   longer   than  we   have   supposed,  the   supplementary 
bases  will  simply  be  tripedal.  FIG.  199.— Trail 

of  the  broken 
1  henoble  du  Teil.  Etude  sur  la  locomotion  du  cheval,  etc. ;  atlas,  pi.  vii.  amble. 


0 


510  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Be  it  as  it  may,  it  results  from  these  facts  that  the  variety  under  con- 
sideration is  more  stable  than  the  normal  amble ;  the  horse  can  there- 
fore take  a  longer  step  without  increasing,  for  this  reason,  the  rapidity 
of  his  movements.  Hence  the  ambler  breaks  his  gait  only  when  an 


FIG.  200.— Notation  of  the  broken  amble. 

increase  of  speed  incompatible  with  the  synchronous  play  of  the  ante- 
rior and  posterior  member  is  demanded  of  him.  In  this  case  the  latter 
is  obliged  to  precipitate  its  action,  to  anticipate  that  of  the  former  and 
to  respond  to  the  required  acceleration. 

The  interposition  of  the  three  supplementary  bases  between  the 
two  lateral  successive  bases  explains  also  the  smallness  of  the  trans- 
verse displacements  of  the  centre  of  gravity  and,  in  consequence,  the 
great  ease  of  the  reactions  of  the  broken  amble.  If,  however,  such  a 
horse  is  restrained  from  moving  his  members  with  sufficient  rapidity, 
so  as  to  advance  them  close  to  the  ground  without  great  reactions  to 
the  rider,  he  constitutes  a  mount  hardly  surer  or  more  stable  than  the 
ordinary  ambler.  Like  the  latter,  he  scrapes  the  ground,  stumbles, 
and  even  falls  when  he  is  ridden  hard  on  rough  roads. 

The  broken  amble,  says  Vallon,1  is  usual  to  certain  varieties  of 
horses,  such  as  the  small  horses  of  Normandy  and  those  of  the  Hague. 
It  is  common  in  Algeria,  and  the  Arabs  produce  it  artificially  by  chain- 
ing, in  the  pastures,  their  horses  in  lateral  bipeds ;  then,  when  mounted, 
they  urge  them  with  the  spur  or  the  angle  of  their  wide  stirrup.  But 
as  soon  as  the  training  ceases  they  reassume  the  normal  amble  or  the 
walk,  and  the  whole  series  of  these  training  exercises  must  be  recom- 
menced. Properly-dressed  Barb  horses  can  easily  travel  two  and  one- 
half  leagues  per  hour  at  this  gait,  completing  thus  twenty-five  to  thirty 
leagues  per  day. 

B.— The  Trot. 

The  trot  is  a  natural  gait,  with  two  times,  more  or  less  fast,  in  which 
the  members  rise  and  reach  the  ground  simultaneously  in  diagonal 

1  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  532. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


511 


bipeds.     As  in  the  amble,  the  complete          J 

i 

( 

u 

step,  therefore,  emits  two  beats. 

Trails    and    Varieties    of   the 

t 

)A 

Trot.1  —  According    to   the    relation   of 

the   imprints   left  by  an          ^ 

animal  which  trots,  three 

9 
k 

particular  varieties  can  be           1 

1 





observed  :   sometimes  the 

posterior   remain    behind 

the   anterior  (Fig.  201); 

( 

\PA 

sometimes  they  are  super- 

posed   upon    each    other 

ri 

\ 

(Fig.     202)  ;     sometimes, 

J 

)A 

•     • 

1 

finally,  the  posterior  sur- 

/ 

\p 

.     . 

pass    the    anterior   (Fig. 

I 

l« 

A< 

203). 

In    other  words,    the 

horse  se  dejuge  (ill-checks 

his  steps),  se  juge  (checks 

PA/ 

> 

them),  or  se  mejuge  (over- 

I 

checks    them),   according 

1 

to  the  length  of  his  strides.       P  J 

1 

(See  page  474.) 

/ 

%p 

The  ordinary  trot  is 

I 

that  in  which  the  super- 

position of  the   imprints 

< 

exists,  which  is  indicated 

in  figures  by  means  of  a 

( 

)A 

( 

IPA 

shoe  provided  with  a  sin- 

( 

gle  crampon.      The  trail 

1 

IP 

is  then  simple,  right  and 

left. 

The  short  trot  is  that 

in  which  the  posterior  im- 

prints do  not  quite  reach 

L 

p< 

1 

the  anterior. 

1 

Finally,  we  call  long       P  A 

PAA 

A 

"s 

tf   7                                                  O          »•*••* 

01.  —  Trail       FIG.     202.  —  Trail      FIG.   203.—  Trail 

FIG.  2 

of  the  short  trot.           of  the   ordinary          of  the  long  trot. 
i  All  the  trails  of  the  trot  are  after         (Lenoble      du          trot.  (Lenoble  du         (Lenoble      du 
the  same  scale,  and  therefore  com-         Teil.)                          Teil  )                            Teil.) 

parable  to  one  another. 

512 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


trot  that  in  which  the  posterior  imprints  surpass  the  corresponding 
anterior. 

In  the  last  two  cases  the  trail  is  double  on  both  sides. 


FIG.  204.— The  leaped  trot;   left  diagonal 
contact. 


FIG.  205.— The  leaped  trot;  projection. 


The  gait,  however,  assumes  a  peculiar  disposition  according  as  the 
body,  in  the  course  of  the  complete  evolution  of  the  step,  remains  in 

contact  with  the  soil  or  is  sepa- 
rated a  little  before  each  diagonal 
contact.  It  then  takes  the  char- 
acter of  piarched  or  leaped.  In 
general,  the  short  trot  is  marched, 
particularly  when  the  animal  is  in 
harness.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be 
leaped,  as  when  the  horse,  urged 
by  the  voice,  the  whip,  or  the  legs, 
is  prevented  from  producing  the 
acceleration  of  speed  thus  indi- 
cated. It  is  often  observed  at  the 
riding-school  in  horses  held  in  the 
"  gathered-up"  attitude ;  also  in  very  ardent  and  nervous  draught-horses 
that  are  too  fiery  at  starting  and  are  held  back. 

Figs.  204,  205,  and  206  represent  precisely  the  three  principal  phases 
of  this  modification  of  the  short  trot,  from  instantaneous  photographs 
by  M.  Ottomar  Anschiitz,  of  Lissa. 

The  ordinary  and  the  long  trots  are  always  leaped.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  fore-foot  must  necessarily  be  raised  before  the  corre- 
sponding hind-foot  touches  the  ground,  under  penalty  of  wounds  from 
the  latter,  and  to  permit  the  latter  to  cover  or  to  pass  over  the  imprints 
of  the  former.  As  at  this  moment  the  diagonal  members  are  in  the 
air,  the  body  remains  without  contact  for  an  instant. 


FIG.  206.— The   leaped   trot;   right   diagonal 
contact. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


513 


The  phase  of  suspension  of  these  trots  coincides  with  a  more  or  less 
lengthy  and  elevated  projection  of  the  body,  which  gives  to  them  vary- 
ing aspects.  It  is  greatest  in  the  long  trot,  medium  in  the  ordinary, 
and  very  little  marked  in  the  short.  According  to  the  height  to  which 
the  body  is  raised,  it  renders  the  gait  high  or  low.  It  is,  in  general, 
proportional  to  the  speed  employed  and  the  vigor  of  the  animal. 

When  the  velocity  of  the  trot  is  carried  to  the  extreme,  the  syn- 
chronism of  the  diagonal  beats  is  seen  to  disappear;  the  latter  are 
slightly  disassociated,  and  this  all  the  more  as  the  hind-foot  reaches 
farther  beyond  the  fore-foot  of  the  same  side.  The  amplitude  of  the 
steps  then  reaches  its  highest  limits.  This  is  the  beginning  of  a  new 
variety,  the  broken  trot,  trot  of  the  hippodrome  or  the  race-course,  which 
the  English,  on  account  of  its  velocity,  call  the  flying  trot.  We  will 
study  it  presently. 

Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Members  in  the  Trot. — 
1st.  Anterior  Member. — The  period  of  dispersion  of  forces,  0  to  2,  very 
marked,  is  manifested t  above  all,  during  the  contact  with  the  ground,  as  deduced 


X  A 

FIG.  207.— Kinematic  analysis  of  the  play  of  the  anterior  member  in  the  ordinary  trot 

(Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages.) 
A.  Phase  of  contact.  |  S.  Phase  of  elevation. 


from  the  researches  of  Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages  (Fig  207,  A),  by  the  sudden  and 
forcible  descent  of  the  fetlock,  which  is  also  perceived  by  the  carpus  and  the 
elbow,  although  less  sensibly  by  the  latter.  The  curve  of  the  withers  is  greatly 
depressed  in  its  middle,  in  consequence  of  the  flexion  of  the  angle  of  the 
shoulder. 

During  the  elevation,  S,  the  trajectory  of  the  withers  also  offers  a  curve  in  its 
middle,  a  marked  inflection,  due  to  the  shortening  of  the  opposite  member,  now 
in  its  contact,  which  weakens,  in  its  turn,  the  concussion  of  the  body  upon  the 
ground. 

The  trajectories  of  the  fetlock  and  the  knee,  sensibly  parallel,  forcibly 

33 


514 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


ascend  (the  fetlock  first)  during  the  shortening  of  the  member,  to  descend  simul- 
taneously when  the  latter  elongates  and  prepares  to  rest  again. 

As  to  the  trajectory  of  the  foot,  inversely  disposed,  convex  at  the  beginning 
of  the  elevation  and  oblique  downward  at  the  end,  it  crosses  that  of  the  fetlock 
under  the  effect  of  strong  flexion  of  the  pastern  at  the  instant  when  the  foot 
leaves  the  ground. 

2d.  Posterior  Member. — Phase  of  Contact,  A  (Fig.  208). — In  a  general 
manner,  all  the  articular  trajectories  are  lowered  during  the  period  of  disper- 


FIG.  208.— Kinematic  analysis  of  the  play  of  the  posterior  member  in  the  ordinary  trot. 

(Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages.) 
A.  Phase  of  contact.  |  S.  Phase  of  elevation. 

sion,  the  inferior  much  more  than  the  superior.  The  curves  then  rise  gradually, 
as  in  the  anterior  columns,  during  the  period  of  extension.  These  trajectories  are 
convex,  save  that  of  the  stifle,  which  remains  concave  and  low,  from  the  forward 
notation  of  the  tibia. 

During  the  elevation,  S,  a  depression  exists  in  the  middle  of  the  trajectories, 
except  upon  those  of  the  fetlock  and  the  foot ;  it  corresponds  to  the  phase  of 
dispersion,  0  to  2,  of  the  opposite  member.  It  is  preceded  and  followed  by  a 
slight  ascension,  due  to  a  greater  or  less  raising  of  the  body  at  the  moment  of 
the  periods  of  suspension.  The  trajectories  of  the  fetlock  and  the  foot  resemble 
those  of  the  anterior  member,  only  that  of  the  foot  approaches  the  former  less, 
on  account  of  the  more  feeble  flexion  of  the  pastern. 

Rhythm  of  the  Beats;  Time  of  Projection;  Tracing 
and  Notation. — When  the  trot  is  regular,  and  its  speed  not 
excessive,  only  two  sounds,  or  two  synchronous  beats  of  equal  intensity, 
are  heard.  Tired  and  overdriven  horses  do  not  travel  at  this  gait  long 
without  irregularities,  which  must  be  considered  as  defects.  We  will 
study  these  under  the  names  racking,  saut  de  pie,  and  canter. 

The  duration  of  the  time  of  projection l  has  been  differently  appre- 

1  Let  us  recall  that  in  the  leaped  trot  there  is  a  simple  suspension  when  the  lateral  imprints 
are  superposed,  and  a  projection  when  the  posterior  imprints  surpass  the  anterior. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


515 


ciated  by  most  authors  who  only  had  recourse  to  direct  observation. 
The  means  of  investigation  employed  by  M.  Marey  has  enabled  him  to 
harmonize  these  views.  Having  established  this  divergence  of  opinion  by 
citing  H.  Bouley,1  according  to  whom  the  period  of  projection  is  shorter 
than  that  of  the  contact,  contrary  to  Raabe,2  who  claims  the  reverse, 
this  learned  experimenter  expressed  himself  in  the  following  terms : 3 

"  An  old  and  very  docile  horse  has  furnished  the  tracing  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  209.     In  this  figure  are  indicated  the  tracings  of  the 


FIG.  209.— Tracing,  notation,  and  reactions  of  the  trot. 


AG,  beginning  of  the  contact  of  the  anterior 

left  foot. 
AD,  beginning  of  the  contact  of  the  anterior 

right  foot. 


PD,  beginning  of  the  contact  of  the  posterior 

right  foot. 
PG,  beginning  of  the  contact  of  the  posterior 

left  foot. 


contact  with  the  soil  of  the  four  members,  with  their  notation,  and, 
besides,  the  reactions  given  by  this  gait  to  the  horse.  . 

"  Here  it  is  observed  that  the  curves  of  the  contacts  of  the  four 
feet  reach  two  different  levels :  the  higher  are  the  curves  of  the  ante- 
rior members ;  the  lower,  those  of  the  posterior.  In  each  of  these 
series  the  curves  of  the  left  foot  are  represented  by  dotted  lines ;  those 
of  the  right  by  the  continuous  lines. 

"  The  ascent  of  each  curve  expresses  the  commencement  of  the 
contact  of  the  foot  upon  the  ground  ;  the  descent  indicates  the  moment 
when  the  foot  is  raised.4  It  is  seen,  from  these  tracings,  that  the  feet 

1  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit.,  t.  i.  p.  391. 

2  Raabe,  Locomotion  du  cheval  (Examen  des  allures),  p.  39. 

3  Marey,  La  machine  animale,  p.  150. 

4  "  The  duration  of  the  contact  should  be  indicated  by  a  horizontal  line,  but  we  have  given 
to  the  tube  a  narrowness  destined  to  weaken  the  sudden  impulse  impressed  upon  the  registering 


516  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

A  G  and  PD,  anterior  left  and  posterior  right,  strike  the  ground  at  the 
same  time.  The  simultaneous  lowering  of  the  curves  of  these  two 
feet  shows  that  their  elevations  are  also  made  simultaneously.  Below 
these  curves  is  the  notation  which  expresses  the  duration  of  the  con- 
tact of  the  left  diagonal  biped. 

"  The  second  beat  is  produced  by  the  feet  AD  and  PG,  right  diag- 
onal bipeds,  and  so  on  over  the  whole  length  of  the  tracing. 

"  It  is  seen  in  the  notation  of  this  tracing  that  the  contacts  (full 
lines)  are  double  the  length  of  the  time  during  which  the  body  is  sus- 
pended above  the  ground  (intervals  between  the  full  lines).  This  sus- 
pension therefore  coincides  with  the  theory  of  Bouley,  and  is  contrary 
to  that  of  Raabe ;  but  it  seems  to  us  that  there  is  a  great  variation  in 
the  relative  duration  of  these  two  phenomena  in  the  trot.  Thus,  cer- 
tain horses,  trotting  in  harness,  have  furnished  tracings  in  which  the 
phase  of  suspension  was  scarcely  perceptible  (Fig.  210),  in  such  a 


FIG.  210.— Notation  of  an  ordinary  trot  in  which  the  phase  of  suspension  is  nr  t  perceptible. 

manner  that  this  form  of  the  trot  here  approaches  the  low  gaits,  but 
still  preserving  the  perfect  synchronism  of  the  diagonal  beats.  We 
have  not  yet  been  able  to  study  them  in  the  fast  trotters ;  in  them, 
perhaps,  there  is  an  inverse  tendency,  the  time  of  suspension  increasing 
at  the  expense  of  the  duration  of  the  contact." 

This  is  the  result  of  our  own  observations  also.  When  the  move- 
ments are  high  and  extended  the  body  remains  longer  in  the  air  than 
in  contact  with  the  soil ;  it  seems^as  if  the  horse  displaces  himself  by 
diagonal  jumps:  The  strides,  in  this  case,  are  very  long.  It  may  be 
the  same  in  circumstances  exactly  the  reverse,  when,  for  example,  the 
horse,  taking  small  steps,  balances  himself,  as  it  were,  in  the  air  during 
the  projection,  and  carrying  the  feet  low  (Lenoble  du  Teil). 

At  other  times  the  speed  is  still  considerable,  but  the  time  of  con- 
tact and  elevation  of  the  members  appears  sensibly  equal ;  the  pro- 
jection is  then  not  very  extended.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
movements  are  more  rapid  ;  the  trail  then  shows  the  imprints  in  closer 
relation,  the  beats  are  more  precipitated,  and  the  body  moves  more 
closely  to  the  ground. 


needle;  the  effect  of  this  narrowness  is  a  slight  deformity  of  the  curve,  which,  however,  does- 
not  interfere  with  the  study  of  the  rhythms." 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


517 


Finally,  when  the  trot  is  marched,  as  is  seen  most  frequently  in 
that  which  is  termed  short,  the  phase  of  simple  suspension  is  entirely 
absent.  The  body  never  leaves  the  ground  altogether,  and  the  period 
of  exchange  of  contact  gives  rise  to  short  quadrupedal  bases,  1,  3,  5 
(Fig.  211),  which  are  interposed  between  the  principal  bases,  2,  4,  6, 
formed  by  the  diagonal  feet. 


FIG.  211.— Notation  of  the  marched  trot. 

Displacements  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity  and  Reac- 
tions.— The  centre  of  gravity,  in  the  trot  as  in  the  amble,  undergoes 
two  sorts  of  displacements,  from  side  to  side  and  from  behind  to 
before.  The  latter  give  origin  to  reactions  so  much  more  forcible  as 
the  gait  is  higher  and  more  elongated. 

Concerning  the  lateral  or  transverse  displacements,  "  since  the  body," 
as  Lecoq  *  properly  says,  "  is  successively  supported  by  the  diagonal 
bipeds,  the  centre  of  gravity  should  always  lie  upon  a  point  of  the  line 


FIG.  212. 

which  unites  the  two  members.  If  we  suppose  it  to  be  at  the  point 
C  (Fig.  212)  of  the  diagonal  AB,  we  will  find  it  at  D  upon  the  diag- 
onal BA',  when  the  left  diagonal  biped  is  on  the  ground,  and  it  will 
advance  to  E,  upon  the  diagonal  A'Bf,  when  the  right  diagonal  biped 
will  have  completed  the  step.  We  see,  therefore,  that  in  the  complete 
step  of  the  trot  the  line  described  by  the  centre  of  gravity,  longer 
than  in  the  amble,  forms  less  acute  angles  and  approaches  less  the 
borders  of  the  rectangle  of  the  members ;  and  that,  consequently,  a 
more  favorable  condition  for  the  equilibrium  coincides  with  less  ener- 
getic muscular  effort  for  an  equal  distance,  since  the  expenditure  of 

1  Lecoq,  loc.  cit.,  p.  354. 


518  THE    EXTERIOR    OP"    THE    HORSE. 

the  contraction  is  all  the  greater  as  the  centre  of  gravity  tends  to 
deviate  farther  from  the  median  line  of  the  body. 

"  The  vertical  or  longitudinal  displacements  cannot  be  represented," 
adds  Lecoq,  "  by  the  two  uniform  curves  which  exist  in  the  amble. 
As  the  body  is  elevated  by  the  effort  of  the  members  and  falls  in  con- 
sequence, the  centre  of  gravity  should  of  necessity  describe  two  para- 
bolic curves,  such  as  CD  and  DE  (Fig.  213),  the  body  falling  with 


greater  velocity  than  that  with  which  it  is  raised,  although  the  effort 
of  propulsion  may  always  be  uniform." 

Finally,  M.  Marey  *  has  been  able,  with  the  aid  of  registering  in- 
struments, to  note  the  reaction, — that  is  to  say,  the  displacements  of 
the  withers  and  the  croup  at  the  period  of  contact  of  each  of  the  mem- 
bers upon  the  ground.  Thus  he  has  obtained  the  curves  RA  and  RP, 
seen  in  the  upper  part  of  Fig.  209.  The  reactions  of  the  anterior  mem- 
bers have  given  the  line  RA;  those  of  the  posterior,  the  line  RP. 
"  Here  we  see,"  says  he,  "  that  the  moment  in  which  the  body  reaches 
the  lowest  limits  of  its  vertical  oscillation  coincides  precisely  with  that 
in  which  the  feet  are  not  in  contact  with  the  ground.  Thus,  the  period 
of  suspension  of  the  body  is  not  due  to  the  body  of  the  horse  being 
projected  in  the  air,  but  to,  the  flexion  of  all  four  members  for  a  short 
period.2  The  maximum  height  of  the  rise  of  the  body  corresponds, 
on  the  contrary,  to  the  termination  of  the  contact  of  the  members  with 
the  ground.  It  seems,  from  the  tracings,  that  the  rising  of  the  body 
only  commences  a  little  after  each  double  beat,  and  continues  during 
the  whole  of  the  contact. 

"  Finally,  we  see,  in  the  same  figure,  that  the  reactions  of  the  an- 
terior members  are  greater  than  those  of  the  posterior.  This  fact  has 
to  us  appeared  constant ;  besides,  the  inequality  of  the  reactions  is 
more  exaggerated  in  the  walk,  in  which  the  instrument  placed  upon 
the  withers  nearly  always  shows  appreciable  reactions,  while  upon  the 
croup  it  shows  scarcely  any." 

Upon  the  instantaneous  photographs  from  Lissa  it  is  easy  to  prove 

1  Marey,  La  machine  animal e,  p.  162. 

2  Some  exceptions  in  this  respect  should  be  made.    Instantaneous  photographs  have  given 
different  results,  more  in  harmony  with  observation  of  the  movements  of  the  rider  upon  the 
saddle. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  519 

that  the  rider  falls  upon  the  saddle  a  little  after  each  diagonal  biped 
rests,  when  the  axis  of  the  members  passes  beyond  its  vertical  direction. 
He  is  raised,  on  the  contrary,  at  the  moment  when  each  diagonal  biped 
leaves  the  ground,  and  remains  in  the  air  during  the  whole  duration  of 
the  phase  of  suspension. 

Length  of  the  Step  of  the  Trot. — It  is  extremely  difficult  to 
formulate,  or  even  to  determine  approximately,  the  absolute  4acts  on 
this  point,  for  the  experimental  results  obtained  to  elucidate  this  ques- 
tion are  only  comparable  when  the  researches  are  made  upon  subjects 
identical  and  perfectly  uniform  in  their  gaits.  When  such  is  the  case, 
the  successive  steps  are  sensibly  equal. 

But  are  the  height,  on  the  one  part,  and  the  length  of  the  base  of 
support,  on  the  other,  in  simple  and  constant  relation  with  the  length 
of  the  strides  ?  In  other  words,  is  it  the  horse  highest  at  the  withers, 
or  that  one  whose  base  of  support  is  the  most  extensive,  which  takes 
the  longest  steps  ? 

The  man  would  be  liable  to  commit  an  error  who  would  answer 
these  questions  a  priori,  because  observation  of  the  data  in  this  respect 
leads  to  results  apparently  contradictory.  The  problem  is,  indeed,  so 
complex,  in  consequence  of  its  numerous  factors,  that  its  solution  is 
necessarily  false,  if  we  base  it  only  upon  some  phenomena  without 
taking  into  account  all  the  elements  capable  of  influencing  it. 

The  length  of  the  space  embraced  at  each  step  by  the  play  of  the 
members  is  related,  above  all,  to  the  length  of  the  locomotory  columns, 
the  degree  of  openness  and  mode  of  action  of  the  articular  angles,  the 
extent  of  the  muscular  contraction,  the  proper  relations  between  the 
height  of  the  body,  its  largeness  and  its  width,  to  the  particular  de- 
velopment of  certain  regions,  etc.  All  these  points  have  already  been 
treated  CL  propos  of  the  regions,  the  proportions,  and  the  axes,  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred. 

But,  to  speak  more  definitely,  let  us  state  that  the  mean  length  of 
a  step  in  the  ordinary  trot  is  about  2.40  m.  for  a  horse  1.60  m.  in 
height.  The  cavalry  regulation  of  1829  makes  it  only  2.20  m.,  which 
seems  to  us  rather  short. 

Velocity  of  the  Trot. — The  mean  velocity  of  this  gait  is  about 
240  metres  per  minute,  as  it  has  been  fixed  by  the  cavalry  regulation. 
This  gives  approximately  a  kilometre  in  a  little  more  than  four  minutes, 
and  4  kilometres  in  a  little  less  than  seventeen  minutes.  The  distance 
traversed  at  the  trot  in  a  given  time  varies  according  to  several  con- 
ditions which  must  be  recognized. 

In  comparative  experiments  made  with  horses  of  unequal  height, 


520 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


we  have  seen  that,  in  the  same  time,  they  can  accomplish  equal  dis- 
tances. What  is  the  explanation  of  this  fact?  Evidently  that  the 
smallest  horse  compensates  the  shortness  of  the  steps  by  an  aug- 
mentation in  their  number.  One  is  therefore  correct  in  the  conclusion 
that,  all  things  being  equal  otherwise,  for  the  same  course,  the  same 
surface,  the  same  energy,  the  speed  of  the  trot  is,  above  all,  subser- 
vient to  two  causes :  the  length  of  the  steps  and  the  frequency  of  their 
repetition. 

To  these  must  be  added  another  important  element,  training,  the 
effect  of  which  is  so  well  known. 

Most  observers  have  cited  examples  relative  to  the  great  speed 
employed  in  the  trot ;  a  certain  number  are  given  in  the  following 
table:1 


g        NAMES. 

SEX. 

RACE. 

MODE  OF 
TRANS- 
PORT. 

DISTANCE. 

TIME. 

MEAN 
SPEED 

PER 

SECOND. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Metres. 

1 

Mare. 

English. 

Harness. 

160.930  k. 

12  h. 

3.725 

2  Verny  .... 

Horse. 

Russian. 

'< 

128.000  k. 

9h.05m. 

3.914 

A.  M.  Popoff. 

3  Betty  Bloss    . 

Mare. 

English. 

" 

24.139  k. 

1  h.  00  rn. 

6.705 

Carried  88.886  k. 

4  Spider  .... 

H 

" 

" 

88.623  k. 

lh.30m. 

7.152 

5      " 

<> 

« 

«< 

25.746  k. 

58  m.  00  s. 

7.398 

Carried  25.746  k. 

6  Phenomena  . 

« 

« 

Mounted. 

27.358  k. 

53  m.  00  s. 

8.600 

Carried  54.745  k. 

7  Verny  .... 
SSlava    .... 

Horse. 
Mare. 

Russian. 

Harness. 

4.800  k. 
4.800  k. 

8  m.  36  s. 
8  m.  09*4  s. 

9.302 
9.812 

A.  M.  Popoff. 

9  Volchebwitza 

" 

« 

" 

3.200  k. 

5  m.  25  s. 

9.846 

10            " 

" 

«( 

" 

4.800  k. 

8  m.  05  s. 

9.896 

11  Polkantchik  . 

Horse. 

" 

M 

4.838k. 

8  m.  07  s. 

9934 

25  kil.  under  the 

saddle. 

12  Loubezny  .  . 

<« 

« 

<< 

6.000  k. 

10  m.  01  s. 

9.983 

13  Polkantchik  . 

" 

" 

" 

5.000k. 

8  m.  20  s. 

10.000 

25  kil.  under  the 

saddle. 

14  Mashisty    .  . 

" 

«« 

•« 

4.267  k. 

7  m.  06  s. 

10.016 

15Slava    .... 

Mare. 

« 

(i 

3.200  k. 

5  m.  19Vi  s. 

10.031 

16  Mashisty    .  . 

Horse. 

« 

" 

3.200  k. 

5  m.  16%  s. 

10.126 

17  Polkantchik  . 

" 

" 

" 

4.800k. 

7  m.  52  s. 

10.169 

ISSvet  

" 

« 

" 

3.200  k. 

5m.  14%  s. 

10.191 

19  Loubezny  .  . 

" 

* 

" 

6.400  k. 

10  m.  28  s. 

10.191 

20  Polkantchik  . 

" 

« 

" 

3.200  k. 

5  m.  13  s. 

10.223 

21  Loubezny  .  . 

" 

M 

" 

3.200  k. 

5  m.  12  s. 

10.256 

22  Svet  

<( 

'< 

" 

4.800k. 

7  m.  45  s. 

10.332 

23  Kasmack    .  . 

« 

<< 

<< 

4.830  k. 

7  m.  49  s. 

10.298 

24  Loubezny  .  . 

" 

•« 

«< 

4.800k. 

7  m.  44%  s. 

10.334 

25  Confidence    . 

Gelding. 

English. 

M 

1.609  k. 

2  m.  35  s. 

10.382 

26  Dutchman  ,  . 

M 

« 

Mounted. 

1.609  k. 

2  m.  35  s. 

10.382 

27  Ripton     .  .   . 

" 

«< 

Harness. 

3.218  k. 

5  in.  07  s. 

10.484 

28  Kasmack    .  . 

Horse. 

Russian. 

" 

3.200  k. 

5  m.  04>^  s. 

10.509 

29  Bedouin  ,,  .   . 

« 

" 

5.500  k. 

8  m.  41  s. 

10.556 

A.  M.  Popoff—  15 

kil.  under  the 

saddle. 

30  Volcano  .  .  . 

« 

English. 

" 

1.609k. 

2  m.  31  s. 

10.655 

31  Verny  .... 

« 

Russian. 

M 

4.000  k. 

6  m.  14  s. 

10.695 

A.  M.  Popoff. 

32  Archer     .  .   . 

" 

English. 

U 

40.232  k. 

Ih.  00m. 

11.175 

Cited  by  J.  Law- 

rence. 

33  Santa  Claus  . 

" 

Americ'n 

« 

1.609  k. 

2  m.  18  s. 

11.659 

Journ.  des  haras 

trotter. 

(November, 

1881). 

1  For  more  details,  see  Charles  du  Hays,  The  Trotters  (Brussels,  Paris,  and  Leipsic,  8vo, 
without  date).  This  book  treats  of  the  trotting  races  which  had  taken  place  in  France  from  1827 
to  1863,  and  refers  to  the  speed  of  the  flying  trot,— that  is  to  say,  the  broken  trot. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  521 

It  is  seen  from  this  table,  arranged  according  to  the  degree  of 
speed,  that  the  latter  augments,  in  general,  in  an  inverse  ratio  with  the 
distance.  This  conclusion  is,  however,  not  applicable  to  all  cases, 
because  certain  trotters  occupy  in  this  table  a  position  different  from 
that  which  they  would  have  obtained  had  the  severity  of  the  task 
effected  been  considered.1 

Beauties  and  Defects  of  the  Trot. — The  beauties  of  the 
gait  of  the  trot  consist  in  its  regularity,  gracefulness,  height,  and 
speed.  It  is  extremely  rare  to  meet  all  of  these  combined  in  the  same 
subject. 

Its  regularity  is  indicated  by  the  synchronism  of  the  beats  and  the 
uniformity  of  the  step. 

Its  gracefulness  consists  in  its  lightness,  ease,  and  suppleness,  as 
well  as  in  the  parallelism  of  the  planes  of  oscillation  of  the  mem- 
bers in  relation  to  the  median  plane. 

Its  height  is  associated  with  the  energy  of  propulsion  and  the  length 
of  the  projection. 

The  speed  depends,  as  we  have  seen,  upon  the  length  of  the  steps 
and  the  frequency  of  their  repetition  in  a  given  time. 

Observation  can  easily  distinguish  a  good  trotter. 

We  will  summarize  the  principal  features  of  his  conformation,  such 
as  H.  Bouley 2  has,  in  general,  so  accurately  outlined  : 

Amplitude  of  the  chest,  expressed  externally  by  long  and  well- 
arched  ribs ;  abdominal  development  proportional  to  the  mass  of  the 
body ;  back  and  loins  straight,  full,  muscular,  situated  upon  the  same 
level  as  the  croup,  neither  too  long  nor  too  short ;  croup  long,  mus- 
cular, not  too  horizontal,  inclined  30  to  35  degrees ;  haunches  wide 
and  well  detached  ;  head  light,  supported  by  a  neck  long,  straight,  and 
pyramidal ;  withers  high,  neat,  not  too  thin,  and  prolonged  backward ; 
shoulder  long  and  oblique ;  arm  little  inclined ;  elbows  separated ; 
forearm  long,  wide  antero-posteriorly,  furnished  with  muscles  large 
and  well  outlined  under  the  skin ;  knee  flat  in  front,  salient  behind, 
and,  above  all,  articulated  vertically ;  canons  short,  strong,  wide,  ver- 
tical ;  tendons  voluminous,  clean,  well  detached,  parallel  to  the  canon ; 
fetlock  wide ;  pasterns  short,  little  inclined ;  thigh  long,  muscular, 


1  We  have  purposely  not  included  in  the  preceding  observations  this  passage  from  Cardini : 
'•Jack,  a  celebrated  trotting-horse  which,  in  1834,  trotted  two  English  miles  in  three  minutes 
and  seven  seconds,  is  cited."    This  horse  would  therefore  have  travelled  in  the  time  indicated, 
3  k.,  218  metres.    By  making  the  calculation,  it  is  found  that  the  speed  would  have  been  17.208 
m.  per  second.    We  believe  that  there  is  an  error  in  the  correctness  of  the  time,  for  the  most 
remarkable  trotters  are  too  much  below  the  speed  attributed  to  Jack. 

2  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire,  etc.,  t.  i.  p.  394. 


522  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

very  mobile ;  stifle  projecting  outward ;  buttock  and  leg  long,  wide, 
muscular ;  hock  fine,  clean,  wide,  thick,  well  directed.  Finally,  reg- 
ular axes;  muscles  dense,  compact,  prominent;  skin  fine  and  mane 
little  abundant. 

In  France  there  are  no  equine  races  whereof  the  individuals  are 
exclusively  trotters,  as  in  Russia,  England,  and  America,  for  example.1 
But  we  meet,  among  our  Anglo-Normans,  many  horses  which,  in  races 
to  harness  and  under  the  saddle,  vie  with  the  preceding. 

All  horses  do  not  trot  in  the  same  manner.  There  are  some  in 
which  the  extension  of  the  whole  anterior  member  is  carried  to  such 
an  extreme  that  the  contact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground,  after  a  short 
time  of  arrest,  almost  seems  to  be  effected  upon  the  heels.  The  move- 
ments of  the  posterior  members  are  equally  very  extended,  whence  an 
energetic  effort  of  propulsion,  much  more  action,  as  we  are  in  the  habit 
of  saying. 

Again,  there  are  some,  light  trotters,  which  emit  but  faint  beats 
when  trotted  upon  a  hard  road  or  a  pavement ;  others,  on  the  contrary, 
emit  heavy  sounds  under  these  circumstances.  Some  roek  themselves 
from  the  fact  of  very  great  corpulence  or  a  vicious  axis  of  the  members. 

Some  raise  their  members  insufficiently  from  the  ground,  scrape  the 
floor  ;  others  elevate  them  excessively,  trot  from  the  knees,  which  is  so 
much  loss  of  force. 

Others,  again,  lack  harmony  between  the  movements  of  the  fore- 
and  those  of  the  hind-limbs,  or  have  some  anatomical  defect  of  certain 
regions  which  detracts  from  the  grace  and  ease  of  the  gait,  and  even 
exposes  them  to  many  accidents  to  be  described  farther  on ;  such  are 
horses  which  forge,  have  string-halt,  pegged  shoulders,  rotating  hocks,  etc. 

Finally,  some  show  their  shoes,  from  excessive  flexion  of  the  pastern 
upon  the  fetlock. 

Most  of  these  defects  are  not  peculiar  to  the  trot,  but  are  common 
to  all  the  other  gaits.  We  will  examine  them  in  a  special  chapter. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  some  defects  whose  study  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated from  that  of  the  trot ;  they  become  manifest  when  the  horse  is 
overdriven,  fatigued,  or  exhausted.  We  will  immediately  pass  them  in 
review. 

The  Broken  Trot ;  Flying  Trot ;  Racking. 

All  these  expressions  are  synonymous  in  that  they  are  applied  to 
characterize  the  same  phenomenon,  modifying  the  rhythm  of  the  trot 


1  This  expression  is  scarcely  correct,  for  the  trotter  does  not  constitute  a  race,  but  only  a 
variety  of  a  race.    (Harger.) 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  523 

and  giving  to  it  a  peculiar  appearance.  We  refer  to  the  disassociation 
of  the  diagonal  beats.  The  terms  are,  however,  employed  differently 
according  to  the  conditions  under  which  this  disassociation  manifests 
itself. 

Sometimes  the  synchronism  of  the  diagonal  contacts  disappears 
when  the  speed  of  the  trot,  already  great,  is  carried  to  the  extreme,  as 
is  observed  in  the  j 'cist  trot  or  flying  trot. 

At  other  times  this  takes  place  if  the  ordinary  trot  be  forced  ever 
so  little.  It  is  in  this  event  that  the  word  racking  is  to-day  em- 
ployed. The  latter,  therefore,  should  express  more  especially  a  dis- 
union of  the  trot,  which  may  have  as  its  causes  fatigue,  weakness,  or 
wear  and  tear.1 

Be  that  as  it  may,  it  will  be  found  on  serious  consideration  that  it 
is  an  effort  of  an  identical  nature  which  induces  the  horse,  whatever  he 
may  be,  vigorous  or  exhausted,  to  break,  disunite,  disconnect  his  diag- 
onal beats.  He  endeavors,  in  all  cases,  to  accelerate  his  speed  by  longer 
strides  without  passing  into  the  gallop ;  and  he  would  surely  pass  into 
the  latter  if  he  were  not  held  back,  or  if  the  urging  with  the  voice,  the 
whip,  or  the  leg  were  continued.  Hence,  in  our  opinion,  this  variety 
of  trot  is  a  transition,  a  mode  of  changing  from  the  normal  trot  to  the 
gallop.  As  it  accompanies  a  variable  degree  of  velocity,  it  must  be 
interpreted  favorably  or  unfavorably  according  to  circumstances. 

Thus,  it  is  not  inadmissible  in  a  trotting-horse,  if  it  serves  as  a 
means  of  acceleration  to  excel  his  competitors ;  but  this  horse  would 
be  considered  as  being  inferior  to  his  rivals,  if  the  disunion  of  the  gait 
did  not  make  him  superior  to  them  in  point  of  speed.  Likewise  a 
horse  which  racks  after  a  slower  trot  is  much  inferior  to  one  which  only 
changes  to  this  gait  after  moving  at  greater  speed. 

It  is  seen  that,  in  the  presence  of  the  broken  trot,  numerous  dis- 
tinctions must  be  made  relative  to  the  qualities  of  the  animals.  The 
important  point  is  to  determine  at  what  rate  of  speed  the  change  takes 
place,  so  as  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  or  is  not  a  sign  of  fatigue  and  ex- 
haustion. Young  horses  which  are  little  accustomed  to  work  frequently 
rack,  but  training  and  exercise  will  usually  cause  the  disappearance  of 
this  defect.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  irremediable  in  those  in  which 
excessive  labor  or  old  age  has  deteriorated  the  forces  and  exhausted 
the  mechanism. 

The  flying  trot  or  fast  trot  is  in  most  instances  a  broken  trot,  which 


1  It  is  impossible  to  formulate  the  general  trail  of  racking,  because  it  necessarily  varies  with 
the  speed.    It  resembles  ordinarily  that  of  the  broken  trot. 


524 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


the  majority  of  horses  employ  either  during  the  entire  dura- 
tion of  a  race  or  only  when  nearing  the  winning-post. 


FIG.  215.— The  flying  trot  of  the  horse  Abe  Edington :  projection. 

absence  of  more  conclusive  evidence,  we  may  doubt  if  any 
horse  exists  that  never  indulges  in  the  practice. 


p 

(V 


FIG.  214.— The  flying  trot  of  the  horse  Abe  Edington :  end  of  the  left 
diagonal  contact. 

Exceptionally  good  subjects  give  way  to  it  less  frequently       A 
and  for  shorter  periods  of  time  than  others ;  but,  in  the        (")/- 


6 


FIG.  216.— The  flying  trot  of  the  horse  Abe  Edington :  commencement 

of  the  right  diagonal  contact. 

FIG.  217.— Trail 

of  the  flying 

This  gait  is  the  result  of  the  excessive  speed  which     trot   of  the 
they  are  made  to  display.     Horsemen  have  been  for  many 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  525 

years  opposed  to  the  tendency  which  certain  trainers  have  of  training 
their  horses  in  this  direction.  According  to  M.  Ephrem  Houel,1  it 
should  even  be  strictly  proscribed  on  all  the  race-courses.  We  are  in 
accord  with  this  opinion,  and  believe  that,  by  the  fatigue  which  it 
occasions,  it  exposes  the  members  to  premature  ruin. 

M.  Lenoble  du  Teil  has  carefully  studied  the  flying  trot  from  the 
instantaneous  photographs  of  M.  Muybridge,  published  in  the  journal 
La  Nature,  in  1879.  He  has,  at  our  request,  formulated  the  trail  and 
the  notation  of  this  gait  furnished  by  the  American  horse  Abe  Eding- 
ton,  moving  at  the  rate  of  11.90  m.  per  second. 

We  have  reproduced  very  accurately,  in  Figs.  214,  215,  and  216, 
three  successive  phases  of  the  trot  of  this  horse,  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
attitude  of  the  members  and  the  very  great  length  of  the  strides. 
These  figures  will  explain  themselves. 

The  trail  (Fig.  217)  shows  that  the  posterior  imprints  are  situated 
almost  2  metres  in  front  of  the  corresponding  anterior.  This  peculi- 
arity is  due  to  the  distance  of  the  projection.  Here  will  be  remarked, 
besides,  the  relative  smallness  of  the  diagonal  base,  which  at  times  does 
not  attain  1.20  m., — that  is  to  say,  three-quarters  of  the  height  of  the 
horse,  as  is  observed  in  the  ordinary  trot.  Hence  there  results  less 
stability  and,  in  consequence,  more  precipitated  movements  and  greater 
velocity. 

The  stride,  measured  between  the  successive  imprints  of  the  ante- 
rior right  foot,  is  6.04  m. ;  it  occupied  about  half  a  second.  That  of  the 
posterior,  measured  from  the  left  imprint,  is  a  little  longer ;  it,  indeed, 
attains  6.23  m. 


FIG  218.— Notation  of  the  flying  trot  furnished  by  the  horse  Abe  Edington. 
(From  instantaneous  photographs  of  Muybridge.) 

The  notation  is  also  most  interesting.  The  disassociation  of  the 
diagonal  beats  is  very  evident  (Fig.  218).  The  anterior  member  arrives 
first  on  the  ground.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  body  is  first  supported 
by  this  member  (1),  then  by  a  diagonal  biped  (2),  finally  by  the  poste- 

i  Ephrem  Houel,  Trait<§  des  courses  au  trot,  p.  126,  Paris,  1864. 


526  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

rior  member  (3)  belonging  to  this  biped.  After  the  posterior  unipedal 
contact  the  body  is  raised  from  the  soil,  P,  to  touch  it  again  and  com- 
plete a  half-step. 

M.  Lenoble  du  Teil  has  calculated  that  the  duration  of  each  foot 
on  the  soil  lasted  about  fourteen-hundredths  of  a  second,  or  three- 
elevenths  of  the  total  duration  of  the  step,  while  the  unipedal  contacts, 
much  shorter,  equal  each  only  one-ninth  of  the  time  of  the  contact 
of  the  feet.  One  understands  then  the  impossibility  of  appreciating 
clearly  this  analysis  of  the  diagonal  beats  under  such  velocity. 

As  to  the  phases  of  projection,  they  are  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the 
duration  of  the  contact, — that  is  to  say,  relatively  long  in  relation  to 
what  they  are  in  the  perfectly  synchronous  trot. 

In  the  absence  of  more  numerous  data,  the  preceding  facts  have 
only  the  value  of  a  simple  indication,  upon  which  it  would,  no  doubt, 
be  premature  to  establish  the  definite  theory  of  the  fast  trot.  Never- 
theless, they  are  a  step  in  the  course  of  its  mechanism. 

The  conclusion  which  can  be  deduced  from  them  is  that,  at  certain 
moments,  four  times  in  the  same  step,  the  body  is  supported  only  by 
one  member.  The  anterior  limbs  have  individually  to  sustain  the 
effect  of  the  fall  of  the  body  at  great  speed,  while  the  posterior  are 
likewise  by  turns  severally  taxed  with  the  communicating  of  the  im- 
pulsion. The  apparatus  of  impulsion  of  the  latter  and  the  apparatus 
of  amortissement  (dispersion  of  concussion)  of  the  former  are  therefore 
frequently  exposed  to  exertions  from  which  they  would  be  spared  were 
not  the  synchronism  of  the  diagonal  beats  more  or  less  destroyed. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  habitual  employment  of  the  flying  trot  contributes 
to  the  premature  ruin. of  the  fetlocks  and  the  hocks,  particularly  in 
young  horses. 

But  in  the  broken  trot  is  it  always  an  anterior  member  which 
arrives  first  in  contact  ?  Is  it  not  sometimes  a  posterior  ?  It  is  pos- 
sible that  these  two  modes  of  disassociation  of  the  diagonal  beats 
can  exist,  although  science  only  possesses  presumptions  upon  this 
point. 

M.  Lenoble  du  Teil l  thinks  that  the  hind-feet  rest  first  whenever 
the  diagonal  base  notably  exceeds  three-fourths  of  the  height,  and  the 
head  and  neck  of  the  horse,  slightly  elevated,  displace  the  weight  upon 
the  posterior  quarters.  These  conditions  of  equilibrium  are  realized 
when  the  jockey  pulls  the  horse's  head  violently  with  the  reins,  in 
mediocre  trotters,  in  young  horses  which  have  had  no  training,  and  in 

1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  note  communique^. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  527 

full-grown  animals  whose  strength  has  become  exhausted  from  exces- 
sive exertion,  or  which  have  been  overdriven. 

Whatever  may  be  the  process  of  disassociation  employed  by  the 
animal,  and  the  accuracy  of  the  interpretation  which  can  be  given  to 
it,  the  fact  remains  that  the  disturbance  of  the  isochronism  of  the  diag- 
onal beats  results  in  the  formation  of  unipedal  bases,  which  increase 
the  exertion  of  the  extremities.  Whether  the  broken  trot  is  the  flying 
trot  of  subjects  endowed  with  great  action,  or  racking  of  those  fatigued 
and  inapt,  its  consequences  upon  the  locomotory  apparatus  remain  the 
same  :  premature  or  positive  ruin,  according  to  circumstances. 

On  the  other  hand,  trott ing-horses  which  disassociate  their  diagonal 
beats  by  the  initial  rest  of  the  posterior  foot  are  less  pleasant  as  saddle- 
horses  than  others,  the  rapidity  of  the  pace  being  taken  out  of  con- 
sideration. If  they  do  not  give  very  hard  reactions  to  the  rider,  they 
communicate  to  him  light  and  sudden  shocks  which  displace  his  seat 
transversely,  a  kind  of  movement  expressed  by  saying  that  they  roll 
upon  their  haunches.  With  them  one  cannot  ride  a  PAnglaise,  an  incon- 
venience of  a  certain  importance  to  persons  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
doing  so  and  who  wish  to  save  themselves  from  the  unnecessary  fatigue 
of  a  long  journey. 

Saut  de  Pie  (Skipping). 

When  the  disunion  of  the  trot  becomes  excessive,  and  when  this 
gait  is  on  the  point  of  passing  into  the  gallop,  the  horse,  in  order  to 
preserve  it,  effects  a  sort  of  leap  behind,  to  which  is  given  the  name  of 
saut  de  pie l  (foot-jerk). 

This  movement,  of  very  short  duration,  and  analogous  to  that  of 
a  pedestrian  who  endeavors  to  acquire  the  step  of  a  companion  whose 
speed  is  greater,  has  not  yet  been  analyzed  by  chrono-photography 
or  by  the  graphic  method.  (See  Canter.)  It  is  therefore  impossible, 
in  the  actual  state,  to  recognize  the  mechanism.  Hence  we  will  not 
dwell  on  this. 

The  Canter. 

The  canter  is  a  gait  of  transition  which  the  trotter  assumes  tem- 
porarily, and  in  which  he  gallops  on  one  of  his  bipeds  (anterior  or 
posterior),  while  he  continues  to  trot  on  the  other. 

It  could  be  denned  as  a  semi-broken  trot, — that  is  to  say,  with  diag- 
onal beats  synchronous  in  one  moiety  of  the  stride,  disassociated  in 
the  other. 

From  a  peculiar  resemblance  which  is  easily  understood,  although 

i  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  ler  partie,  p.  145. 


528  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

it  may  not  be  altogether  accurately  founded,  the  laity  have  compared 
the  ordinary  walk  of  a  man  to  the  walk  of  the  quadrupeds ;  his  man- 
ner of  running  to  the  trot,  and  a  certain  variety  of  the  latter,  which 
children  imitate  in  their  plays,  to  the  gallop.  The  only  error  in  this 
comparison  is  that  the  quadrupedal  locomotion  resembles,  as  Duges 
has  described,  that  of  two  men  following  each  other,  and  not  that  of 
one  alone. 

In  the  gallop  of  the  infant,  instead  of  emitting  the  sounds  at  equal 
intervals  of  time,  the  contacts  of  the  feet  are  precipitated,  one  slightly 
preceding  the  other ;  the  body  is  then  projected  to  fall  upon  the  foot 
which  was  first  rested,  and  thus  continued. 

The  anterior  and  posterior  members  of  a  galloping-horse  behave 
themselves  as  those  of  the  two  men  should  who  follow  each  other  at 
the  gallop.  There  is  no  difference  in  the  rhythm  in  either  case.  The 
association  of  the  feet  of  the  two  pedestrians  may  alone  differ  from 
the  mode  of  combination  of  the  two  bipeds  of  the  horse,  but  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  it  from  being  identical. 

If  the  fore  pedestrian  now  assumes  this  gait  (Fig.  219)  while  the 
hind  preserves  the  trot,  we  will  have  the  defect  known  under  the  name 


FIG.  219.— Notation  of  the  canter  in  Jront. 

The  irregular  beats,  AO,  AD,  of  the  anterior  biped  have  a  different  rhythm  from  that  of  the 
isochronous  beats  of  the  posterior  biped,  PD,  PO. 

the  canter  in  front.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  hind  pedestrian  gallops 
while  the  other  trots,  we  produce  the  canter  behind.  The  saut  de  pie, 
still  so  obscure,  is  perhaps  only  a  single  stride  of  the  latter. 

Finally,  let  us  advance  further  and  suppose  that  the  horse  canters 
at  the  same  time  upon  the  two  bipeds,  and  we  will  gradually  realize 
the  normal  gallop. 

This  manner  of  regarding  the  canter  as  a  form  of  transition  be- 
tween the  trot  and  the  gallop  leads  us  to  say  that  this  gait  is  much 
less  defective  than  was  hitherto  believed.  Certain  indolent,  though 
perfectly  sound,  horses  employ  it  with  great  facility,  and  would  will- 
ingly preserve  it  if  those  who  drive  them  did  not  choose  to  make  them 

1  In  order  to  simplify  the  figure,  the  periods  of  suspension,  which  exist  here  as  in  the  ordi- 
nary trot,  have  not  been  regarded. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  529 

take  the  gallop  by  urging  them  on.  Likewise,  horses  very  ardent  and 
of  a  good  conformation  are  often  seen  to  canter  for  some  distance  be- 
fore passing  into  the  gallop,  despite  the  efforts  of  their  riders  to  prevent 
them  (Lenoble  du  Teil). 

Nevertheless,  the  horse  which  canters  ordinarily  suffers  in  some 
region  of  the  members  of  the  cantering  biped,  most  often  the  feet. 
Under  other  circumstances,  it  is  an  index  of  weakness,  of  indolence,  or 
of  exhaustion.  Certainly  we  must  suspect  such  conditions,  as  this  gait 
alone  may  be  able  to  betray ;  in  itself,  it  is  not  defective,  for,  bordering 
on  the  gallop,  it  causes,  like  the  latter,  less  fatigue  and  furnishes  a  little 
more  speed  than  the  trot. 

Running  Walk.    - 

This  gait,  in  our  study,  should  be  placed  between  the  many  va- 
rieties of  the  trot  and  those  of  the  walk,  because  it  establishes  very  well 
the  transition  or  the  passage  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

It  resembles  the  trot  (Fig.  220)  in  that  the  members  are  successively 
moved  in  diagonal  bipeds  (AG,  PD — AD,  PG)  and  unites  its  beats  in 
this  order ;  it  simulates  the  walk,  on  the  contrary,  by  its  slowness,  its 


FIG.  220.— Running  walk :  notation  and  nature  of  the  bases. 

marched  character,  the  mode  of  succession,  and  the  number  of  the 
beats.  It  is,  consequently,  a  short  broken  trot  in  the  last  degree,  as 
well  as  a  very  accelerated  walk  in  which  the  horse  is  at  the  point  of 
passing  into  the  trot. 

The  disassociation  of  the  diagonal  beats,  like  the  marched  character 
of  this  gait,  gives  rise  to  complex  supplementary  bases  (1,  2,  3 — 5,  6, 
7),  which  are  interposed  between  the  ordinary  diagonal  bases  (4,  8  .  .  .), 
always  of  long  duration.  Among  these  supplementary  bases  is  found 
one  that  is  unilateral  (2,  6,  10),  placed  between  two  very  short  tripedal 
bases  (1  and  3,  5  and  7,  9  and  11). 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  running  walk  is  low,  by  no  means 
leaped,  and  always  very  easy  for  the  rider.  Horses  which  move  thus 
are  supposed  to  elevate  the  members  but  little  and  scrape  the  floor. 
Nevertheless,  this  assertion  has  yet  to  be  verified.  These  horses,  called 

34 


530  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

•  JM  .  bidets  d'allure  or  de  haut  pas,  are  at  present  somewhat 
fk  p  scarce ;  but  before  the  construction  of  railroads  they  were 
prized  by  horse-dealers,  and,  in  general,  by  all  persons 
who  had  to  travel  very  long  distances.  They  were  sought 
for  on  account  of  their  pleasant  gait,  the  rapidity  of  which 
almost  equalled  that  of  the  ordinary  trot. 

Mazure1  has  indicated  their  conformation,  if  indeed 
such  a  word  is  appropriate ;  for  in  truth  a  great  muscular 
P/\  development,  a  somewhat  large  head,  a  powerful  neck, 

rather  horizontal  than  erect,  loins  short  and  strong,  above 
all,  a  thigh  thick,  long,  and  descended,  do  not  constitute 
a  particular  conformation  allied  to  this  special  gait. 

The  trail  (Fig.    221)  shows,  as   in   the  case  of  the 
short  trot,  the  posterior  imprints  placed  behind  the  an- 
terior;  the  difference  resides  entirely  in  the  diminished 
**        length  of  the  step. 

This  gait  may  be  natural  or  artificial;  in  the  latter 
case  the  horse  is  dressed  by  trammelling  him  in  diagonal 
bipeds  by  means  of  a  strap  attached  to  the  pasterns,  and 
urging  him  as  much  as  possible  without  passing  into  the 
trot,  which  is  not  without  difficulty. 

It  would  seem  that  all  horses  do  not  execute  this  gait 
in  the  same   manner.     According  to  Lecoq,  there  were 
some  in  Normandy  which  were  called  skaters  (patineurs), 
and  in  which  the  beats,  almost  equally  separated,  differed 
only  from  those  of  the  normal  walk  by  their  rapidity 
and  a  lesser  elevation  of  the  members.     These  animals 
i     fatigue  the  rider  much  more  than  those  with  the  ordinary 
f\  p     running  walk,  by  the  rocking  which  they  occasion. 


C.—  The  Walk. 

Definition.  —  The  walk  is  a  slow,  marched  gait,  in 
which  the  four  members  succeed  each  other  diagonally, 
A  f)  rise  and  touch  the  ground  separately,  and  produce  four 

equally-spaced  beats. 

FIG.  221.  -Trail  Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Members.— 
°walk  ^rom^Le^  ^ke  body  resting  always  upon  the  ground  in  the  walk,  there  is 
noble  du  Teil.  not,  during  the  contact,  a  period  of  dispersion  as  energetic  as  in 

1  Mazure,  M6moires  de  la  Society  velSrinaire  des  departements  du  Calvados  et  de  la  Manche, 
1837,  p.  134. 


. 
p  f  \ 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


531 


the  trot.    It  is  manifested,  nevertheless,  by  a  depression  in  the  trajectories  of  the 
fetlock  and  the  knee  or  the  hock  (Figs.  222  and  223,  A). 


X.  X 

FIG.  222. — Kinematic  analysis  of  the  play  of  the  anterior  member  in  the  walk. 

(Prom  Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages.) 
A.  Phase  of  contact.        |        S.  Phase  of  elevation. 


During  the  phase  of  contact,  the  curves  of  the  articulations  of  the  fore-mem- 
bers become  progressively  convex,  in  consequence  of  the  rotation  of  the  phalan- 
gal  lever  which  raises  the  articular  centres,  particularly  the  two  inferior,  fetlock 


FIG.  223.— Kinematic  analysis  of  the  play  of  the  posterior  member  in  the  walk. 

(From  Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages.) 
A.  Phase  of  contact.        |        S.  Phase  of  elevation. 

and  carpus.  Towards  its  termination,  the  curves  descend  again  under  the  influence 
of  a  slight  flexion  of  the  knee.  In  the  posterior  members,  they  undergo  almost 
analogous  modifications. 


532  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

During  the  elevation,  S,  the  trajectories  are  sensibly  of  the  same  nature  as  in 
the  trot,  although  farther  separated  from  one  another  on  account  of  the  less  flex- 
ion of  the  articular  angles.  Yet  those  of  the  withers  and  the  shoulder,  and  even 
that  of  the  elbow,  remain  almost  horizontal.  In  the  posterior  member,  the 
coxo-femoral  centre  and  the  angle  of  the  haunch  describe  a  curve  with  the  con- 
vexity superior  corresponding  to  the  extension  of  the  member  before  leaving  the 
soil.  This  is  demonstrated  by  the  chrono-photographs  of  Messrs.  Marey  and 
Pages. 

Order  of  the  Beats. — It  is  most  frequently  the  anterior  mem- 
ber which  commences  the  step.  The  beats  in  such  a  case  follow  each 
other  in  the  following  order,  supposing  the  horse  to  step  with  the  right 
foot: 


Bight  Diagonal  Biped. 

1st  beat :  anterior  right. 
2d  beat :  posterior  left. 


Left  Diagonal  Biped. 
3d    beat :  anterior  left. 
4th  beat :  posterior  right. 


When  the  animal  leaves  station  in  a  position  more  or  less  camped, 
it  is  sometimes  a  hind-member  which  moves  first.  If  it  be  the  left, 
for  example,  the  mode  of  succession  of  the  beats  remains  the  same,  but 
the  fore-foot  of  the  same  side  is  brought  down  to  the  ground  immedi- 
ately afterwards.  The  step  is  then  completed,  as  we  have  just  said  ; 
the  extremities  then  strike  the  soil  in  the  following  manner  :  left  poste- 
rior, left  anterior,  right  posterior,  right  anterior,  left  posterior,  etc.,  and 
so  on,  as  long  as  the  gait  remains  regular.  Duges l  is  consequently  cor- 
rect in  stating  that  the  "  four  legs  of  the  horse  may  be  represented  to 
the  mind  as  two  lateral  pairs,  acting  the  one  after  the  other,  and  in  each 
of  which  the  movement  of  the  anterior  member  is  always  immediately 
preceded  by  that  of  the  posterior." 

Tracing  and  Notation. — These  facts,  observed  by  ancient  inves- 
tigators on  equine  matters,  have  been  registered  automatically  by  the 
apparatus  of  M.  Marey.2  We  will  reproduce  (Fig.  224)  the  tracing 
which  he  has  obtained  and  the  notation  which  corresponds  to  it.  The 
reader  will  in  this  figure  find  all  the  explanations  necessary  to  compre- 
hend its  details. 

The  following  principal  conclusions  can  be  deduced  from  it : 

1st.  The  order  of  the  beats,  1,  2,  3,  4,  takes  place  after  the  mode  indicated 
above. 

2d.  When  one  member  is  in  the  middle  of  its  contact,  that  of  the  one  which 
follows  it  commences. 

3d.  When  one  member  is  in  the  middle  of  its  elevation,  that  of  the  one 
which  follows  it  commences. 


i  Duges,  Traite  de  physiologic  compare,  t.  ii.  p.  170. 
«  Marey,  La  machine  animate,  p.  166. 


*• 
THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  533 

4th.  In  each  biped,  anterior  or  posterior,  when  one  member  is  on  the 
ground  its  congener  is  in  the  air,  and  vice  versa. 

5th.  If  vertical  lines  corresponding  to  each  one  of  the  beats  be  drawn 
downward,  commencing  with  that  of  the  anterior  right  foot,  which  bears  the 


FIG.  224. — Tracing  and  notation  of  the  walk  with  equality  of  the  lateral  and  diagonal  contacts. 

AD,  anterior  right  beat.  A6,  anterior  left  beat. 

PG,  posterior  left  beat.  PD,  posterior  right  beat. 

1.  2,  3,  4,  order  of  succession  of  the  beats.  Full  white  lines,  curves  given  by  the  contact  of  the 
right  feet;  dotted  white  lines,  curves  of  the  contact  of  the  left  feet.  The  curves  of  the  posterior 
feet  are  below  those  of  the  corresponding  anterior.  The  ascending  part  of  each  curve  corresponds 
to  a  contact ;  the  descending  part  to  an  elevation.  The  length  of  the  lines  of  the  notation,  situated  below 
the  tracing,  indicates  the  duration  of  the  contact.  The  interval  between  two  white  lines  represents  the 
duration  of  the  elevation  of  a  right  member ;  the  interval  between  two  gray  lines  represents  the  duration 
of  the  elevation  of  a  left  member. 

number  1,  the  figure  will  be  divided  into  successive  spaces,  in  which  will  be 
found  in  contact  (with  the  soil)  sometimes  two  members  of  the  same  side  (lateral 
biped),  sometimes  two  members  situated  diagonally.  Thus,  from  1  to  2  the 
horse  would  rest  upon  the  right  lateral  biped ;  from  2  to  3,  upon  the  right  diag- 
onal ;  from  3  to  4,  upon  the  lateral  left ;  from  4  to  5,  upon  the  diagonal  left ; 
finally,  from  5  to  6,  he  would  rest,  as  at  the  beginning,  upon  the  lateral  right 
(Marey). 

The  contact  of  the  body  is  therefore  twice  lateral  and  twice  diagonal  during 
the  duration  of  the  same  step. 

6th.  When  the  animal  rests  upon  a  lateral  biped,  the  members  of  the  opposite 
biped  are  very  close  together,  for  the  anterior  is  raised  while  the  posterior  arrives 
on  the  ground.  It  is  under  these  conditions  that  the  hind-foot  can  meet  the  fore- 
foot, if  the  latter  be  not  raised  quickly  enough.  (See  instantaneous  photographs.) 

7th.  When  the  animal  rests  upon  a  diagonal  base,  the  members  of  the  biped 
in  contact  are  widely  separated,  since  the  anterior  is  about  reaching  the  ground 
and  the  posterior  is  in  the  act  of  rising.  Never  will  the  horse,  in  this  case,  be 
exposed  to  forging  or  overreaching.  (See  instantaneous  photographs.) 

8th.  The  lateral  base  is  always  very  long,  the  members  which  form  it  show- 
ing themselves,  by  turns,  in  a  camped  attitude.  According  to  M.  Lenoble  du 
Teil,  it  should  be  1.65  m.  for  a  horse  of  1.60  m. 

9th.  The  diagonal  base  is  always  small,  the  members  which  form  it  being 
drawn  towards  each  other.  According  to  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,  it  should  be 
0.75  m.  for  a  horse  of  1.60  m. 


534 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


The  conclusions  which  we  have  just  drawn  from  the  tracings  of  M. 
Marey  are  in  accord  with  the  facts  observed  by  all  authors,  ancient  and 
modern.  We  must,  however,  confess  that  they  are  slightly  erroneous 
in  that  which  concerns  the  number  of  bases  which  support  the  body 
successively  during  the  accomplishment  of  a  complete  step. . 

By  viewing  the  horse  obliquely  in  front  or  behind,  when  the  gait  is 
slow,  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  ascertain  for  ourselves  that  the  body  is 
not  exclusively  sustained  by  diagonal  or  lateral  bases. 

At  certain  moments  there  appear  tripedal  supplementary  bases, 
recognized  by  our  distinguished  colleague,  M.  Che'nier,1  and  before 
him  by  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil,2  who  described  in  the  marched  gaits  the 
remarkable  periods  of  exchange  of  contact,  a  statement  identical  to  that 
recently  made  by  Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages,3  when  they  spoke  of  the 
period  of  double  contact  recognized  by  them  in  these  same  gaits. 

A  horse  which  ascends  a  hill,  pulls  a  heavy  load,  or  walks  slowly, 
shows  tripedal  bases  very  plainly. 

The  instantaneous  photographs,  notably  those  of  M.  Ottomar  An- 
schiitz,  of  Lissa,  attest  this  in  a  forcible  manner.  Figs.  225,  226r 


Jj Ha   Ml   M    IB    BSI    I       __         *„_      ~~] 

ESii  isai   ESS  r  ksi^ii^taai^i 

FIG.  225.— The  walk :  posterior  right  tripedal 

contact, 

(From  the  instantaneous  photographs  of 
'     i.) 


FIG.  226.— The  walk :  lateral  right  contact. 

(From  the  instantaneous  photographs 

of  Lissa.) 


227,  ana  228,  reproduced  from  these  photographs,  explain  the  succession 
of  the  diverse  bases  which  appear  in  the  course  of  a  semi-step,  and 
which  are  repeated  in  the  same  order  in  the  other  moiety  of  the  stride. 
The  tripedal  bases  of  support  there  are  evident. 

1  G.  Chenier,  Analyse  du  present  ouvrage,  in  Echo  des  Socie~tes  et  associations  veterinaires, 
annee  1884. 

2  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Etude  sur  la  locomotion  de  1'homme  et  des  quadrupedes  en  g6n6ral,  p. 
14,  Paris,  1887 

8  Marey  et  Pages,  Comptes-Rendus  de  1'Acade'mie  des  sciences,  18  Juillet,  1887. 


THE    GAITS    JN    PARTICULAR. 


535 


It  is  also  with  absolute  accuracy  that  M.  Che'nier  advances  that 
these  bases  alternate  very  regularly  with  the  fundamental  bases  already 
known. 


M    ••    i  e 

MS   Baa  Ksa   aa    Ea 


FIG.  227.—  The  walk;  anterior  right  tripedal 

contact. 

(From  the  instantaneous  photographs 
of  Lissa.) 


!•  •  •  *••  i.  F- 


FIG.  228.— The  walk:  right  diagonal  contact 

(From  the  instantaneous  photographs 

of  Lissa.) 


Fig.  229  is  the  exact  notation  of  the  walk  with  equidistant  beats, 
which  has  been  photographed  by  M.  Anschiitz. 


FIG.  229.— Notation  of  the  ordinary  walk. 

(From  the  instantaneous  photographs  of  Lissa.) 

1,  3,  5,  7,  tripedal  bases  ;  2,  6,  lateral  bases  ;  4,  8,  diagonal  bases. 

The  duration  of  the  fundamental  bases  is  twice  that  of  the  supplementary,  which  equals  one- 
seventh  of  the  total  contact  of  each  foot. 

Evidently  the  periods  of  contact  upon  three  members  are  so  much 
shorter  and  less  appreciable  as  the  rhythm  of  the  gait  is  more  precipi- 
tated. They  occur  at  the  time  of  each  change  of  contact,  and,  as  there 
are  four  of  these  changes,  two  for  each  biped,  anterior  and  posterior, 
there  should  also  be  four  supplementary  tripedal  bases.1 

If  M.  Marey's  instruments,  delicate  as  they  are,  have  not  registered 
them,  it  is  because  they  occur  at  the  instant  of  the  raising  and  resting 

1  Like  markings  on  the  extremities,  the  tripedal  bases  are  designated  by  the  name  of  the 
isolated  member  (anterior  or  posterior)  which  contributes  to  form  them.  Example,  the  base  PQ, 
PD—AG,  will  be  called  tripedal  anterior  left. 


536  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

of  the  hoofs  or  the  canons,  which  are  thus  in  an  attitude  ill  suited  to 
exercise  sufficient  pressure  on  the  pneumatic  foot-bulb.  "We  expect 
to  obtain  them  and  appreciate  their  duration  in  all  the  varieties  of 
the  walk  by  means  of  our  electrical  shoe. 

Varieties  of  the  Rhythm. — The  remarks  which  precede  apply 
to  a  particular  variety  of  the  walk,  that  in  which  the  four  beats 
occur  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  a  circumstance  which  implies 
a  perfect  equality  between  the  diagonal  and  lateral  contacts.  All 
authors  do  not  admit  this  special  rhythm.  Some,  with  Lecoq,  say 
that  the  beats  are  drawn  nearer  in  lateral  bipeds  ;  others,  with  Raa.be, 
claim,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  are  brought  closer  in  diagonal 
bipeds. 

It  follows,  then,  that  for  the  former  the  body  should  be  supported  longer 
upon  the  lateral  than  upon  the  diagonal  base.  If,  in  fact,  the  interval  which 
exists  between  the  beat  of  the  posterior  left,  PG  (Fig.  230),1  and  the  anterior 


FIG.  230.—  Walk,  with  predominance  of  the  lateral  contacts. 

beat  of  the  same  side,  A  G,  is  shorter  than  that  which  elapses  between  the  latter, 
A  G,  and  the  posterior  right,  PD,  it  necessarily  follows  that  the  distances  from 
PG  to  AG  (diagonal  base)  will  be  less  than  that  from  AG  to  PD  (lateral  base). 

Besides,  if  the  inferior  line  of  the  notation  be  displaced  to  the  left  so  as  to 
bring  PD  nearer  to  AG  and  remove  PG  from  AG,  the  opposite  hypothesis  will 
be  represented,  in  which  the  lateral  contacts  will  be  shorter  than  the  diagonal. 

In  the  first  case,  the  gait  will  approach  the  broken  amble ;  in  the  second,  it 
will  be  more  analogous  with  the  running  walk. 

How  is  this  divergence  of  opinion  explained  ?  The  answer  is  easy 
and,  above  all,  conciliatory  :  All  parties  are  right.  As  Merche  prop- 
erly remarked,2  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  two  horses  walking  in 
an  identical  manner.  Is  the  walk  of  the  race-horse  like  that  of  the 
driving-horse  or  the  trained  saddle-horse  ?  Is  that  of  the  heavy  draught- 
horse  the  same  as  that  of  the  light  draught-  or  the  coach-horse  ?  Besides, 
cannot  a  multitude  of  conditions  modify  this  gait?  The  hereditary 
influences  of  the  animals,  their  service,  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  driven  or  ridden,  their  state  of  excitability,  the  weight  which  they 


1  In  order  to  simplify  the  figure,  the  supplementary  bases,  due  to  the  exchange  of  contact, 
have  been  ignored. 

2  Merche,  Nouveau  TraitS  des  formes  ext6rieures  du  cheval,  p.  596. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  537 

carry,  the  nature  and  direction  of  the  soil  on  which  they  move,  and, 
finally,  the  speed  which  they  have, — all  these  influences,  in  our  opinion, 
explain  the  modifications  of  the  rhythm  which  arise  in  each  instance, 
and  which  should  be  considered  as  definite  adaptations  of  the  animals 
to  such  or  such  a  requirement  of  their  utilization. 

That  is  the  reason  why  we  have,  at  the  beginning  of  our  study, 
assumed  the  ordinary,  the  mean  walk,  that  in  which  all  the  funda- 
mental bases  are  equal  and  the  beats  equidistant.  The  absolutely  sym- 
metrical walk  does  not  tend  towards  the  amble  more  than  towards  the 
trot,  but  it  may  lead  to  them  by  a  series  of  modifications  inherent  to 
the  mode  of  relation  of  the  beats.  Then  its  rhythm  changes,  its  sym- 
metry disappears,  and,  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  fundamental  bases, 
the  diagonal  or  the  lateral,  according  as  the  gait  inclines  towards  the 
trot  or  the  amble. 

Trails  of  the  Walk  and  their  Varieties.1 — If  the  rhythm 
of  the  walk  offers  almost  innumerable  individual  types,  it  is  very  evi- 
dent that  these  should  also  convey  their  influence  to  the  trail  and 
give  to  the  latter,  according  to  the  case,  the  forms  which  tend  to 
bring  them  nearer  the  amble  or  the  trot,  two  modes  of  progression 
whose  tracings  over  the  ground  differ  essentially,  as  we  know.  It 
must  also  be  admitted  that  between  the  trail  of  the  amble  and  that  of 
the  slow  trot  there  are  as  many  particular  variations  as  between  the 
two  extremes  of  the  rhythms  of  the  walk. 

Without  entering  into  the  special  study  of  these  differences,  we  will 
say  that  it  is  easy  to  relate  them  to  one  of  the  three  forms  of  trails, 
as  follows : 

1.  Sometimes,  in  fact,  the  posterior  imprints  are  superposed  upon 
the  anterior  of  the  same  side  (Fig.  231),  which  causes  them  to  be 
styled  juge  or  covered. 

2.  Sometimes  the  posterior  imprints  are  situated  in  front  of  the, 
anterior  for  a  variable  distance  (Fig.  232),  and  are  then  called  mejuges 
or  over-covered. 

3.  In  other  instances,  finally,  the  reverse  condition  exists,  the  pos- 
terior being  located  behind  the  anterior  (Fig.  233),2  which  may  be 
designated  as  dejugee  or  ill-covered. 

1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Cours  thgorique  d'equitation.  de  dressage  et  d'attelage,  p.  51  et  suiv., 
Paris,  1889,  id.    See,  also,  Revue  des  haras,  Aout  15, 1889. 

2  The  expressions  elongated  walk,  ordinary  walk,  and  shortened  walk,  by  which  many  authors 
characterize  also  the  walk  as  represented  respectively  in  Figs.  231,  232,  and  233,  should  only  be 
applied  to  the  absolute  length  of  the  steps  which  the  same  subject  can  take  when  his  pace  is 
augmented  or  slackened,  and  not  to  the  particular  form  of  the  trail. 

For  example,  a  horse  which  describes  the  trail  in  Fig.  231  can  very  easily,  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  he  is  led,  take  longer  or  shorter  strides— that  is  to  say,  the  elongated  or  the 


538 


THE   EXTERIOR    OF    THE   HORSE. 


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FIG.  231.— Trail  of   FIG.  232.— Trail  of  FIG.  233.— Trail  of 

the    walk,    im-       the    walk,    pos-  the    walk,    pos- 

prints       super-       terior   imprints  terior    imprints 

in  front  of  the  behind  the  an- 

an terior       (pas  terior   (pas   de- 


super- 
posed (pasjuge). 


Such,  it  can  be  seen,  are 
the  predominant  phenom- 
ena which  may  be  observed 
in  respect  to  the  relation 
of  the  imprints.  The  more 
the  gait  approaches  the  am- 
ble— that  is  to  say,  the 
synchronism  of  the  lateral 
beats — the  more  the  poste- 
rior imprints  will  be  in 
front  of  the  anterior ;  con- 
versely, the  more  it  tends 
towards  the  slow  trot,  in 
which  the  diagonal  beats 
are  synchronous,  the  more 
will  the  relation  of  the 
imprints  be  reversed  (Fig. 
233). 

Observation  teaches  us 
that  these  modifications  de- 
pend entirely  upon  the  con- 
ditions in  which  the  animal 
is  placed,  upon  the  natural 
or  acquired  preference  of 
such  or  such  a  rhythm ;  in 
a  word,  upon  the  kind  of 
equilibrium  which  he  as- 
sumes spontaneously,  or  to 
which  he  is  submitted  by 
those  who  direct  him.  This 
is  a  point  which  M.  Le- 
noble  du  Teil  has  clearly 
elucidated.1  Let  us  give 
an  example. 

A  horse  walking  in 
perfect  freedom  carries  the 
neck  relatively  low,  pro- 


shortened  walk— without  the  imprints  ceasing  to  be  superposed.    All  that  is  required  for  this  is 
not  to  change  his  primitive  state  of  equilibrium. 

1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Cours  the'orique  d'<§quitation,  de  dressage  et  d'attelage,  p.  51  et  suiv., 
Paris,  1889,  id.    See,  also,  Revue  des  haras,  Aout  15, 1889. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  539 

duces  isochronous  beats,  and  more  or  less  places  the  hind-imprints  an- 
terior to  the  fore-imprints ;  it  is  this  which  several  authors  have  called 
the  ordinary  walk,  because  it  is  that  of  all  horses  walking  at  liberty. 
It  is  the  same  with  the  horse  which  is  mounted,  whose  rider  leaves 
the  reins  hang  loose.  In  both  cases  the  gait  is  slow. 

If,  however,  the  horse  no  longer  has  the  free  play  of  his  neck ; 
if  the  rider  progressively  raises  the  latter  by  the  action  of  the  reins, 
being  careful  to  increase  the  traction  regularly,  this  disposition  of  the 
lateral  imprints  will  gradually  diminish,  then  disappear  at  the  moment 
when  they  are  superposed ;  and,  finally,  their  relation  will  be  reversed 
if  the  raising  of  the  neck  be  continued  and  the  horse  remain  unexcited. 
The  gait  then  takes  the  character  of  the  slow,  marched  trot ;  besides, 
its  rhythm  becomes  entirely  different.  The  beats,  at  first  equidistant, 
follow  each  other  in  rapid  succession  diagonally,  and  finally  become 
confounded. 

If  the  horse  whose  lateral  imprints  are  superposed  be  forced  to  ac- 
celerate his  speed  by  increasing  his  action  and  giving  freedom  to  the  move- 
ments of  his  neck,  the  walk  does  not  pass  indifferently  into  the  diagonal 
form  or  the  lateral  form ;  in  other  words,  into  the  trot  or  the  amble. 
The  subject  always  modifies  the  rhythm  in  the  sense  of  his  acquired  or 
natural  aptitudes.  Thus,  the  trotter  acquires  a  walk  tending  rather 
towards  the  slow  trot,  while  the  ambler  precipitates  his  beats  laterally 
to  pass  into  the  amble,  and  the  trails  are  modified  in  consequence. 

It  is  the  relative  position  of  the  head  and  neck  that  are  the  essen- 
tial but  not  exclusive  agents  in  these  modifications  of  the  rhythms.  In 
addition  to  the  muscular  action,  the  head  and  neck  surcharge  the 
anterior  or  the  posterior  members,  and  favor  the  particular  movements 
of  such  or  such  a  biped,  either  by  hastening  the  action  of  the  one  or 
retarding  that  of  the  other.  When  the  change  of  the  rhythm  is  once 
produced,  the  gait  is  executed  with  a  new  cadence,  and  the  respective 
distances  of  the  members  and  the  imprints  of  the  trail  remain  the 
same  until  a  new  change  is  produced. 

External  influences  over  the  horse  may  also  occasion  remarkable 
modifications  of  the  rhythm,  and,  consequently,  determine  correlative 
variations  in  the  trail. 

If,  for  example,  the  horse  ascends  an  inclined  plane,  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  displaced  backward  upon  the  posterior  limbs  and  prevents 
their  advancing  far  under  the  trunk  ;  their  imprints  then  remain  behind 
those  of  the  anterior. 

A  similar  result  is  obtained  if  the  animal  is  attached  to  a  vehicle 
heavily  loaded  :  the  intensity  of  the  resistance  diminishes  the  amplitude 


540  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

of  the  step,  and  permits  each  foot  to  leave  the  ground  only  after  a  well- 
balanced  position  of  the  one  which  has  preceded  in  the  action,  the  body 
being  supported  after  each  elevation  by  the  other  three  members.1 

In  descending  an  inclined  plane  the  centre  of  gravity,  on  the  con- 
trary, draws  nearer  to  the  fore-limbs  and  hinders  their  free  displace- 
ment forward,  while  the  posterior,  less  burdened,  have  a  tendency  to 
take  longer  steps.  It  happens,  then,  that  the  latter  mark  their  imprints 
well  in  front  of  the  former.  If  the  load  be  heavy,  however,  the 
animal  endeavors  to  fix  himself  to  hold  the  burden,  and  the  base 
remains  constantly  tripedal,  to  give  more  stability  to  the  equilibrium. 
The  steps,  in  this  case,  are  short  and  the  posterior  imprints  by  no 
means  cover  the  anterior.  • 

Length. — The  absolute  length  of  the  step  cannot  be  indicated 
with  precision,  on  account  of  the  individual  differences  and  also  the 
numerous  variations  of  this  gait,  according  as  it  is  slow,  ordinary,  or 
accelerated.  Nevertheless,  it  oscillates  within  mean  limits  which  it  is 
proper  to  recognize. 

According  to  Vincent  and  Goiffon,  the  length  of  the  step  should  be 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  body  measured  from  the  withers  to  the 
ground.  The  cavalry  regulation  of  1829  places  it  at  1.66  m.  Vallon, 
Messrs.  Raabe  and  Barroil,  and  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil  estimate  it  at  1.80 
m.  for  a  horse  1.60  m.  high,  or  one  and  a  half  times  the  length  of  the 
base  of  support.  Finally,  M.  Duhousset  considers  it  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  body  measured  from  the  point  of  the  arm  to  that  of  the 
buttock. 

This  difference  of  opinion  is  due  to  the  fact  that  these  authors 
have  studied  neither  the  same  variety  of  the  walk  nor  subjects  of  the 
same  height,  the  same  race,  the  same  temperament,  and  the  same  con- 
formation. Besides,  the  steps  in  the  same  animal  are  not  absolutely 
equal.  They  vary,  according  to  Professor  Colin,2  within  the  limits  of 
11  to  13  centimetres  for  the  short  walk,  17  for  the  ordinary  walk,  and 
20  for  the  long  walk  ;  the  horses  upon  which  our  learned  colleague  has 
experimented  had  a  mean  height  of  1.55  m.  and  a  base  of  support  of 
1.20  m. 

Speed. — The  absolute  speed  of  this  gait  is  almost  as  difficult  of 
appreciation,  for  analogous  reasons.  At  the  same  time  it  is  possible  to 
adjust  it  to  an  almost  uniform  standard. 

The  cavalry  regulation  of   1829  relegates  it  to   100  metres  per 


1  G.  Colin,  Physiologic  compar£e  des  animaux,  3e.6d.,  t.  i.  p.  471. 

2  G.  Colin,  loc.  cit.,  3e  £d.,  t.  i.  p.  472. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  541 

minute,  or  6  kilometres  per  hour.  M.  Raabe  fixed  it  at  122  metres 
per  minute  for  a  horse  of  1.60  m.,  or  6  kilometres,  720  metres  per 
hour.  Vallon  made  it  111  metres  per  minute  for  a  horse  of  1.60  m.,  or 
6.600  k.  per  hour.  Finally,  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil  estimated  it  at  108.33  m. 
per  minute  for  a  horse  of  1.60  m.,  which  gives  6.500  k.  per  hour. 

Displacements  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity. — The  displace- 
ments of  the  centre  of  gravity  are  never  very  extensive. 

The  support  of  the  body  upon  the  lateral  bases  constitutes  the 
extreme  limits  of  the  lateral  or  transverse  displacements.  The  line  of 
gravitation,  as  in  the  amble,  oscillates  alternately  from  right  to  left 
and  left  to  right.  What  contributes  to  make  these  displacements 
much  less  extensive  than  in  the  latter  gait,  is  that  a  diagonal  base  and 
two  tripedal  bases  are  constantly  interposed  between  two  successive 
lateral  bases.  It  is  understood,  then,  that  the  lateral  oscillations  of 
the  body  will  be  the  less  marked  as  the  animal  remains  the  longer 
upon  the  diagonal  bipeds.  This  is  the  variety  of  the  walk  which  M. 
Raabe  extolled  as  always  having  more  speed  and  being  more  pleasant 
to  the  rider  than  that  which  Lecoq  preferred. 

The  longitudinal  or  vertical  displacements  are  scarcely  apparent,  since 
the  body  is  never  elevated  above  the  soil. 

Reactions. — The  reactions  of  the  anterior  quarters  alone  are 
of  any  consequence.  "  It  would  seem,"  says  M.  Marey,1  "  from  the 
extreme  feebleness  of  the  movements  of  the  croup,  that  the  action  of 
the  posterior  members  consists  principally  in  a  propulsion  forward, 
with  very  little  impulsion  in  the  vertical  sense." 

Conformation. — A  special  conformation,  strictly  speaking,  is  not 
a  necessary  requirement  for  the  proper  execution  of  the  walk.  Never- 
theless, all  horses  are  far  from  progressing  with  the  same  elegance,  the 
same  regularity,  the  same  velocity,  the  same  ease,  and  the  same  vigor. 
The  beauties  of  this  gait  will  be  recognized  by  the  following  character- 
istics : 

The  head  and  the  neck  will  be  carried  rather  high  than  low ;  the 
anterior  member  will  be  extended  freely  and  directly  forward,  without 
exaggerated  elevation  of  the  forearm  and  the  knee ;  viewed  from 
behind,  the  bright  surface  of  the  shoe  will  be  visible ;  the  posterior 
member  will  move  in  a  plane  parallel  to  that  of  the  anterior  ;  its  oscil- 
lation should  have  a  large  amplitude  consequent  upon  the  strong  pro- 
jection of  the  femur  and  the  tibia ;  the  flexion  of  the  hock  will  be 
moderate. 

1  Marey,  Machine  animate,  p  168. 


542  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

In  both  members  the  fetlocks  will  be  flexed  with  suppleness,  but 
without  exaggeration  ;  the  contact  of  the  feet  will  take  place  uniformly 
upon  the  plantar  surface  ;  when  once  rested,  the  hoof  will  remain 
immobile  until  it  is  raised,  and  will  rotate  neither  outward  nor  inward. 
The  beats  will  be  equidistant,  light,  and  of  equal  intensity ;  the  poste- 
rior imprints  will  be  located  in  front  of  the  anterior  of  the  same  side, 
and  hence,  in  this  case,  forging  must  be  looked  after ;  they  will  be  of 
the  same  form  as  the  feet,  clean,  entire,  and  marked  from  the  toe  to  the 
heel  externally  and  internally ;  their  direction  will  be  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  trail ;  finally,  the  intervals  between  those  of  the  left  side 
will  be  equal  to  the  same  intervals  between  those  of  the  right  side, 
which  will  indicate  that  the  movements  of  the  members  are  of  the 
same  extent. 

Backing. 

Backing,  properly  speaking,  is  only  walking  backward,  and  it  is 
erroneous  on  the  part  of  most  authors  to  classify  it  among  the  move- 
ments upon  place.  It  is  best  to  study  it  after  the  trot  and  the  walk  ; 
the  reason  of  this  will  be  obvious  presently. 

Ketrogression  is  difficult  and  fatiguing  for  the  horse,  in  consequence 
of  the  inversion  of  the  functions  of  the  members  which  it  implies  ;  but 
some  execute  it  better  than  others,  and  even  with  dangerous  rapidity. 

Backing  may  be  effected  by  the  horse  in  three  different  conditions : 
he  may  be  free,  mounted,  or  harnessed  to  a  vehicle. 

1st.  Free  or  abandoned  to  himself  (Fig.  234),  he  performs  it  in 
almost  the  same  manner  as  when  he  is  mounted,  only  his  step  is  easier 
and  more  secure.  The  order  in  which  the  members  succeed  each  other 
is  similar  to  that  which  we  have  indicated  in  the  walk,  the  great  differ- 
ence being  that  the  initial  movement  is  made  by  a  hind-limb.  If  this 
be  the  posterior  right,  it  will  be  followed  by  the  anterior  left,  then  the 
posterior  left,  and,  finally,  the  anterior  right. 

If  the  horse  were  to  back  at  a  trot,  the  members  would  be  displaced 
simultaneously,  as  in  this  gait,  by  diagonal  bipeds  in  two  successive 
times. 

With  .a  particular  dressing,  backing  may  be  effected  with  the  same 
regularity  and  the  same  speed  as  the  trot  forward.  Count  Lancosme 
de  Breve  publicly  demonstrated  this,  and  one  of  us  was  a  witness  of 
the  performance  in  the  riding-school  in  Paris  of  which  he  was  director. 

It  is  not  indispensable,  under  these  conditions,  that  the  head  and 
the  neck  be  raised  and  drawn  backward.  These  regions  may  remain 
in  their  ordinary  situation  and  the  horse  back  of  his  own  accord. 


THE    GAITS   IN   PARTICULAR. 


543 


As  Lecoq l  has  remarked,  the  posterior  member  is  carried  backward 
before  the  posterior  quarters  can  be  surcharged  by  the  displacement  of 
the  centre  of  gravity.  The  impulsion  is  then  communicated  to  the 


FIG.  234.— Backing. 

trunk  by  the  anterior  members  as  well  as  by  the  posterior,  whose  ob- 
liquity downward  and  forward  favors  this  action. 

2d.  The  phenomena  are  different  when  the  horse  is  attached  to  a 
vehicle,  particularly  if  he  moves  a  heavy  load  over  soft  or  unequal 
ground.  Not  only  is  he,  in  this  case,  obliged  to  surmount  the  difficul- 
ties arising  from  the  inability  to  place  his  members  in  a  position  inverse 
to  the  normal,  but  he  has  also  to  overcome  the  resistance  formed,  on 
the  one  part,  by  the  weight  of  the  load,  and,  on  the  other,  by  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  He  then  backs  principally  through  the  breeching  of  the 
harness,  and  only  displaces  the  members  slowly  and  with  difficulty 
(Fig.  235). 

It  results  therefrom,  says  Lecoq,2  that  the  hind-foot  supports,  be- 
sides the  weight  of  the  posterior  quarters,  already  augmented,  all  the 
resistance  opposed  by  the  burden,  and  the  slipping  forward,  rendered 
so  frequent  by  this  double  cause,  deprives  the  horse  of  a  large  part  of 
his  force  and  exposes  him  to  strains  of  the  articulations. 


1  Lecoq,  loc.  cit.,  p.  342. 


2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  342. 


544  THE    EXTERIOR'  OF    THE    HORSE. 

It  is  perceived  at  once  that  backing  is  very  tiresome,  particularly 
to  the  regions  of  the  loins  and  the  hocks.  Nevertheless,  all  horses 
should  be  able  to  execute  it,  at  least  under  ordinary  conditions,  and  it  is 
indispensable  to  assure  ourselves  of  this  at  the  time  of  their  purchase. 


FIG.  235.— Backing,  in  the  horse  attached  to  a  load. 
(From  an  instantaneous  photograph  by  the  authors.) 

In  general,  those  which  back  badly  have  lesions  of  the  bars,  the 
dorso-lumbar  vertebral  column,  or  the  hock.  As  to  those  which  refuse 
entirely,  they  are  affected  with  immobility,  which  is  much  more  grave. 

If,  in  such  cases,  continuous  traction  be  exercised  upon  the  reins, 
the  horse  leans  to  one  side,  elevates  the  head,  arches  the  neck,  holds  the 
anterior  members  extended,  and  remains  in  loco.  If  more  force  be 
applied  without  jerking  and  without  violence,  he  will  twist  from  side 
to  side,  dig  the  feet  into  the  ground,  or,  finally,  rear  and  throw  himself 
down,  should  the  traction  on  the  bridle  be  continued. 

These  facts  which  we  have  enumerated  are  sometimes  more  decided 
in  the  animal  whose  head  has  been  turned  towards  the  sun.  Without 
tarrying  here,  we  will  say  that  immobility  is  a  disease  enumerated  in 
Article  II.  of  the  law  of  August  2,  1884,  concerning  the  redhibitory 
defects. 

D. — The  Gallop. 

General  Definition  of  this  Gait. — It  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
understand  well  the  phenomena  of  this  mode  of  progression,  to  recall 
the  comparison  of  Duges,  and  imagine  two  pedestrians  following  each 
other  by  combining  and  associating  the  placing  of  their  feet  on  the 
ground  according  to  a  particular  rhythm. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  545 

In  the  types  of  locomotion  already  studied,  the  canter  exeepted,  the 
beats  of  each  one  of  the  pedestrians  were  always  isochronous, — that  is 
to  say,  separated  by  equal  intervals  of  time,  whether  the  gait  was 
marched  or  leaped,  lateral  or  diagonal.  The  member  in  contact  ful- 
filled by  itself  the  double  role  of  dispersion  and  impulsion,  although 
in  a  different  degree  according  to  its  position  in  relation  to  the  centre 
of  gravity. 

The  rhythm  in  the  gallop  is  entirely  different.  Each  biped  pre- 
cipitates its  falling  on  the  ground  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  the 
beats  irregular,  hderochronous,  and  then  it  rises  to  be  projected  forward, 
two  phenomena  which  give  to  this  mode  of  progression  a  jerking  and 
leaping  character  which  we  have  so  far  not  met. 

Here,  the  member  in  contact  with  the  soil  is  far  from  having  ter- 
minated this  phase  when  its  congener  begins  to  assume  the  same  phase. 
Hence  there  exists  a  somewhat  long  period  in  which  both  feet  rest  simul- 
taneously, exerting  this  action  against  the  centre  of  gravity,  either  to 
deaden  the  concussion  or  to  propel  the  body  forward.  It  will  be  under- 
stood that,  in  this  case,  the  motor  power  is  increased  in  considerable 
proportions,  and  that  the  animal  becomes  capable  of  taking  longer 
strides  and  acquiring  greater  speed. 

The  Gallop  to  the  Right  and  the  Gallop  to  the  Left.— A 
biped  is  said  to  gallop  upon  the  right  foot  or  upon  the  left  foot  according 
to  the  foot  which  strikes  the  ground  last. 

True  Gallop  and  False  Gallop. — It  matters  little,  if  the  trail 
be  rectilinear,  whether  the  gallop  is  effected  upon  the  one  foot  or  upon 
the  other.  The  members  are  even  seen,  from  time  to  time,  to  reverse 
their  order  of  succession,  in  order  to  rest  themselves  better.  The 
member  which  reaches  the  soil  first,  being  a  destroyer  of  the  reactions 
rather  than  a  propeller,  takes,  at  a  certain  moment,  the  place  of  its  con- 
gener, which  was  principally  the  propeller.  The  changing  of  the  feet 
relieves  the  biped  by  equalizing  the  work  of  its  constituent  parts. 

It  is  quite  different,  however,  when  the  trail  is  curvilinear.  We 
know  then  that  a  centrifugal  force  is  developed,  which  is  so  much 
stronger  as  the  velocity  of  the  gait  is  greater  and  the  curve  shorter. 
The  animal  is  therefore  obliged  to  incline  himself  towards  the  inner 
side  of  the  trail  to  counteract  this  force,  an  attitude  which  consequently 
predisposes  him  to  fall  inside  of  the  tract  described.  Hence,  in  view 
of  a  fall  which  is  always  imminent,  he  must  steady  his  equilibrium  on 
that  side  by  the  foothold  of  the  corresponding  propelling  member,  the 
right  if  the  trail  turn  to  the  right,  the  left  if  it  turn  to  the  left. 

The  gallop  is  called  true  when  it  is  effected  upon  the  right  foot,  for 

35 


546 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


example,  when  the  horse  turns  to  the  right.     It  is  styled  false  in  reverse 
conditions ;  falling  upon  the  side  is  then  to  be  feared. 

Diagonal  and  Lateral  Gallop.— In  the  large  quadrupeds  the 
movements  of  the  posterior  biped  always  precede  those  of  the  anterior 


FIG.  236.— Diagonal  or  united  gallop. 

The  two  bipeds  gallop  upon  the  same  foot. 

A.  Upon  the  left  foot.  |  B.  Upon  the  right  foot. 

in  such  a  manner  that  the  second  beat  of  the  former  coincides  with  the 
first  beat  of  the  latter  (Figs.  236  and  237). 

It  follows  from  this  mode  of  association  that  instead  of  hearing  four 
beats  during  the  duration  of  a  complete  step,  as  if  each  foot  was  placed 
on  the  ground  separately,  only  three  are  heard,  in  consequence  of 
the  synchronism  of  the  beats  of  the  second  contact. 

The  anterior  and  the  posterior  members  may  combine  their  move- 
ments after  two  different  types  : 

1st.  When  the  anterior  biped  gallops  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
posterior  (Fig.  236),  the  second  period  of  contact  is  produced  by  the 
simultaneous  diagonal  beats  which  are  interposed  between  the  two  other 
diagonal  disassociated  beats.  We  propose  to  designate  this  type,  in 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  following,  under  the  name  of  diagonal 


FIG.  237. — Lateral  or  disunited  gallop.    (The  horse  is  supposed  to  move  towards  the  left.) 

The  two  bipeds  do  not  gallop  upon  the  same  foot. 

A.  In  front.  |  B.  Behind. 

gallop.     It  is  that  which  is  natural  to  the  horse  and  other  large  do- 
mestic quadrupeds. 

2d.  If,  conversely,  the  anterior  biped  gallops  in  a  manner  inverse  to 
that  of  the  posterior  (Fig.  237),  there  are  two  lateral  simultaneous  beats, 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 

which  form  the  second  period  of  contact,  and  which  are  interposed 
between  the  other  two  lateral  disassociated  beats.  In  opposition  to  the 
preceding,  we  propose  to  call  this  gallop  lateral.  It  has  been  for  a 
long  time  known  to  veterinarians  as  the  disunited  gallop.  The  horse 
executes  it  rarely  and  with  difficulty,  for  this  quadruped  uses  especially 
diagonal  gaits.  Other  animals,  such  as  the  dog,  practise  it  rather  fre- 
quently, and  we  should  not  be  surprised  if  the  dromedary  and  the 
giraffe,  which  take  so  easily  the  lateral  type  of  locomotion,  use  it 
without  difficulty  under  certain  circumstances. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  term  disunited  suits  well  for  the  lateral 
gallop,  because  it  expresses  the  defect  in  the  harmony  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  two  bipeds. 

As  long  as  the  horse  progresses  at  the  lateral  gallop  upon  a 
straight  line,  it  is  not  necessary  to  employ  a  special  expression  to 
characterize  his  gait ;  the  word  disunited  suffices.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
he  describes  a  curvilinear  trail,  it  is  called  disunited  in  front  when, 
moving  towards  the  left,  for  example,  his  anterior  biped  gallops  to  the 
right  (Fig.  237,  A),  and  disunited  behind  when  his  posterior  biped 
does  not  gallop  to  the  left  (Fig.  237,  B). 

Definition  of  the  Normal  Gallop  of  the  Horse.— We  now 
possess  all  the  elements  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the  defini- 
tion of  the  normal  (diagonal)  gallop,  the  only  one  with  which  we  will 
hereafter  occupy  ourselves. 

It  is  a  fast,  leaped  gait,  with  three  times,  in  which  the  simultaneous 
beats  of  a  diagonal  biped  occur  between  the  two  successive  beats  of  the 
opposite  diagonal  biped  which  commences  the  stride  with  the  corre- 
sponding posterior  member. 

Each  stride  is  separated  from  the  following  by  an  interval  of  time 
called  projection,  during  which  the  body  is  in  the  air. 

Kinematic  Analysis  of  the  Play  of  the  Members. — Messrs.  Marey 
and  Pages  *  rightly  attribute,  in  the  gallop,  a  different  role  to  the  posterior  mem- 
bers. The  one  which  touches  the  ground  first,  receiving  the  entire  body,  consti- 
tutes a  powerful  agent  of  dispersion  at  the  beginning  of  its  contact,  while  the 
other  fulfils  the  office  of  a  propelling  agent. 

This  remark  being  made,  let  us  see  the  relative  peculiarities  of  the  articular 
trajectories. 

1st.  Anterior  Member  (Fig.  238).— A.  Phase  of  Contact. — The  articular 
trajectories  are  very  analogous  to  those  of  the  trot  in  the  inflection  of  the  curves 
during  the  period  of  dispersion,  but  their  rising  is  more  marked  on  account  of 
the  more  intense  fall  of  the  body  and  the  greater  elongation  of  the  member  at 
the  end  of  this  phase. 

1  Marey  et  Pag6s,  Mouvement  du  membre  post6rieur,  note  communiquee. 


548 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


S.  Phase  of  Elevation. — It  also  much  resembles  that  of  the  trot,  but  the  con- 
vexities of  the  trajectories  are  more  salient  because  the  member,  as  a  whole,  is 
shortened  more.  The  foot,  as  well  as  the  knee,  is  well  separated  from  the 


x  x 

FIG.  238.— Kinematic  analysis  of  the  play  of  the  anterior  member  in  the  gallop. 

(From  Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages.) 
A.  Phase  of  contact.  I  S.  Phase  of  elevation. 


ground.     The  curves  of  the  withers  and  of  the  shoulder-joint  are  not  depressed 
in  their  middle  as  is  seen  in  the  trot. 


X  X 

FIG.  239.— Kinematic  analysis  of  the  play  of  the  posterior  member  in  the  gallop. 

(From  Messrs.  Marey  and  Pages.) 
A.  Phase  of  contact.  |  S.  Phase  of  elevation. 

2d.  Posterior  Member  (Fig.  239). — Nothing  particular  characterizes  this 
member  in  the  phase  of  contact  excepting,  as  we  have  said  at  the  commencement 
of  the  subject,  that  it  is  an  agent  of  dispersion  and  propulsion.  As  to  the  trajec- 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


549 


lories  of  the  phase  of- elevation,  they  are  equally  comparable  to  those  of  the  trot. 
Only,  those  of  the  coxo-femoral  articulation  and  the  angle  of  the  haunch,  at 
first  concave,  soon  become  greatly  convex  superiorly. 

These  two  curves,  considered  during  the  two  phases  of  contact  and  of  eleva- 
tion, are  very  incurvated  in  their  middle  in  the  gallop,  while  in  the  trot,  on  the 
contrary,  they  are  more  convex. 

Number,  Nature,  Succession,  and  Duration  of  the  Bases 
of  Support ;  Duration  of  the  Contacts  of  the  Feet  and  of 
the  Projection. — The  members,  in  this  gait,  succeed  each  other  with 
such  rapidity  that  it  is  impossible,  with  the  eye,  to  analyze  their  con- 
tacts with  accuracy.  Experiments  making  use  of  the  graphic  method, 
or  chrono-photography  alone,  can  give  its  definite  information  in  this 
respect.  Although  the  actual  investigations  are  not  numerous,  never- 


FIG.  240.— Tracings,  notation,  and  reactions  of  the  gallop  of  the  trained  horse. 

(From  M.  Marey.) 

PG,  curve  and  notation  of  the  posterior  left  foot. 
PD,  curve  and  notation  of  the  posterior  right  foot. 
AG,  curve  and  notation  of  the  anterior  left  foot. 
AD,  curve  and  notation  of  the  anterior  right  foot. 
.R,  curve  of  the  reactions  of  the  withers. 

theless  they  permit  us  to  establish  a  certain  number  of  facts,  which  wo 
will  present. 

Fig.  240,  which  we  borrow  from  M.  Marey,1  represents,  by  con- 


1  Marey,  La  machine  animale,  p.  172. 


550  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

tinuous  and  dotted  lines  of  different  widths,  the  tracings  furnished 
by  the  four  members  of  a  trained  horse  whose  gait  was  regular  and 
harmonious ;  below  these  curves  are  found  the  notation  of  the  contacts. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  figure  the  horse  is  in  the  phase  of  projec- 
tion ;  then  comes  the  beat  PG,  which  is  produced  by  the  contact  of  the 
posterior  left  foot. 

Between  this  beat  and  that  of  the  opposite  diagonal  member,  AD, 
and  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  interval  which  separates  them,  the 
simultaneous  beats  of  the  two  feet,  AG,  PD,  of  the  left  diagonal 
biped  take  place,  a  synchronism  which  is  rendered  very  evident  by  the 
superposition  of  the  notations  A  G,  PD. 

Finally,  between  the  third  beat,  AD,  and  the  first  of  the  following 
step  reigns  a  silence  of  a  duration  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  three 
beats  combined. 

The  projection  is  indicated  in  the  notation  by  the  interval  which 
exists  between  the  end  of  the  contact  of  the  anterior  right  member, 
AD,  and  the  commencement  of  the  contact  of  the  posterior  left,  when 
the  latter  has  commenced  a  new  step.  The  duration  of  this  projection, 
according  to  the  tracings,  equals  almost  one-ninth  of  the  duration  of  the 
complete  step.  However,  it  evidently  varies  with  each  form  of  gal- 
lop. M.  Lenoble  du  Teil1  claims  it  to  be  longer,  for  he  considers  it 
as  being  equal,  on  the  average,  to  one-fifth  of  that  of  the  entire  stride. 

In  this  succession  of  movements  the  ear  has  therefore  perceived 
three  sounds,  almost  equidistant:  the  first  produced  by  a  hind-foot, 
the  second  by  a  diagonal  biped,  the  third  by  a  fore-foot  (Fig. 
241,  A). 


FIG.  241.— Notation  of  the  gallop  with  three  times. 

(From  M.  Marey.) 

A.  Representation  of  the  three  times.    B.  Representation  of  the  number  of  feet  which  form  the 
contact  of  the  body  at  each  moment  of  the  complete  step. 

If  now  the  successive  bases  which  support  the  body  during  each  step 
are  to  be  determined,  it  suffices  to  divide  the  notation  (Fig.  241,  B)  by 
means  of  lowering  perpendiculars  tangent  to  the  beginning  and  the 
termination  of  each  contact.  It  is  proved,  then,  that  at  the  com- 


Lenoble  du  Teil,  Etude  sur  le  galop  et  la  course,  broch.  in-8°,  p.  15,  Argentan,  1880. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  551 

mencement  and  the  end  of  the  step  the  body  rests  upon  one  foot  only 
(1  and  1) ;  that  in  its  middle  the  base  is  diagonal  (2),  and  during  the 
intermediary  periods,  tripedal  (3  and  3). 

The  instantaneous  photographs  of  Lissa,1  taken  from  a  cavalry 
horse  going  at  a  full  gallop,  confirm  in  all  respects  the  principal  results 
obtained  by  M.  Marey.  As  they  are  descriptive  of  a  much  greater  speed 
of  the  gait,  and  as  the  horse  which  furnished  them  was  less  held  in  check 
and  less  trained  than  the  preceding,  they  give  rise  to  some  differences 
worthy  of  note.  We  have  recorded  them  with  the  greatest  care  in  the 
notation  of  Fig.  242,  which  furnishes  the  necessary  information. 


FIG.  242.— Notation  of  the/wW  gallop. 
(From  the  instantaneous  photographs  of  Lissa.) 

The  duration  of  the  stride  is  divided  into  twenty  equal  periods:  the  unipedal  contacts  (1  and 
7),  as  well  as  the  projection  (8),  each  equal  four;  the  tripedal  (3  and  5)  and  the  diagonal  (4)  each 
equal  two ;  as  to  the  bipedal  (posterior,  2,  and  anterior.  0),  they  each  equal  one. 

Each  foot  remains  in  contact  during  seven  periods,  while  its  oscillation  occupies  thirteen. 

The  most  prominent  factor  of  this  gallop,  when  it  is  compared  to 
that  which  we  have  analyzed  above,  is  that  the  beats  A  G,  PD  of  the 
second  contact  are  no  longer  synchronous ;  the  posterior  slightly  pre- 
cedes the  anterior.  In  fact,  the  step  is  executed  with  four  times. 
This  disassociation,  which  we  will  again  find  much  more  perceptible  on 
the  race-course,  and  which  presents  a  great  analogy  with  that  which  is 
manifested  in  the  flying  trot,  is  the  result  of  the  acceleration  of  the  speed 
as  well  as  of  new  conditions  of  equilibrium.  In  the  gallop  of  the 
specially-dressed  horse,  the  head  and  neck  are  more  raised  ;  the  general 
attitude  is  higher ;  the  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  posterior  members. 
Here,  on  the  contrary,  the  two  bipeds  have  a  tendency  to  share  the 
weight  of  the  body  in  an  inverse  manner,  which  horsemen  express  by 
saying  that  the  horse  is  upon  his  shoulders;2  a  certain  independence  of 
action  is  established  between  the  anterior  and  posterior  bipeds,  which 
seem  to  gallop  each  on  its  own  accord,  the  hind  increasing  its  pro- 
pelling force,  the  fore  serving  for  the  reception  of  the  weight. 


1  G.  Barrier,  in  Bulletin  de  la  Soci&e'  centrale  de  medeciue  v£teriiiaire,  stance  du  14  F£vrier, 
1889. 

2  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Revue  des  haras,  Aout  15, 1889. 


552  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  disassociation  of  the  beats  of  the  second  contact  gives  rise  to 
very  short  tripedal  bases,  a  posterior  (3)  and  an  anterior  (5).  As  to  the 
augmentation  of  the  speed,  it  is  the  consequence  of  a  greater  duration 
of  the  phase  of  projection. 

Effort  of  the  Members  in  the  Gallop. — A  glance  of  the  eye 
upon  the  notations  suffices  to  demonstrate  the  inequality  of  the  effort 
of  the  members  in  this  gait. 

So  far,  we  have  found  their  work  identical  in  the  amble,  the  trot, 
and  the  walk,  in  consequence  of  the  regular  alternation  of  the  members 
of  each  biped,  anterior  or  posterior.  The  canter  alone,  a  combination 
of  the  trot  and  the  gallop,  has  presented  an  exception,  in  which  this 
alternation  is  faulty  in  one  of  the  bipeds. 

In  the  gallop  this  is  doubly  marked,  for  it  exists  in  both  bipeds. 
In  the  fore  as  well  as  in  the  hind,  one  of  its  members  is  obliged  to  sup- 
port the  weight  of  the  body  alone  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time.  It  is 
easy  to  perceive  that  this  augmentation  of  work  relates  only  to  the 
diagonal  biped  whose  contacts  are  disassociated :  the  right  when  the 
horse  gallops  upon  the  right ;  the  left  in  the  contrary  case. 

Besides,  each  extremity  of  this  biped  does  not  overcome  equal 
resistances ;  the  posterior,  on  which  the  body  falls,  evidently  has  to 
sustain  more  than  the  anterior,  which  only  supports  it  before  the  phase 
of  projection. 

It  follows  from  these  proofs  that  the  gallop  imposes  a  considerable 
increase  of  fatigue  upon  the  diagonal  biped  whose  beats  are  disassociated, 
and  in  particular  upon  the  posterior  member  which  is  one  of  its  con- 
stituent parts. 

Hence  a  well-understood  management  of  the  horse  at  this  gait 
demands  that  the  rider  take  the  precaution  to  alternate  from  time 
to  time  the  play  of  the  two  bipeds  in  order  to  assist  his  mount  in  the 
equal  distribution  upon  the  members  of  the  efforts  which  he  must 
make. 

Association  of  the  Members  and  Attitudes  of  the  Body 
during  the  Evolution  of  a  Complete  Step. — In  Figs.  243  and 
the  succeeding  seven  we  will  represent  the  eight  successive  phases  of  a 
stride  of  the  full  gallop  indicated  by  the  notation  of  Fig.  242.  These 
diagrams  are  the  true  reproduction  of  eight  instantaneous  photographs 
chosen  from  the  twenty  proofs  of  the  beautiful  collection  of  M.  Ottomar 
Anschutz.  The  order,  succession,  and  nature  of  the  beats,  and  the 
diverse  bases  of  support,  can  be  followed  there  by  simply  consulting 
the  explanatory  reading  placed  below  each  one. 

What  augments  the  importance  of  these  figures,  particularly  for 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  553 

the  artist,  is  that  they  prove  the  falseness  of  the  old  classical  doctrine, 
that  during  the  entire  evolution  of  a  stride  of  the  gallop  the  members  of 
one  lateral  biped  are  always  in  advance  of  those  of  the  opposite  lateral 
biped.  This  assertion  is  no  more  correct  of  the  inferior  parts  of  the 
members  than  of  the  superior.  Each  shoulder  remains,  in  its  turn,  in 
front  of  or  behind  its  congener  for  a  certain  period  of  time,  and  the 
thighs  behave  likewise,  the  one  in  relation  to  the  other.  Despite  the 
spasmodic  rhythm  in  the  gallop,  when  a  member  reaches  the  latter  part 
of  its  evolution,  its  homologue  must  of  necessity  more  or  less  approach 
the  commencement  of  its  transmission, — that  is  to  say,  be  oblique  in  an 
inverse  direction.  When,  for  example,  the  horse,  galloping  upon  the 
right,  is  shown  detached  from  the  soil  (Fig.  250),  his  posterior  left, 
upon  which  he  will  fall,  is  of  necessity  bound  to  pass  in  front  of  the 
posterior  right,  which  will  only  touch  the  soil  afterwards.  For  the 
same  reason,  the  anterior  right,  whose  contact  occurs  last,  should  also, 
at  a  given  moment,  be  found  not  very  far  behind  the  anterior  left, 
which  will  take  its  contact  with  the  ground  before  the  right. 

M.  Lenoble  du  Teil l  was  the  first  one  to  disprove  clearly  this 
theory  of  the  advance  of  one  lateral  biped  upon  the  other,  which 
cannot  be  verified  by  an  attentive  observation  of  the  facts,  and  which 
is  flatly  contradicted  by  all  the  instantaneous  photographs,  notably 
those  of  Lissa. 

These  true  representations  of  the  galloping-horse  are  precious  also 
from  another  point  of  view.  They  show  us,  with  great  exactness,  the 
changes  of  the  direction  of  the  body  during  the  successive  phases  of  the 
entire  stride. 

At  the  beginning  (Fig.  243),  at  the  time  of  the  fall  upon  the  pos- 
terior left,  the  withers  are  more  elevated  than  the  croup ;  the  rider, 
who  has  just  been  projected,  is  seen  still  above  the  saddle  and  leans 
forward.  The  body  then  becomes  horizontal  when  the  left  diagonal 
biped  touches  the  ground  (Fig.  246) ;  the  members  of  the  right  diagonal 
biped  now  attain  their  maximum  separation,  while  the  rider  commences 
to  fall  back.  The  hind-quarters  now  give  their  impulsion,  become 
raised  and  detached  from  the  ground,  while  the  fore-quarters,  very  low, 
touch  the  soil  with  the  anterior  right  foot  (Fig.  248).  During  this 
phase  the  rider  bears  heavily  on  the  thighs,  particularly  the  right ;  his 
seat  is  displaced  backward.  But  the  impulsion  from  behind  imme- 
diately changes  his  position ;  he  is  pushed  forward  and  raised  from  the 
saddle.  His  mount  at  this  moment  (Fig.  249)  prepares  to  leave  the 

1  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Cours  the'orique  d'equitation,  de  dressage  et  d'attelage,  p.  207,  Paris,  1889. 


554 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  243.— The  full  gallop  (1st  beat;  posterior          FIG.  244.— The  full  gallop  (2d  beat ;  posterior 
left  unipedal  base).  bipedal  base). 


-hnarar 


FIG.  245.— The  full  gallop  (3d  beat;  anterior  left        FIG.  246.— The  full  gallop  (left  diagonal  base), 
tripedal  base). 


'Lin  m  m  a  i    i«  P  •  •  •  P  CT  "  "  "  !• 


FIG.  247.— The  full  gallop  (4th  beat ;  formation  of       Fio.  248.— The  full  gallop  (end  of  the  posterior 
the  posterior  right  tripedal  base).  right  tripedal  base). 


THE     GAITS 


PARTICULAR. 


555 


soil  and  to  gather  (rassembler)  the  members  under  the  body,  the  left  in 
front  of  the  right  (Fig.  250).  It  is  then  that  the  projection  takes 
place ;  the  horse  and  the  rider  alike  feel  the  effects ;  both  are  more  or 
less  raised  and  projected  forward. 


m  tl  •  a 


FIG.  249.— The  full  gallop  (anterior  right 
unipedal  base). 


FIG.  250.— The  full  gallop  (projection). 


During  the  total  duration  of  the  contacts  on  the  ground  of  a  com- 
plete step  of  the  gallop,  the  body  assumes,  therefore,  three  successive 
and  different  attitudes :  it  is  first  oblique  upward  and  forward,  then 
almost  horizontal,  and,  finally,  oblique  downward  and  forward. 

Sudden  Passage  from  Station,  from  the  Walk,  and  from 
the  Trot  into  the  Gallop. — Inverse  Order  of  Transition. — 
The  facts  recorded  above  enable  us  to  comprehend  the  mechanism  of 
these  changes  of  gait. 


FIG.  251.— Passage  from  station  into  the  gallop,  the  horse  being  at  liberty. 

Passage  from  Station  into  the  Gallop. — In  order  to  elucidate  this  phe- 
nomenon, we  have  made  a  series  of  experiments  in  which  the  horses,  previously 
placed,  have  been  abandoned  to  themselves  and  then  suddenly  induced  to  start 
off  p.t  the  gallop. 

Below  are  our  results  (Fig.  251). 


556  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

In  order  to  start  on  the  right  foot,  for  example,  the  horse  first  elevates  the 
right  diagonal  biped,  and  brings  it  almost  instantly  in  contact  again,  at  the 
same  time  disassociating  the  beats  so  as  to  allow  the  other  biped  to  interpose 
simultaneously  its  beats  in  the  following  step,  during  the  interval  comprised 
between  the  first  two. 

If,  instead  of  being  at  liberty,  the  animal  were  mounted,  the  phenomena 
would  be  different :  the  hind-members  would  be  placed  under  the  trunk,  espe- 
cially the  left.  After  this  preparation  the  other  feet  should  be  successively  raised 
thus:  1st,  anterior  right;  2d,  anterior  left;  3d,  posterior  right.  The  posterior 
left,  alone  in  contact,  would  commence  to  push  the  body  forward  (1st  period) ; 
immediately  the  left  diagonal  would  effect  its  contact  (2d  period);  last  of  all 
would  come  the  contact  of  the  anterior  right  (3d  period).  The  gallop  should 
commence  and  continue  as  usual.  (Lenoble  du  Teil.) 

Passage  from  the  "Walk  into  the  Gallop.1— This  can  be  accomplished 
when  the  contact  exists  upon  aright  diagonal  base:  1st,  elevation  of  the  anterior 
right  and  impulsion  by  the  posterior  left  (1st  period) ;  2d,  the  posterior  right  and 
the  anterior  left,  already  elevated,  strike  the  ground  simultaneously  (2d  period) ; 
3d,  extension  and  contact  of  the  anterior  right  (3d  period).  (Lenoble  du  Teil.) 

Passage  from  the  Trot  into  the  Gallop. — It  is  possible  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  contact  or  during  the  contact  of  the  right  diagonal :  1st,  eleva- 
tion of  the  anterior  right  and  impulsion  of  the  body  by  the  posterior  left  (1st 
period);  2d,  contact  of  the  left  diagonal;  3d,  contact  of  the  anterior  right  (2d 
and  3d  periods).  (Lenoble  du  Teil.) 

Passage  from  the  Gallop  and  the  Trot  into  the  Walk  or  Sta- 
tion.— It  is  when  the  horse  rests  upon  a  diagonal  biped  that  he  is  capable  of 
effecting  these  changes.  (Lenoble  du  Teil.) 

Varieties  of  the  Normal  Gallop  and  their  Correspond- 
ing Trails. — The  horse,  in  a  state  of  nature,  employs  the  gallop  to 
reach  with  speed  any  spot  to  which  he  may  be  strongly  attracted ;  he 
also  uses  it  to  flee  from  any  danger  which  may  threaten  him.  The 
straight  line,  or  a  direction  similar  to  it,  is  preferred  by  him  as  pro- 
ducing less  fatigue  and  offering  more  safety.  The  gait  in  these  condi- 
tions is  easy,  sure,  and  generally  fast.  As  to  the  imprints  left  upon 
the  ground,  they  give  rise  to  a  trail  more  or  less  analogous  to  that  of 
Fig.  252,  Ay  in  which  are  seen  the  traces  associated  in  pairs  (anterior 
and  posterior),  each  pair  being  separated  diagonally.  Moreover,  be- 
tween two  successive  strides  there  always  exists  quite  a  long  interval, 
indicating  not  only  a  prolonged  suspension,  but  also  an  extensive  pro- 
jection, whose  value  augments  with  the  speed,  without,  however,  being 
absolutely  proportional  to  it. 

All  the  domestic  horses  which  have  not  been  influenced  by  training 
furnish  a  similar  gallop  and  trails  when  they  are  induced  to  move  at 
this  gait.  As  they  decidedly  form  the  major  portion  of  our  equine 

1  In  all  these  examples  the  gallop  upon  the  right  is  considered 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  557 

population,  it  seems  logical  to  consider  this  gallop  as  the  ordinary 
type,  since  it  is  the  most  natural  and  the  easiest  to  execute  spontane- 
ously by  the  largest  number. 

These  animals,  in  this  state,  are  little  adapted  to  the  service  of  the 
saddle,  notably  of  the  riding-school.  They  lack  that  suppleness  which 
is  sought  for  by  horsemen,  and  without  which  a  mount  is  unable  to 
obey  the  rider's  wishes ;  the  different  groups  of  muscles  have  not  yet 
acquired  the  functional  independence  necessary  to  the  required  efforts  ; 
the  distribution  of  the  weight  upon  the  anterior  and  posterior  quarters 
exists  in  such  proportions  that  the  lateral  displacements  are  difficult 
and  at  times  dangerous. 

Hence  it  is  necessary  to  submit  them  to  a  particular  dressing  in 
order  to  modify  their  conditions  of  equilibrium.  By  educating  them 
so  as  to  diminish  the  base  of  support  and  displace  the  centre  of 
gravity  backward ;  by  giving  an  elevated  attitude  to  the  neck  ;  by 
drawing  the  head  backward,  we  are  enabled  to  endow  them  with  ease 
and  suppleness,  and  make  them  perform  the  most  varied  movements. 
When  thus  educated,  they  execute  a  very  different  gallop  from  the  pre- 
ceding, its  primitive  type  being  changed  as  to  rhythm,  cadence,  and 
mode  of  association  of  the  members.  Even  if  the  speed  be  less,  this 
gallop  possesses  a  very  superior  grace  and  elegance. 

The  trails,  under  these  conditions,  become  at  times  very  dissimilar ; 
with  a  little  attention,  however,  the  characters  of  an  evident  uniformity 
of  construction  can  be  recognized,  and,  being  given  the  common  cause 
of  their  modification,  it  is  easy  to  discover  the  transitions  which  unite 
the  diverse  terms  of  the  series  which  the  trails  constitute. 

It  is  the  projection  which  first  diminishes  and  renders  its  distance  less,  as  well 
as  the  diagonal  base  (Fig.  252,  B  and  C) ;  finally,  the  posterior  foot  marking  the 
first  contact  is  less  separated  from  its  anterior  diagonal,  which  makes  the  last  beat. 

Then  the  projection  disappears  and  is  replaced  by  a  simple  suspension. 
The  distance  of  projection  (mepister)  is  null  (Fig.  252,  D) ;  the  fore  and  hind 
imprints  are  arranged  side  by  side ;  the  posterior  foot  marking  the  first  contact, 
falls  upon  the  same  transverse  line  as  its  diagonal  anterior ;  the  length  of  the 
step  is  exactly  equal  to  the  distance  passed  over  during  the  three  contacts. 

If  the  animal  be  more  restrained  (Fig.  252,  E),  he  falls  behind  the  imprint 
of  the  anterior  right  foot,  which  marks  the  third  contact ;  the  trail  shows  a  suc- 
cession of  steps  which  overlap  each  other  in  consequence  of  a  more  or  less  con- 
siderable separation  (depister) ;  the  step,  in  this  case,  is  somewhat  shorter  than 
the  space  of  ground  covered. 

In  a  still  higher  degree  of  restraint  (Fig.  252,  F),  the  posterior  foot  marking 
the  first  imprint  is  superposed  upon  the  imprint  of  the  corresponding  anterior ; 
the  trail,  double  on  one  side,  then  becomes  single  on  the  other ;  the  space  cov- 
ered exceeds  much  the  length  of  the  stride. 


558 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


r-h 


fl 


iro 


n 


B  C  J>  E  F  G 

FIG.  252.— Principal  trails  of  the  gallop.    (From  Messrs.  Barrier  and  Lenoble  du  Teil.) 

A.  The  full  gallop,  from  the  instantaneous  photographs  of  Lissa.    B,  C,  D,  E.  Series  of  gallops 


gradually  shortened,  furnished  by  the  same  horse,  progressively  restrained. 
gallops,  furnished  by  another  horse,  well  dressed  and  .veil  balanced. 


F.  G.    Very  short 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  559 

Finally,  when  the  restraint  is  pushed  to  its  utmost  limits,  the  posterior  foot 
marking  the  first  imprint  touches  the  ground  behind  the  corresponding  anterior ; 
their  separation  (depister)  is  so  great  (Fig.  252,  G)  and  the  stride  is  so  short  that 
the  trail  is  double  on  both  sides ;  the  horse  gallops  almost  upon  place,  and  the 
stride  is  less  than  half  the  length  of  the  space  covered. 

Between  these  principal  types  of  the  gallop  there  exist,  it  is  per- 
ceived, numerous  intermediary  forms  which  the  skilful  horseman  can 
realize  by  the  manner  in  which  his  mount  is  dressed.  Masters  of  riding- 
schools  are  nevertheless  unable  to  understand,  even  at  the  present  time, 
the  indications  which  are  best  adapted  for  the  production  of  this  or 
that  one ;  this  is  to  be  regretted,  for  language  renders  the  explanation 
of  the  facts  still  less  intelligible.  We  are  not  able  to  explain  these 
differences  and  fix  their  terminology.  Suffice  it  for  us  to  recognize  the 
most  important  varieties  and  the  dominant  part  of  education  in  their 
production. 

Length  of  the  Stride. — The  absolute  length  of  the  stride  of 
the  gallop  cannot  be  established,  since  it  varies  with  the  speed,  the 
form  of  the  horse,  the  length  of  his  members,  his  dressing,  the  manner 
in  which  he  is  held  by  the  rider,  etc. 

The  trails  of  Fig.  252  suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  the  differences 
which  can  be  obtained  with  a  horse  1.59  m.  to  1.60  m.  in  height,  by 
the  sole  influence  of  restraint,  the  position  of  the  head,  and  the  velocity 
of  the  gait,  without  the  dressing  being  a  very  important  factor,  except 
in  the  last  two  : 


In  the  trail  A  the  stride  is  3.90  m. 
B  "  3.85m. 

C  "  3.37m. 


In  the  trail  D  the  stride  is  2.85  m. 
E          "  2.70m. 

F          "  1.80m. 


In  the  trail  G  the  stride  is  1.60  m. 

Nevertheless,  if  its  length  is  not  uniform,  it  oscillates  around  cer- 
tain mean  figures  which  should  be  recognized  : 

The  cavalry  regulation  of  1829  fixed  it  at  3.25  m.  According  to 
Captain  Raabe,  it  should  be  equal  to  three  times  that  of  the  base  of 
support,  or  3.60  m.  for  a  horse  1.60  m.  at  the  withers. 

Speed. — The  speed  of  the  gallop  is  quite  as  variable  as  the 
length  of  the  stride.  All  things  being  equal,  it  depends  upon  the 
variety  of  the  gait  studied.  It  varies  from  300  metres  per  minute,  or 
5  metres  per  second  (cavalry  regulation),  to  362  metres  per  minute,  or 
5.44  m.  per  second  (Raabe  and  Vallon). 

Displacements  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity. — As  Lecoq 1  has 


1  Lecoq,  Trait6  de  I'extSrieur  du  cheval,  5e  £d.,  p.  372. 


560  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

indicated,  the  horizontal  or  transverse  displacements  of  the  centre  of 
gravity  have  not  here,  by  reason  of  the  irregularity  of  the  play  of  the 
members,  the  regular  rhythm  which  they  give  in  the  trot,  the  amble, 
and  the  walk. 

The  interposition  of  the  tri pedal  bases  (3  and  3)  during  the  duration  of  the 
diagonal  base  of  the  second  period  (Fig.  241,  B}  is  not,  by  any  means,  of  a  nature 
to  ameliorate  sensibly  the  lateral  displacements. 

At  first  supported  by  the  posterior  left  member,  A,  for  example  (Fig.  253), 
the  centre  of  gravity  is  displaced  to  E  in  the  line  C£,  representing  the  left 


FIG.  253. 

diagonal  base,  and  thence  to  Z>,  upon  the  anterior  right  member.  During  the 
period  of  projection,  DA',  it  is  carried  to  A',  upon  the  posterior  left  member, 
and  so  on. 

To  recapitulate,  these  oscillations,  very  feeble  in  a  lateral  sense,  do 
not  render  the  gait  tiresome  for  the  rider.  In  addition,  they  are  so 
much  less  extensive  as  the  velocity  is  greater,  the  imprints  of  the  right 
feet  tending  then  to  approach,  on  the  median  line,  those  of  the  left. 

It  is  different  with  the  longitudinal  or  vertical  displacements.  The 
direction  of  the  body,  primitively  oblique  forward  and  upward,  now 
becomes,  at  the  time  of  the  descent  upon  the  posterior  left,  oblique  in 
an  inverse  sense, — that  is  to  say,  forward  and  downward  at  the  end 
of  the  contact  of  the  anterior  right.  There  result  from  this  upon  the 
right  diagonal  biped,  in  galloping  upon  the  right,  alternate  rotatory 
movements  which  are  in  direct  ratio  with  the  shortness  of  the  gait. 

When  the  gallop  is  false,  the  line  of  gravitation  has  a  greater  dis- 
position to  fall  outside  of  the  base  of  support,  in  consequence  of  the 
inclination  of  the  body  towards  the  centre  of  the  curve  described.  It 
can  be  said  that  falls  are  then  inevitable,  if  the  turning  be  sudden 
and  the  speed  great.  The  animal  preserves  his  equilibrium  only  by 
modifying  the  direction  of  his  axis  in  relation  to  that  of  the  trail,  so 
as  to  be  oblique  instead  of  parallel  to  the  latter,  as  it  should  be.  If 
the  horse  gallops  upon  the  right  in  turning  to  the  left,  besides  lessen- 
ing his  speed,  he  also  places  himself  transversely  to  the  trail  and  turns 
the  haunches  inward  in  order  to  draw  the  posterior*  left  foot  to  the 
side  on  which  the  body  is  more  liable  to  fall  when  a  new  stride  is 
taken. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  561 

When  the  gallop  is  true,  the  line  of  gravitation,  as  Raabe l  has 
truly  observed,  is  always  nearer  to  the  concentric  lateral  biped  than  to 
the  other,  on  account  of  the  inclined  position  of  the  body.  Hence 
this  biped  is  more  fatigued,  because  it  must  support  during  the  whole 
time  the  excess  of  weight  of  which  its  congener  is  relieved.  This  fact 
becomes  very  apparent  in  ring-horses,  which  perform  always  in  the 
same  style  in  circuses  in  rings  only  14  metres  in  diameter. 

When  the  gallop  is  broken,  the  horizontal  displacements  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  are  more  extensive  than  under  ordinary  conditions. 
This  follows  from  the  fact  that  the  members,  in  striking  the  ground, 
succeed  each  other  alternately  in  lateral  instead  of  diagonal  bipeds. 
(See  the  notation  of  Fig.  237.)  As  to  the  longitudinal  displacement, 
it  is  eifected  laterally, — that  is  to  say,  from  a  posterior  member  to  the 
anterior  of  the  same  side.  These  two  peculiarities  render  the  gait 
more  tiresome  to  the  rider  and  destroy  the  stability  of  his  position  in 
the  saddle. 

Reactions.— It  suffices  to  glance  over  Figs.  238  and  239  to 
ascertain  that  the  pressure  of  the  feet  upon  the  ground  must  be 
much  more  energetic  in  the  gallop  than  in  the  walk  or  the  trot.  The 
descent  of  the  fetlock  and  the  closing  of  the  superior  angles  during 
each  phase  of  dispersion  of  concussion  is  here  much  greater.  As 
M.  Marey2  has  observed,  the  horse  is  obliged  not  only  to  support 
the  weight  of  his  body,  but  also  to  propel  himself  by  violent  impul- 
sions. The  greatest  effort  seems  to  appertain  to  the  first  beat. 
The  body,  raised  an  instant,  again  falls,  and  one  foot  only  sustains 
this  shock. 

The  reactions  which  are  produced  at  the  withers  are  represented 
in  Fig.  240  (upper  line  R)  by  an  undulating  curve,  which  continues 
during  the  whole  of  the  contacts  of  the  feet  with  the  ground. 

Marey  considers  that  the  minimum  elevation  of  the  curve  corre- 
sponds to  the  moment  when  the  feet  are  in  the  air,  and  therefore  he 
concludes  that  the  so-called  phase  of  projection  is  in  reality  only  a 
simple  suspension,  without  any  ascending  movement  of  the  body. 

We  regret  to  entertain  a  different  opinion,  for  these  statements  are 
not  in  accord  with  the  daily  observations  of  all  riders,  or  with  those 
which  can  be  made  upon  instantaneous  photographs,  notably  those  of 
Mtiybridge  and  Anschiitz.  From  the  latter,  which  remove  all  doubt, 
it  is  easy  to  prove  that  the  distance  of  the  back  above  the  ground 


1  Raabe,  Examea  des  allures,  Paris,  1857,  p.  53. 

2  Marey,  loc.  cit.,  p.  174. 

36 


562  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

attains  its  maximum  when  the  body  is  entirely  in  the  air.  The  phase 
of  projection  in  the  gallop  is  therefore  quite  real. 

Conformation. — The  horse  which  is  destined  to  the  service  of  the 
gallop  should  be  easily  guided  by  the  hand  ;  he  should  have  a  long  and 
supple  neck,  short  back  and  loins,  muscular  croup  and  thigh,  high 
withers,  long  shoulders,  muscular  leg  and  forearm,  wide  and  strong 
hocks  and  fetlocks,  flexible  pasterns,  strong  body  and  strong  limbs, 
spacious  chest,  should  be  nimble,  easy,  and  sure  on  the  feet,  docile, 
and  well  dressed. 

Uses. — The  gallop  which  we  have  examined,  also  called  the  hunt- 
ing gallop  (galop  de  chasse),  is  particularly  adapted  for  the  saddle,  the 
riding-school,  long  journeys,  races,  cavalry  manoeuvres,  etc. 

The  Slow  Gallop  with  Four  Times. 

M.  Lenoble  du  Teil 1  has  clearly  established  the  variations  which 
are  produced  in  the  order  of  the  contacts  according  to  the  conditions 
of  the  equilibrium  of  the  galloping-horse.  The  beats  of  the  second 
contact,  primitively  synchronous,  become  more  or  less  separated,  so  as 
to  emit  four  distinct  sounds  during  a  complete  step. 

This  disunion,  however,  can  manifest  itself  in  two  different  ways : 
A. — In  horses  characterized  as  being  upon  their  shoulders  (whose 
weight  is  thrown  upon  the  anterior  quarters),  such  as  those  of  the  race- 
course, the  circus,  and  the  trained  saddle-horse,  the  anterior  biped 
hastens  its  contacts.  Their  beats  succeed  each  other  as  follows,  sup- 
posing that  they  gallop  upon  the  right : 


1st  beat :  posterior  left. 
2d  beat :  anterior  left. 


3d  beat :  posterior  right. 
4th  beat :  anterior  right. 


The  gait,  in  such  cases,  is  but  slow  and  quite  rhythmical. 

B. — In  horses  designated  as  being  upon  their  haunches,  closely 
gathered  up  in  consequence  of  an  exaggerated  rassembler  (members 
under  the  body),  the  order  of  placing  the  feet  becomes,  on  the  con- 
trary, as  follows : 


1st  beat :  posterior  left. 
2d  beat :  posterior  right. 


3d  beat :  anterior  left. 
4th  beat :  anterior  right. 


This   is   the  gallop  with  four  times  of  ancient  horsemanship,  but 
completely  rejected  to-day.     It  implied  one  foot  always  on  the  ground, 


i  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Le  galop  et  la  course,  p.  12,  Argentan,  1880.    Id.,  Revue  des  haras,  Aout  15, 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  563 

and  was  executed  almost  upon  place,  being  more  like  a  riding-school 
parade  than  a  true  gait. 

Gallop  of  the  Race-Course  (Running  Gallop). 

As  soon  as  the  ordinary  gallop  exceeds  a  certain  velocity  the  simul- 
taneous beats  of  the  second  contact  commence  to  be  disassociated,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  diagonal  base  augments  progressively  inJength. 

This  gait  insensibly  passes  into  a  new  one,  which  has  received  the 
name  running  gallop,  and  in  which  the  members  appear  to  act  sepa- 
rately in  pairs  (anterior  and  posterior). 

It  is  this  very  character  of  apparent  independence  between  the 
anterior  and  the  posterior  members  that  led  ancient  horsemen  to  believe 
that  this  variety  of  gallop  was  effected  wiih  two  times. 

We  know  to-day  that  such  is  not  the  case.  It  is  a  gallop  with  four 
times,  unequal  and  very  rapid,  which  presents  great  analogies  with  that 
of  the  photographs  from  Lissa,  of  which  Fig.  242  reproduces  the 
notation. 

The  honor  of  having  demonstrated  in  a  positive  manner  the  exist- 
ence of  the  disassociation  of  the  diagonal  beats  in  this  gait,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  reality  of  its  four  times,  reverts  to  M.  Marey.1 

But  here  the  violence  of  the  pedal  percussion  in  this  gait  is  so  great 
that  the  experimental  apparatus  had  to  be  modified  so  as  to  become  more 
durable.  Unfortunately,  there  resulted  from  this  modification  less 
acute  sensitiveness  of  the  instrument,  which  makes  the  representation 
of  the  order  of  the  contacts  scarcely  accurate.  In  this  connection  it  is 
evident  that  great  and  numerous  improvements  have  yet  to  be  made 
in  the  graphic  method. 

The  thorough  analysis  of  the  instantaneous  photographs  of  M. 
Muybridge,  taken  from  the  American  race-horse  Sallie  Gardner,  which 
was  moving  at  a  velocity  of  1142  metres  per  minute,  has  permitted  M. 
Lenoble  du  Teil  to  make  the  verification  of  the  facts  more  exact  and 
more  complete.2 

Fig.  254  is  a  true  reproduction  of  these  photographs. 

Upon  the  notation  which  corresponds  to  them  (Fig.  255)  it  can  be 
seen  : 

1st.  That  the  contacts  of  the  right  members  take  place  respectively 
at  the  commencement  of  the  last  third  of  the  contacts  of  the  correspond- 
ing left  members. 

2d.  That  in  the  disunited  diagonal  biped,  PD,  A  G,  the  anterior  left 

1  Marey  La  machine  animate,  p.  177. 

8  Lenoble  du  Teil,  Le  galop  et  la  course,  p.  9,  et  suiv.,  Argentan,  1880. 


564 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


565 


beat,  AG,  is  heard  at  the  end  of  the  first  third  of  the  con- 
tact of  the  posterior  right. 


5  .        G 


FIG.  255.— Notation  of  the  running  gallop,  furnished  by  the  instantaneous  photo- 
graphs of  the  American  horse  Sallie  Gardner. 
(From  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil.) 

The  result  of  this  rhythm  is  to  render  the  times  un- 
equal, for  the  beats  PD  and  AG  occur  in  more  rapid 
succession  than  the  others. 

After  the  contact  of  the  anterior  right  member  follows 
the  phase  of  projection  (6),  which  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil  has 
valued  at  one-fifth  of  the  total  duration  of  the  complete 
step ;  then  a  new  stride  is  accomplished,  and  so  on.  As 
to  the  successive  bases  of  support,  they  diifer  somewhat 
from  those  of  the  ordinary  gallop.  Excepting  the  first  (1) 
and  the  last  (5),  which  are  unipedal,  the  other  three  are 
bipedal,  and  it  is  the  diagonal  upon  which  the  body  is 
sustained  for  the  longest  time. 

Finally,  as  in  the  gallop  with  three  times,  it  is  the 
members  of  the  diagonal  biped,  which  cause  the  first  and 
the  fourth  beat,  that  are  the  most  fatigued. 

The  facts  which  we  have  just  presented  differ  in  a 
measure  from  those  which  M.  Marey  has  observed.  Al- 
though the  differences  concern  principally  the  details,  it  is 
nevertheless  necessary  to  collect  more  numerous  data  in 
order  to  remove  all  doubts  as  to  the  truth  of  these  facts. 

The  trail  of  this  gallop  is  characterized  by  the  great 
length  of  the  projection,  as  well  as  that  of  the  diagonal 
base,  which  is  always  much  in  excess  of  three-fourths  of 
the  height  of  the  horse.  Fig.  256  reproduces  from  the 
estimates  of  M.  Lenoble  du  Teil  the  distance  between  the 
imprints  furnished  by  the  instantaneous  photographs  of 
Sallie  Gardner. 

The  length  of  the  step,  measured  between  the  two  suc- 
cessive imprints  of  the  posterior  left,  is  equal  to  4.41  m. 


" 


i 


566  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Deducting  from  this  quantity  the  distance  of  the  projection  (1.60  m.), 
it  is  proved  that  the  space  covered  by  the  animal  was  2.814  m.,  with  a 
diagonal  base  of  1.92  m. 

We  will,  nevertheless,  remark,  with  M.  Lenoble  dti  Teil,  that 
nothing  is  so  variable  as  the  step  of  this  gallop.  By  comparing  the 
different  associations  of  the  imprints  left  upon  the  ground  by  horses 
of  an  identical  external  appearance,  one  is  surprised  at  the  differences 
which  exist  among  them.  Not  only  have  their  trails  but  little  analogy, 
but  even  two  successive  strides  of  the  same  subject  appear  completely 
dissimilar.  It  follows  from  this  that,  in  order  to  understand  how  the 
trail  of  the  race-horse  is  produced  in  its  details,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  analyze  the  complete  series  of  each  one  of  his  steps. 

This  is  the  reason  that  not  even  an  approximate  length  of  these 
steps  can  be  given  :  they  vary,  in  fact,  from  4  to  7  metres,  a  very  wide 
range. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  posterior  imprints  are  always  considerably 
in  front  of  the  corresponding  anterior.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that 
the  anterior  members  be  raised  very  promptly  to  avoid  their  being 
struck  by  the  posterior.  Hence  the  race-horse,  not  considering  his 
conformation,  frequently  overreaches  when  his  speed  is  pushed  to  its 
extreme  and  when  his  training  has  been  incomplete.  The  examina- 
tion of  the  instantaneous  photographs,  for  this  purpose,  verifies  this 
statement. 

Another  important  fact  worthy  of  mention  in  this  connection  is 
that  the  imprints  left  upon  the  ground  by  a  running-horse  follow  each 
.other  upon  the  same  straight  line  as  if  made  by  the  spokes  of  a  wheel 
deprived  of  its  felloe  (Lenoble  du  Teil).  This  indicates  a  minimum 
size,  in  a  transverse  sense,  of  the  base  of  support,  and,  consequently, 
great  instability  as  well  as  enormous  speed. 

M.  Lenoble  du  Teil  estimated  that  the  velocity  of  the  trunk  is 
equal  to  ^  of  that  of  the  feet,  and  as  Sallie  Gardner,  upon  which  he 
made  his  study,  travelled  about  1 9  metres  per  second,  it  can  be  inferred 
how  difficult  it  is  for  the  eye  to  analyze  the  phases  of  such  a  rapid 
movement. 

It  is,  consequently,  not  astonishing  that  nearly  all  artists  have  rep- 
resented the  ordinary  gallop  and  the  running  gallop  incorrectly.  The 
horse  suspended  in  the  air  with  the  four  members  pointed  in  opposite 
directions,  as  is  shown  by  all  the  classical  reproductions,  is  in  a  false 
attitude,  which  is  contradicted  by  the  instantaneous  photographs  now- 
adays becoming  more  and  more  numerous.  The  members,  during  the 
projection,  are  not  extended,  but  in  reality  flexed,  gathered  under  the 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


567 


trunk ;  it  is  at  this  moment  that  interfering  takes  place.  Incapable 
as  we  are  of  perceiving  clearly  with  the  eye  the  silhouette  of  the 
running  gallop,  we  might  just  as  well  reproduce  it  truly,  as  photo- 
graphic apparatus  take  it;  for,  in  truth,  our  eye  does  not  see  the 
members  of  a  race-horse  lengthened  out  any  more  than  it  sees  them 
gathered  in,  and  it  would  be  more  logical  if  we  were  to  agree  on  sub- 
stituting for  a  conventional  attitude  one  which  is  (to  be  sure)_equally 
undiscernible  by  our  insufficiently-trained  senses,  but  which  is  at  least 
more  real. 

We  have  given  in  the  following  table  some  examples  of  speed 
displayed  upon  various  French  and  foreign  race-courses  by  some  re- 
markable horses.  Most  of  the  data  are  drawn  from  the  Journal  des 
haras  and  from  Le  Sport;  some  concerning  American  horses  have  been 
communicated  to  us  by  our  associate,  Professor  Huidekoper. 


d 
fe 

« 
< 
M 

SH 

PLACE 

OF 

COURSE. 

NAME 

OF 

ANIMAL. 

• 
SEX. 

AGE. 

WEIGHT 

CARRIKD 
BY  THE 

ANIMAL. 

DISTANCE. 

TIME. 

SPEED  PER 
SECOND. 

Yrs. 

Kilog. 

Metres. 

M.    S. 

Met.    Mill. 

1 

1847 

Aries. 

Renard. 

Horse. 

11 

64.5 

9000 

15  35 

9        625 

2 

1842 

Paris. 

Trag£die. 

Mare. 

4 

56.0 

4000 

4  58 

13        422 

3 

1846 

" 

Fitz-Emilius. 

Horse. 

4 

60.0 

4000 

4  55 

13        559 

4 

1844 

M 

Cavatine. 

Mare. 

4 

56.5 

4000 

4  49 

13        840 

5 

1839 

•« 

Roquencourt. 

Horse. 

3 

51.5 

2000 

2  24 

13        888 

6 

1842 

<l 

Nautilus. 

<• 

7 

62.5 

4000 

4  47 

13        937 

7 

1847 

Nantes. 

Philip  Shah. 

'« 

4 

60.0 

4000 

4  47 

13        937 

8 

1841 

Chantilly. 

Roquencourt. 

«; 

5 

59.5 

4000 

4  47 

13        937 

9 

1848 

Toulouse. 

Eden. 

M 

5 

62.5 

4000 

4  46 

13        986 

10 

1846 

Paris. 

LeChourineur 

« 

3 

51.0 

2000 

2  22 

14   .     084 

11 

1847 

Wirtschofl. 

Mare. 

3 

49.5 

4000 

4  44 

14        084 

12 

1841 

Versailles. 

Oak  Stick. 

Horse. 

6 

60.5 

3900 

4  36 

14        130 

13 

1845 

Paris. 

Fitz-Emilius. 

3 

51.0 

2000 

2  21 

14        184 

14 

1846 

«« 

Miss  Waggs. 

Mare. 

3 

49.5 

2000 

2  21 

14        184 

15 

1847 

<« 

Predestinee. 

5 

61.0 

4000 

4  41 

14        234 

16 

1845 

" 

Impasse. 

« 

3 

34.5 

2000 

2  20 

14        285 

17 

1840 

" 

Quoniam. 

Horse. 

3 

54.0 

2000 

2  20 

14        285 

18 

1842 

•' 

Annette. 

Mare. 

3 

52.0 

2000 

2  20 

14        285 

-M9 

1845 

H 

Pr6destine"e. 

3 

47.5 

2000 

2  19 

14        388 

20 

1840 

Chantilly. 

Jenny. 

« 

3 

47.5 

2000 

2  19 

14        388 

21 

1847 

Tarbes. 

Premier  Aout. 

Horse. 

4 

64.5 

2000 

2  18 

14        492 

22 

1840 

Chantilly. 

Fortunatus. 

" 

4 

63.0 

2000 

2  18 

14     *  492 

23 

1879 

Paris.     ' 

Nubienne. 

Mare. 

3 

53.5 

3000 

3  27 

14        492 

24 

1868 

The  Earl. 

Horse. 

3 

55.0 

3000 

3  27 

14        492 

25 

1876 

« 

Kisber. 

•« 

3 

55.0 

3000 

3  26 

14        563 

26 

1877 

» 

St.  Christophe. 

•< 

3 

55.0 

3000 

3  24 

14        705 

27 

1876 

Louisville. 

Ten  Broeck. 

•< 

3 

55.0 

6437 

7  15% 

14        797 

28 

1847. 

Aries. 

Goualeuse. 

Mare. 

4 

62.5 

3000 

317 

15        228 

29 

1840 

Paris. 

Nautilus. 

Horse. 

5 

60.0 

2500 

2  43 

15        337 

30 

1877 

Louisville. 

Ten  Broeck. 

4 

60.0 

1609 

1  39% 

16        252 

It  follows  from  this  table,  in  which  the  subjects  have  been  arranged 
in  the  order  of  speed,  that  the  velocity  of  the  gait  is  inversely  propor- 
tional to  the  distance  travelled. 

We  refer  the  reader  to  what  we  have  said  concerning  the  con- 
ditions of  the  motor  in  relation  to  speed  (page  408)  for  all  that  has 
reference  to  the  conformation  of  the  race-horse. 


568 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Transitions  between  the  Different  Gaits. 

"  It  is  very  difficult,"  says  M.  Marey,1  "  for  an  observer  to  understand  how  the 
passage  from  one  gait  to  another  is  accomplished.  The  graphic  method  furnishes 
a  very  easy  means  to  follow  these  transitions  ;  this  will,  perhaps,  not  be  one  of  the 

least  benefits  derived  from  the  applica- 
tion of  this  method  to  the  study  of  the 
gaits  of  the  horse. 

"  In  order  to  comprehend  well  what 
takes  place  in  the  transitions,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  revert  to  the  comparison  of 
Duges,  and  to  conceive  two  pedestrians 
who  follow  each  other  at  the  walk, 
the  trot,  or  the  gallop.  They  present, 
in  the  continued  gaits,  a  constant 
rhythm  in  the  relation  of  their  move- 
ments, while,  in  the  transitions,  the  one 
behind  or  the  one  in  front,  according  to 
the  case,  hastens  or  slackens  his  move- 
ments so  as  to  change  the  rhythm  of 
the  beats.  Some  examples  will  render 
the  explanation  clearer. 

"Fig.  257  is  the  notation  of  a 
transition  from  the  walk  to  the  trot. 

"  The  dominant  character  of  this 
transition,  independently  of  the  aug- 
mentation of  the  rapidity  of  the  move- 
ments, consists  in  the  fact  that  the 
movements  of  the  posterior  members 
gradually  gain  in  speed  upon  those  of 
the  anterior,  so  that  the  posterior  left 
beat,  PG,  for  example,  which,  during 
the  walk,  took  place  in  the  middle  of 
the  duration  of  the  contact  of  the  ante-' 
rior  right  member,  AD,  gradually  ap- 
proaches the  beginning  of  the  contact 
of  AD,  and  finally  coincides  with  this 
beat  itself  when  the  trot  is  produced. 

"Fig.  258  indicates,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  transition  from  the  trot  to  the 
walk. 

"  It  is  seen,  by  inverse  phenomena, 
that  the  diagonal  beats,  at  first  syn- 
chronous, disassociate  themselves  more 
and  more.  A  dotted  line  which  unites  the  left  diagonal  beats,  is  vertical  at  the 
commencement  of  the  figure,  in  the  part  which  corresponds  to  the  trot ;  little 
by  little  this  line  becomes  oblique,  showing  that  the  synchronism  disappears. 


Marey,  loc.  cit.,  p.  179. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


569 


The  direction  of  the  obliquity  of  this  line  denotes  that  it  is  the  anterior  members 
which  slacken  in  speed  in  the  passage  from  the  trot  to  the  walk. 

"The  transition  in  the  passage  from  the  trot  to  the  gallop  is  very  peculiar;  it 
is  represented  in  the  notation  of  Fig.  259.     It  is  seen  there,  in  the  beginning 
of  the   figure,  that  the  trot  is  slightly 
broken ;    the  dotted   line  which  unites 
the  left  diagonal  beats,  AG  and  PD,  is 
already  somewhat  oblique  and  marks  a 
slight  tardiness  of  the  posterior  foot.  This 
obliquity  continues  to  augment,  but  in 
the  left  diagonal  biped  alone ;  the  right 
diagonal  biped,  AD,  PG,  remains  united, 
even  after  the  establishment  of  the  gal- 
lop.    The  transition  from  the  trot  to 
the  gallop  is  made   not   only  by  the 
slowness  of  the  movements  of  the  pos- 
terior foot,  but  also  by  the  advance  of  the 
anterior  foot,  so  that  the  two  diagonal 
beats,  which  in  the  trot  were  synchro-       I 
nous,  are  now  separated  by  a  long  inter- 
val :  this,  in  the  ordinary  gallop,  consti-       ! 
tutes  the  long  silence. 

"An  inverse  change  produces  the 
transition  from  the  gallop  to  the  trot,  as       \ 
can  be  seen  in  Fig.  260."  I 


E. — Leaping.  \ 

I 
Definition.— Leaping    is    a     [ 

progressive  movement  in  which  \ 
the  body  is  completely  separated 
from  the  ground  to  be  projected 
forward  and  upward  by  the  sudden 
impulsion  given  by  the  four  mem- 
bers. The  latter  act,  according  to 
the  case,  simultaneously,  in  pairs, 
or  separately.  This  mode  of  pro- 
gression, exacting  a  large  amount 
of  force,  is  not  accomplished  by  all 
horses  with  equal  facility.  It  takes 
part,  at  times,  in  some  gaits,  par- 
ticularly the  trot  and  the  gallop,  but  is  executed  by  the  animal  spe- 
cially under  many  circumstances. 

Divisions. — Leaping,  properly  so  called,  may  be  (Fig.  261)  as- 
cending, longitudinal,  and,   finally,    descending.     All    other   divisions 


570 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


appear  useless  to  us,  for  leaping  is  produced  in  the  horse  neither  ver- 
tically nor  in  a  retrograde  manner,  as  it  is  seen  in  some  other  animals. 


FIG.  261.— Scheme  of  the  three  principal  varieties  of  leaps. 

As  to  leaping  to  one  side,  it  is  only  a  variety  of  one  of  those  which 
we  have  enumerated  above ;  it,  therefore,  need  not  occupy  our  attention. 

1st.  The  Ascending  Leap,  or  the  Leap  over  a  Barrier.— It 
is  this  variety  which  we  will  take  for  a  type.  Steeple-chasers  and 
hunters,  which  have  to  clear  ditches,  fences,  and  walls,  as  in  England 
and  America  in  the  popular  fox-hunts,  execute  it  most  frequently,  either 
without  modifying  their  speed  if  the  barrier  is  not  too  high,  or,  on  the 
contrary,  with  a  certain  fixation  of  the  feet  during  a  momentary  period 
of  arrest,  permitting  them  to  recognize  the  nature  and  the  height  of 
the  obstacle.  In  certain  cases  the  body  does  not  fall  to  the  same  level 
as  that  of  its  point  of  departure,  when,  for  example,  the  horse,  in 
traversing  a  meadow,  leaps  over  ditches  and  embankments  which  lie 
along  the  route,  and  then  continues  his  course  upon  this  route. 

However  it  may  be,  the  action  in  all  cases  comprises  three  more  or 
less  rapid  phases :  one  of  preparation,  one  of  execution,  and  one  of 
descent. 

M.  Ottomar  Anschiitz  has  recorded  all  the  successive  attitudes  by 
means  of  instantaneous  photographs.  We  will  reproduce,  from  his 
series  of  twenty  portraits,  the  five  principal  positions  which  it  appears 
useful  to  us  to  study l  (Figs.  262  to  266). 

The  animal  during  the  first  period  (preparation)  approximates  his 
four  members  under  the  trunk,  suddenly  elevates  the  head  and  the 
neck,  and  forcibly  carries  them  backward.  The  anterior  columns,  at  the 
same  time,  become  rigid  and  straightened,  and  raise  the  anterior  quar- 
ters (Fig.  262),  as  if  the  horse  intended  to  rear. 

During  the  second  period  (execution)  the  posterior  members  extend, 
in  the  manner  of  a  bow  in  the  act  of  unbending,  and  propel  the  body 
upward  and  forward  (Fig.  263).  The  next  instant  the  body  is  sent  up 


1  For  more  details,  see  G.  Barrier,  SociSte  centrale  de  oi6decine  v£terinaire  (stance  du  14 
Fevrier,  1889). 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR. 


571 


FIG.  262.— The  leap.    (Preparation.) 


FIG,  263.— The  leap.    (Impulsion.) 


SHE 


FIG,  265.—  The  leap.    (Descent  in  front.) 


FIG.  264.—  The  leap.    (Passing  the  obstacle.) 

altogether  in  the  air  (Fig.  264) 
with  an  energetic  impulsion  which 
will  enable  it  to  clear  the  obstacle 
placed  before  him. 

Finally,  the  descent  is  effected 
first  by  that  of  the  anterior  biped 
(Fig.  265),  followed  by  that  of 
the  posterior  (Fig.  266). 

All  authors  are  not  in  accord 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
body  alights  on  the  ground  after 
having  cleared  the  obstacle.  ^To 
solve  this  question,  we  have  ex- 
perimented upon  steeple-chase  horses  in  training  at  Vincennes. 

Our   observations  are  in  absolute   conformity  with  those  of  De 


Jf  HI   H  fl 


•  *!• 


FIG.  266.— The  leap.    (Descent  behind.) 


572  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


^"jpj  Curnieu1  and  of  M.  Duhousset,2  as  well  as  with  the 

os  -I  results  deduced  from  the  instantaneous  photographs 

%  from  Lissa. 

o 

H  The  anterior  members  are  the  first  to  arrive  on  the 

B  ground,  almost  simultaneously  and  very  close  to  each 

|  other  (Fig.  265),  which  is  also  shown  by  the  trail 

|  (Fig.  267).     If,  however,  the  horse,  before  leaping, 

•S  should  gallop  upon  the  right,  for  example,  it  is  the 

J  anterior  right  which  touches  the  ground  first,  and  vice 

|  versa.    It  is  less  frequent  to  see  him  continue  the  gallop 

g  upon  the  other  foot,  although  this  disunion  in  the  first 

I  step  after  completing  the  leap  is  sometimes  observed. 
J  Scarcely  has  the  anterior  biped  touched  the  ground, 

J  £  when  it  is  immediately  raised  by  a  forcible  effort,  to 

gi  3  £  allow  space  for  the  two  hind- feet,  which  effect  their 

S  I  I  contact  in  the  same  order  as  their  congeners,  marking 

b  ^  5  their  imprints  a  little  in  advance  and  very  close  to  the 

I  2  |  latter  (Fig.  267). 


2 1  |  The  descent   being   completed,  the  animal  takes 

£  J  .S  several  strides  of  the  gallop,  after  which  he  can  stop 

•|  8  a  or  continue  his  gait. 

«  I  •§  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  always  thus.    Either  because 
^  |  *  the  impulsion  has  been  too  energetic  or  because  the 
_JJH     §  j»  jj  fore-limbs  are  poorly  adapted  for  the  reception  of  the 
H  I  §  body,  from  over-exertion,  weakness,  defective  confor- 
cf            £  5  mation,  or  improper  training,  a  serious  fall  is  some- 
|  times  produced.     The  horse,  by  virtue  of  the  speed 
I  acquired  flexing  the  knees,  executes  a  complete  somer- 
%  set  and  dismounts  his  rider,  who  is  thrown  away  sev- 
eral metres.     Nor  is  it  very  rare  in  such  a  case  to  see 
§  one  of  the  two  unable  to  rise  any  more. 
Jj  If  the  impulsion  by  the  posterior  members  has 
i  been  insufficient,  the  accidents  assume  a  different  char- 
's acter  :  sometimes  the  hind-members  touch  the  superior 
jg  part  of  the  obstacle,  which  is  a  frequent  cause  of  falls  ; 
o  sometimes  the  fore-members  alone  clear  it,  and  the 
5  animal  remains  suspended  upon  the  inferior  face  of 
53  the  abdomen  or  the  chest,  without  being  able  to  dis- 
engage himself. 

1  De  Curnieu,  Lecons  de  science  hippique,  t.  i.  p.  166. 

2  Duhousset,  Le  cheval,  p.  33. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  573 

Fig.  268  gives  the  notation  of  a  leap  over  a  hedge,  after  the  photo- 
graphs from  Lissa;  the  annexed  explanatory  legend  simplifies  its 
comprehension.  This  notation  enables  us  to  follow  the  series  of  the 
phenomena  as  to  their  times,  while  the  trail  represents  them  to  us  as 
to  their  distance. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  figure,  the  horse,  which  was  trotting,  disasso- 
ciates the  elevations  of  A  G  and  PD,  during  which  he  hastens  the  contact  of  the 
anterior  right.  In  phase  4  he  prepares  to  support  himself  immediately  (5)  upon 
the  posterior  member.  The  two  hind-limbs,  in  contact  with  the  ground,  remain 
there  during  the  whole  duration  of  phase  6,  and  effect  simultaneously  an  ener- 
getic impulsion  ;  the  body,  under  this  influence,  is  projected  upward  and  forward 
to  clear  the  barrier  (8) ;  it  then  falls  successively  upon  the  anterior  members, 
the  right  first. 


FIG.  268.— Notation  of  the  leap  over  a  hedge. 

(From  the  photographs  from  Lissa.) 

At  4,  the  preparation :  5,  elevation  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  trunk ;  6,  the  impulsion;  7, 
the  body  suspended  ;  8,  passage  over  the  obstacle;  9,  descent;  10,  clearing  by  the  hind-limbs; 
13,  descent  of  the  hind-limbs. 

The  anterior  biped,  however,  is  immediately  raised  (11 ),  and,  as  the  posterior 
has  not  yet  come  into  contact  with  the  ground,  there  results  a  new  and  very  short 
suspension  (12),  after  which  the  posterior  members  are  rested.  The  leap  is  ac- 
complished ;  the  horse  starts  afresh  in  a  broken  gallop.  (See  above,  page  571.) 

It  is  not  without  interest  to  cite  here  some  examples  of  remarkable 
leaps. 

We  have  seen  in  the  school  at  Alfort  a  horse  that  jumped  out  of  a  box-stall 
3.80  m.  in  length,  and  enclosed  by  a  railing  1.20  m.  in  height. 

According  to  Youatt,1  a  horse,  which  had  been  cauterized  in  three  members, 
was  placed  at  liberty  in  a  box  closed  by  a  door  1.80  m.  high,  above  which  was  a 
space  of  1  square  metre ;  his  height  was  1.60  m.  This  animal,  on  hearing  at  a 
great  distance  the  shouts  of  the  hunters  and  the  yells  of  the  dogs,  leaped  with 
one  bound  over  the  door  of  his  box,  without  showing  under  his  chest,  his  neck, 
or  his  sides  the  least  evidence  of  an  abrasion  or  a  wound. 

De  Curnieu 2  relates  the  following  feats  : 

"  In  1792,  for  a  wager  of  500  guineas,  an  Irish  horse  was  brought  into  Hyde 
Park,  to  leap  over  the  wall  of  Park  Lane,  2.22  m.  high  on  one  side  and  only  2.08  m. 

i  Youatt.  History  of  the  English  Thoroughbred. 

8  De  Curnieu,  Lecons  de  science  hippique  generate,  Paris,  1857,  t.  ii.  p.  413. 


574  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

on  the  other.  He  cleared  the  lower  side  easily,  but  touched  slightly  on  the 
opposite  side.  It  appears  that  he  was  at  liberty. 

"  Another  Irish  horse  also  leaped  over  the  same  wall. 

"  There  are  also  some  rare  examples  of  horses  leaping  over  walls  2  metres 
high  for  wagers. 

"  A  hunter  of  Kent  County,  in  endeavoring  to  follow  a  fox  into  a  closed  field, 
is  reported  to  have  leaped  over  a  wall  of  2  metres  without  difficulty. 

"  We  rarely  see  a  leap  of  1  metre  under  a  heavy  man ;  one  of  1.46  m.  is  not 
often  witnessed,  even  in  hurdle-races,  because  what  I  call  a  leap  is  the  leap  clear 
and  free  over  a  movable  bar  which  falls  from  the  least  touch  or  over  a  wall  which 
does  not  bend  or  give  way.  The  hurdles  of  the  race-courses  are  nearly  always 
struck  by  the  feet  at  18  or  22  centimetres  from  their  superior  extremity. 

"  A  leap  of  1.46  m.  is  worth  one's  while  to  go  100  kilometres  in  order  to  see 
it,  and  a  leap  of  1.62  m.  is  seen  but  once  or  twice  in  the  life  of  a  sportsman." 

2d.  The  Longitudinal  Leap. — This  is  also  called  the  leap  in 
width  by  De  Curnieu.  It  is  that  which  a  horse  executes  in  jumping 
over  a  ditch  or  a  stream  of  water,  but  it  can  be  made  in  a  vertical  and 
a  longitudinal  sense  at  the  same  time. 

Thus  Flora,  a  celebrated  hunting  mare  of  the  English  thoroughbred  variety, 
leaped  over  a  hedge  of  1.46  m.  with  a  ditch  of  7  metres  close  behind  it.1 

"  The  Sporting  Magazine 2  speaks  of  a  wager  in  which  it  was  proposed  to  leap, 
with  66  kilogrammes,  the  canal  of  Mar  Dyke,  in  Corez,  at  a  place  where  it  was 
25  English  feet  wide." 

The  longitudinal  leap  is  not  always  solitary ;  it  is  frequently  associated  with 
a  progressive  movement,  the  trot  or  the  gallop,  when  the  body  of  the  horse  is 
altogether  in  the  air. 

3d.  The  Descending  Leap. — This  form  of  progression  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  fall,  properly  so  called,  nor  again  with  the  third 
period  of  the  ascending  leap, — that  is  to  say,  the  descent.  In  each 
case  the  execution  has  as  its  principal  agent  the  weight  of  the  body, 
and,  very  secondarily,  the  fraction  of  the  initial  impulsion  not  yet 
exhausted,  which  counteracts  a  fall  and  lessens  the  concussion. 

The  horse,  in  the  descending  leap,  is,  on  the  contrary,  not  obliged  to 
raise  himself  previous  to  clearing  the  obstacle ;  he  must  simply  leave 
the  ground  in  order  to  reach  a  point  on  the  latter  situated  beyond  and 
at  a  greater  or  less  distance  from  the  place  where  the  surface  changes 
its  level.  At  this  moment  he  collects  the  members  under  the  body 
during  a  very  short  period,  and  then  springs  obliquely  downward  and 
forward,  from  the  energetic  extension  of  his  hind-members. 

The  parabolic  curve  described  by  the  body  under  such  circumstances 
is  produced  by  the  weight  of  the  body  and  the  impulsive  force  from 

1  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  t.  ii.  p.  139. 

2  Octobre,  1829.    Citation  de  M.  de  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  t.  ii.  p.  414. 


THE    GAITS    IN    PARTICULAR.  575 

behind  which  is  added  integrally.  It  is  appreciated  from  this  how 
violent  must  be  the  reaction  to  the  rider  and  to  the  horse.  If  the 
anterior  members  of  the  latter  are  not  constructed  strongly  and 
solidly,  if  their  vertical  axes  and  equilibrium  are  defective  and  his 
training  incomplete,  a  fall  becomes  inevitable. 

The  three  varieties  of  leap  of  which  we  have  spoken  are  some- 
times combined  on  the  hunting-field  or  the  race-course.  The  Irish 
banquette  is  only  an  obstacle  similar  to  the  one  of  which  Fig.  261  rep- 
resents the  scheme.  Very  variable  in  its  disposition,  it  often  has  a 
trench  in  front  of  the  ascent  and  a  second  one  behind  the  descent, 
which  render  the  leap  still  more  dangerous. 

Conformation  of  Leapers. — The  horse  which  is  destined  to 
leap  frequently,  requires,  of  necessity,  an  irreproachable  conformation, 
as  well  as  energy,  force,  and  vigor,  in  order  to  be  able  to  withstand 
the  great  fatigue  that  results  from  this  act. 

A  light  head,  long  neck,  beautiful  withers,  strong  and  compact 
body,  powerful  loins  and  croup,  wide  articulations,  regular  axes,  and 
equilibrium  of  the  anterior  members,  as  well  as  energy,  are  the  essen- 
tial beauties  to  be  desired  in  him. 

•  Besides  a  strong  muscular  development,  adds  M.  Sanson,1  the  horse 
must  have  an  intelligence  developed  and  improved  by  education  and 
training.  It  is  very  disadvantageous  not  to  have,  in  this  kind  of  ser- 
vice, a  horse  that  possesses  the  intellectual  faculty  which  is  called 
judgment,  and  which  implies,  on  his  part,  close  observation,  apprecia- 
tion, and,  finally,  decision,  with  which  he  measures  his  efforts  by  the 
severity  of  the  task  imposed  upon  him. 

Bounding  and  Bucking. 

The  bounding  or  skipping  is  effected  upon  place,  with  two  times, 
and  consists  of  a  complete  elevation  of  the  body  above  the  ground  by 
the  successive  and  alternate  raising  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  parts 
of  the  body.  The  movements  of  the  posterior  quarters,  however,  are 
ordinarily  not  that  of  kicking.  This  act  can  be  repeated  several  times 
in  succession.  The  horse  most  often  practises  it  from  mere  playful- 
ness in  the  parade  or  in  the  riding-school,  but  sometimes  also  for  the 
purpose  of  dismounting  his  rider. 

Bucking,  or  the  goat-leap,  is  almost  identical  with  the  pre- 
ceding. It  only  differs  from  the  latter  in  that  the  animal  appears  to 

1  A.  Sanson,  Trait£  de  zootechnie,  2e  6d.,  1874,  t.  i.  p.  89. 


576  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

elevate  simultaneously  the  four  members,  and  touches  the  ground  again 
in  the  same  manner. 

There  are  some  horses  which  are  specially  trained,  in  riding- 
schools,  to  buck  and  bound  :  these  are  the  leapers  between  posts l  and 
the  leapers  at  liberty.2  In  general  they  are  compact,  close  to  the 
ground,  wide  over  the  back  arid  loins,  very  muscular,  powerfully  con- 
structed, and  have  wide  and  strong  hocks.  A  similar  conformation 
is  required  for  kicking,  a  service  which  is  sometimes  exacted  from 
them.  They  become,  in  some  instances,  breathless  and  covered  with 
profuse  perspiration.  It  is,  at  times,  extremely  difficult  to  mount  them 
and  to  remain  on  their  backs  even  after  having  mounted  them.  They 
should  possess,  besides  these  external  characters,  intelligence  and  good 
moral  qualities ;  some  are  indocile,  vicious,  and  dangerous  ;  finally,  they 
should  be  endowed  with  great  energy,  endurance,  and  good  breeding. 


CHAPTER    III. 


DEFECTS   IN   THE   GAITS. 

WE  will  examine  in  this  chapter  the  defects  which,  in  a  general 
manner,  may  manifest  themselves  more  or  less  distinctly  in  all  the 
gaits.  To  this  end,  we  will  arrange  them  under  five  different  classes  : 

I  1st.  Dragging  the  toe. 
2d.   Excessive  knee-action. 
3d.  Immobilized,  cold,  pegged 
shoulders. 

B.  Defects  existing  in  the  posterior  j  ist.  String-halt. 

members  alone.  {  2d.   Rotating  hocks. 

C.  Defects  dependent  upon  the  mode  1 

of   association    in    raising   the   I 
anterior   feet   and   resting   the  [  For9m9- 
posterior  feet. 


1  The  leaper  between  posts  is  one  that  is  attached,  in  the  riding-school,  between  two  pillars  in 
order  to  oblige  him  to  leap  upon  place  and  in  a  certain  manner. 

2  The  leaper  at  liberty  is  one  which,  mounted  at  liberty,  describes  a  trail  like  any  other  horse, 
with  this  difference,  that  he  executes  the  goat-leap  or  buck  at  the  will  of  the  horseman  who 
gives  the  lesson. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  577 

D.  Defects  existing   simultaneously  "j 

or  separately   in    the   anterior  I   1st.  Rocking. 
quarters    or    in    the    posterior  f  2d.   Strain  of  the  loins. 
quarters. 

f  1st.  Billarder. 

E.  Defects  existing  indiscriminately  1  2d    Interferingt 


in  the  four  members.  3d 

Having  thus  classified  the  defects,  we  will  study  each  one  in  par- 
ticular. 

A.  —  Defects  existing  in  the  Anterior  Members  Alone. 

When,  during  locomotion,  the  anterior  members  move  too  close 
along  the  ground  or  rise  excessively  ;  when  their  segments  are  not 
extended  and  flexed  with  the  quickness  and  to  the  extent  which  their 
mode  of  association  requires,  the  gaits  assume  some  particular  forms 
which  render  them  ungraceful,  slow,  uncertain,  and  even  dangerous  to 
the  animal,  his  driver,  or  his  rider. 

1st.  Dragging  the  Toe.  —  It  is  said  that  the  horse  drags  his  toe, 
scrapes  the  floor,  when  his  anterior  feet  are  raised  with  difficulty  during 
the  evolution  of  the  step.  Horses  which  have  pegged  (cold)  shoulders 
and  stiffened  members  ;  those  which  are  worn  out  or  exhausted  ;  finally, 
young  animals  (colts),  during  the  first  period  of  their  life,  present  more 
especially  this  defect.  It  predisposes  them  to  strike  the  roughnesses 


FIG.  269.— Instantaneous  photograph  of  draught-horses  moving  a  heavy  load. 

of  the  ground,  and,  consequently,  to  stumble,  make  false  steps,  or  fall. 
It  may  be  caused  to  disappear  by  proper  dressing,  but  not,  however, 
if  it  be  the  result  of  hard  work. 

It  is  particularly  in  the  trot,  the  walk,  the  amble,  and  the  broken 
amble  that  this  defect  is  apparent.  Horsemen,  nevertheless,  apply 
this  expression  to  horses  which  gallop  close  to  the  ground.  It  seems 
that  the  same  disadvantages  result  in  all  instances.  This  defect  is 
ordinarily  all  the  more  grave  as  the  gait  in  which  it  appears  has 

37 


578  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

more  speed.  Certain  conformations — that  of  the  thoroughbred  horse, 
for  example,  or,  again,  certain  methods  of  training  at  great  speed — 
seem  to  predispose  to  it.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  much  more  rare  in 
draught-horses,  which  always  raise  their  feet  high  during  work  (Fig. 
269). 

2d.  Excessive  Knee-Action. — This  action,  also  called  high 
knee-action,  is  especially  marked  in  the  trot,  and  more  particularly  in 
German  and  Dutch  horses.  It  is  characterized  by  exaggerated  flexion 
of  the  canon  and  the  forearm.  It  is  far  from  constituting  a  beauty,  as 
many  persons  think,  nor  is  it  graceful  either ;  it  is  not  in  favor  at 
the  present  day.  It  is  well  known  that  this  manner  of  progression 
involves  a  loss  of  time  and  force  which  are  prejudicial  to  both  the 
velocity  of  the  gait  and  its  duration. 

According  to  some  authors,  it  is  more  common  in  horses  with 
arched  necks  and  in  those  with  angular  (cow)  hocks.1 

We  know  of  no  means  of  remedying  it. 

Let  us  remark,  in  passing,  that  blind  horses  imitate  this  action  con- 
siderably when  they  trot,  endeavoring  thus  to  avoid  obstacles ;  but  in 
this  case  the  action  is  not  identical,  properly  speaking,  with  the  one 
under  consideration. 

3d.  Immobilized  or  Pegged  Shoulders. — When  the  shoul- 
ders, although  normal  in  appearance,  seem  to  be  restrained  from  acting 
with  entire  freedom,  and  only  shortened  movements  of  the  members 
are  allowed,  they  are  said  to  be  immobilized,  cold,  or  pegged. 

These  expressions  are  incorrect,  for,  as  H.  Bouley  remarks,2  it  is 
less  in  the  shoulder  than  in  the  inferior  regions  of  the  members  that 
the  impediment  resides.  The  animal,  in  most  instances,  suffers  in  the 
feet,  and  shortens  his  steps  to  diminish  the  intensity  of  the  percussion 
against  the  ground.  As  a  proof  that  this  is  so,  the  destruction  of  the 
sensibility  in  the  region  of  the  surgical  foot,  by  the  operation  of  neu- 
rotomy,  will,  in  most  instances,  restore  the  natural  mobility  to  the 
shoulders. 

The  immobility  of  the  shoulders  is  not  always  an  index  of  a  lesion 
of  the  members ;  it  may  depend  simply  upon  a  want  of  energy,  the 
coldness  and  lymphatic  type  of  the  temperament,  compatible  sometimes 
with  the  most  perfect  regularity  of  form.  The  picture-horse  of  the 
dealers,  a  model  to  offer  to  artists,  is  a  case  in  point.  With  an  irre- 

1  Similar  to  slring-halt,  this  action  may  be  due  to  an  excess  of  elastic  fibres  in  the  anti- 
brachial  aponeurosis  and  in  the  tendon  which  extends  from  the  biceps  muscle  to  the  tendon 
of  the  extensor  of  the  metacarpus.    (Harger.) 

2  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  dictionnaire  de  me'decine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v6t£rinaires, 
t.  vi.  p.  155. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  579 

proachable  conformation,  the  horse  has  neither  gait  nor  energy,  and 
trots  under  himself,  because  he  lacks  that  qualification  without  which 
the  best-arranged  mechanism  loses  all  its  value, — the  breeding,  the  blood. 
Let  us  add,  finally,  that  such  restrained  movements  of  the  shoul- 
ders are  sometimes  only  temporary ;  it  is  thus  when  the  defect  results 
from  extreme  youth,  insufficient  training,  weakness  from  certain  path- 
ological alterations,  etc.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  possible,  "\vith 
good  hygiene,  abundant  alimentation,  and  daily  exercise  judiciously 
practised,  to  cause  the  disappearance  of  the  defect. 

B. — Defects  existing  in  the  Posterior  Members  Alone. 

1st.  String-halt. — String-halt,  or  dry  spavin,  is  characterized  by 
a  sudden  jerking  and  somewhat  convulsive  flexion  of  the  canon  upon 
the  leg,  to  such  a  degree  in  some  subjects  that  the  anterior  face  of  the 
fetlock  touches  the  inferior  face  of  the  abdomen. 

This  sudden  and  exaggerated  flexion  of  the  hock  affects  sometimes 
only  one  and  sometimes  both  members.  If,  in  the  latter  case,  the  action 
of  string-halt  is  very  intense,  locomotion,  when  the  animal  first  starts 
off,  is  very  singular. 

The  horse  suffering  from  this  affection  presents  absolutely  no  ex- 
ternal lesion  which  will  reveal  its  existence.  It  is  only  in  the  walk 
more  especially  and  in  the  trot  that  this  symptom  manifests  itself. 
More  or  less  pronounced,  and  always  more  visible  after  a  prolonged 
rest,  it  sometimes  disappears  altogether  during  and  immediately  after 
exercise.  It  may  therefore  be  said  to  be  of  an  intermittent  nature, 
since  it  may  appear  and  disappear  according  to  circumstances.  Hence 
H.  Bouley  has  thought  that  this  defect  should  be  considered  as  a  variety 
of  chronic  intermittent  lameness,  and  for  this  reason  redhibitory,  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  Article  II.  of  the  law  of  August  2,  1884.  We  share 
this  opinion,  but  we  know  of  no  legal  opinion  that  has  been  given  on 
the  subject. 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  affection  ? 

"  The  true  cause  of  this  flexion  of  the  hock,  more  frequent  in 
well-bred  horses  than  in  those  of  the  common  races,"  says  Lecoq,1 
"  has  not  yet  been  recognized.  To  attribute  it  invariably  to  a  dis- 
ease of  the  hock  is  to  forget  that  the  osseous  levers  cannot  be  moved 
isolately,  and  that  the  spasmodic  flexion  of  one  articulation  suffices 
to  excite  that  of  all  the  others.  If  the  flexion  of  the  hock  is  more 
apparent  to  the  eyes  than  that  of  the  superior  articulations,  is  this  a 

i  Lecoq.,  Inc.  cit.,  5e  6d.,  p.  388. 


580  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

reason  why  the  former  should  be  the  point  of  origin  of  the  abnormal 
movement  of  the  member?"   • 

These  remarks  are  not  without  reason  and  foundation,  for  the 
lesions  of  string-halt  are  not  always  located  in  the  tibio-tarsal  articula- 
tion. The  facts  which  we  will  cite  furnish  evidence  of  this,  and  will 
also  serve  to  direct  investigators  in  their  researches  upon  this  subject. 

1st.  Rigot  attributes  the  abrupt  movements  of  perfect  ginglyrnoid  (hinge) 
articulations  to  the  ulcerated  lines  which  their  articular  surfaces  present.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  alterations  of  this  nature  are  found  in  the  humero-radial  articulation 
when  the  horse  is  string-halty  in  front,  and  in  the  tibio-tarsal  when  he  is  affected 
in  the  /widMimb.1 

2d.  Pastureau,  veterinarian  at  Esclates  (Lot-et-Garonne),  has  advanced  the 
opinion,  without  any  proof  to  support  it,  that  string-halt  is  due  to  the  accidental 
fastening  or  catching  of  the  internal  femoro-patellar  ligament  upon  the  superior 
extremity  of  the  femoral  trochlea.2 

3d.  M.  Watrin,  ex-army  veterinarian,  thinks,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  is 
produced  by  the  complementary  fibro-cartilages  of  the  third  phalanx,  which, 
slightly  modified  in  their  structure  and  relations,  press  against  the  second  pha- 
lanx (coronary  bone)  at  the  time  of  the  raising  of  the  member. 

This  hypothesis,  revived  by  Messrs.  Chenier  and  Weber,  has  induced  M.  E. 
Bizard  to  employ  anaesthetic  injections  in  the  fold  of  the  pastern  to  relieve  the 
pain  which  horses  affected  with  string-halt  seem  to  experience.  These  injections 
have  given  negative  results.3 

4th.  M.  Orillard,  veterinarian  of  Chatellerault,  has  also  published  several 
interesting  facts.  According  to  his  views,  the  action  of  string-halt  is  due,  to  mus- 
cular laceration  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  tibial  region  and  of  the  thigh,  or  to 
a  partial  rupture  of  the  tendons  and  aponeuroses  of  the  cord  of  the  hock.4 

Concerning  our  opinion,  we  will  say  that,  like  Rigot,  we  have  seen  horses 
which  were  string-halty  in  the  anterior  members,  and  which  have  presented  at  the 
autopsy  ulcerated  fissures  of  the  huinero-radial  articulation ;  these  subjects  arer 
however,  extremely  rare. 

As  to  those  which  are  affected  behind,  they  have  shown  very  diverse  lesions  : 
sometimes  they  existed  only  in  the  femoro-tibial  articulation,  in  the  form  of 
ulcerations,  foreign  bodies,  simple  or  rheumatoid  arthritis ;  sometimes  they  exist, 
with  almost  the  same  characters,  in  the  femoro-patellar  articulation  only;  some- 
times in  the  tibio-astragaloid  joint  exclusively;  at  other  times  we  have  found  all 
the  articulations  in  the  posterior  member  diseased  except  the  coxo-femoral ; 
finally,  there  were  instances  in  which  nothing  abnormal  could  be  perceived,  no 
more  in  the  bones  and  the  cartilages  than  in  the  muscles,  the  tendons,  the  apo- 
neuroses, the  synovial  membranes,  the  vessels,  and  the  nerves.5 

1  Rigot,  Trait6  complet  de  1'anatomie  des  principaux  animaux  domestiques.    (Syndesmolo- 
gie,  p.  94.) 

2  Pastureau,  Journal  des  ve'te'rinaires  du  Midi,  annee  1849,  p.  871 :  Quelques  reflexions  sur 
l'6parvin  et  la  erampe. 

a  Bulletin  de  la  SocietS  centrale  de  mt'decine  ve"te"rinaire,  stance  du  25  Fevrier,  1882,  in 
Recueil  de  m6decine  vet6rinaire,  annee  1882,  p.  373. 

*  Orillard,  Quelques  renseignements  sur  la  nature  et  l'6tiologie  de  1'eparvin  sec,  in 
Archives  v£terinaires,  6e  ann6e,  1881.  p.  161. 

6  Arm.  Goubaux,  Comptes-Rendus  de  la  Societ*3  de  biologic,  annee  1853,  pp.  10  et  92. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  581 

In  two  instances  our  attention  was  arrested  by  the  degree  of  openness  of  the 
articular  angles.  Besides  the  various  forms  of  chronic  arthritis,  we  have,  in  other 
instances,  found  the  tibio-tarsal  angles  so  large  that  their  branches,  in  their  max- 
imum state  of  separation,  formed  almost  a  straight  line.  This  disposition  has 
appeared  to  us  to  have  for  its  effect  the  augmentation  of  the  spring-like  action 
of  the  hock.  This  action,  seen  in  the  freshly-dissected  articulation,  when  it  is 
flexed  or  extended,  is  the  more  intensified  as  the  constituting  bones  of  the  articu- 
lation are  closer  to  their  limit  of  separation.  As  no  definite  lesion  can  be  dis- 
covered in  horses  which  are  affected  with  dry  spavin,  it  might  be  that  the  sudden 
and  abrupt  movement  which  accompanies,  in  such  cases,  flexion  and  extension 
of  the  metatarsus  has  its  sole  cause  in  the  mode  of  coaptation  and  union  of  the 
bones  of  the  leg  and  of  the  canon.1 

It  is  also  possible,  as  Pastureau  has  supposed,  that  the  accidental  suspension 
of  the  internal  patellar  ligament  upon  the  femoral  trochlea,  whose  internal  lip  is  at 
times  very  salient,  opposes  at  first  a  certain  resistance  to  the  movement  of 
flexion  of  the  member,  and,  as  this  obstruction  suddenly  disappears,  the  flexion 
is  then  spasmodically  completed.2 

These  are,  of  course,  only  hypotheses,  but  the  study  .of  the  nature  and  cause 
of  this  condition  will  receive  ample  reward  and  are  well  worth  one's  undertaking. 

All  these  facts  demonstrate  that  science  does  not  know  the  exact 
cause  of  this  remarkable  symptom.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  horse 
which  is  so  affected  is  not  easily  relieved  ;3  he  has,  consequently,  lost 
much  of  his  value,  although  this  does  not  render  him  unable  to  per- 
form his  work,  even  the  most  laborious  kind. 

2d.  Rotating  Hocks. — Horses  of  the  heavy-draught  or  the 
lighter  types  quite  frequently  present  this  outward  rotation  of  the 
hocks,  for  which  there  is  no  remedy ;  they  are,  as  a  rule,  animals  de- 
generated from  hard  labor. 

During  the  walk,  and  more  particularly  when  the  foot  is  placed  on 
the  ground,  the  point  of  the  hock  describes  a  sort  of  rotation  outward, 
making  the  toes  converge  forward  and  inward.  It  is  said,  in  this  case, 
that  the  horse  has  rotating  hocks.  He  is  not  prevented  from  rendering 

1  G.  Barrier,  Bulletin  de  la  Societ6  centrale  de  mtidecine  v6t6rinaire.  in  Recueil  de  medecine 
vetSrinaire,  ann6e  1882,  p.  372. 

2  Another  very  beautiful  as  well  as  plausible  theory  of  the  nature  of  string-halt  is  that  of  the 
excessive  elasticity  of  tjie  tibial  aponeurosis,  particularly  of  its  triangular  fasciculus,  which  extends 
from  the  anterior  face  of  the  hock-joint  to  be  attached  to  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor  of 
the  phalanges.    When  the  foot  is  on  the  ground,  the  aponeurosis  is  tensed:  when  the  foot  is 
raised,  it  will  recoil,  like  a  piece  of  India-rubber,  and  impart  a  sudden  movement  to  the  iimb. 
This  disposition  is  more  common  in  well-bred  horses,  in  which  string-halt  is,  as  we  have 
remarked,  more  frequent.    The  treatment  consists  in  section  of  the  aponeurosis  at  the  superior 
extremity  of  the  canon,  where  this  structure  can  be  outlined  from  the  exterior. 

In  the  camel  and  the  elephant  this  aponeurosis  is  composed  almost  exclusively  of  elastic 
fibres,  and  hence  the  sudden  elevation  of  the  members  of  these  animals.  (Harger.) 

3  Boccar  has  proposed  to  make  section  of  the  tendon  of  the  lateral  extensor  muscle  of  the 
phalanges  close  to  its  termination  upon  that  of  the  anterior  extensor.    (Journal  veterinaire  et 
agricole  de  Belgique,  ann£e  1845,  p.  273.)    We  have  had  occasion  to  perform  this  operation  once, 
but  without  result. 


582  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

good  service,  but  his  action  is  ungraceful  and  diminishes,  in  part,  the 
firmness  of  the  members. 


C. — Defects    Dependent    upon   the    Mode   of   Association  in 
raising  the  Anterior  Feet  and  resting  the  Posterior. 

Forging. — We  sometimes  observe  horses  which,  in  the  walk  or 
the  trot,  produce  an  abnormal  sound,  more  or  less  loud  and  fre- 
quently repeated,  which  has  been  compared  to  that  of  the  hammer 
upon  the  anvil.  It  is  produced  by  striking  the  toe  of  the  hind-foot 
against  the  fore-foot  of  the  same  side,  in  consequence  of  the  want  of 
harmony  between  the  anterior  elevations  and  the  posterior  contacts, 
whether  through  too  great  a  rapidity  of  the  movements  of  the  hind- 
limbs  or  an  exaggerated  slowness  of  those  of  the  fore-limbs.  It  is 
said,  in  ordinary  language,  that  such  horses  forge.  The  points  of 
striking,  varying  according  to  the  degree  of  advance  of  the  hind-foot 
in  relation  to  the  fore-foot,  are  marked  on  the  shoe  by  the  grooves  or 
scratches  which  exist  upon  its  branches,  at  the  heels  or  at  the  quarter. 

This  fault  of  forging  has  serious  inconveniences :  first,  its  sound  is 
disagreeable  and  tiresome ;  besides,  the  horse  may  pull  his  shoe,  throw 
himself,  break  his  knees,  calk  himself,  contuse  the  heels,  the  phalanges, 
the  tendons,  or,  finally,  injure  himself  somewhat  seriously,  and  suffer 
from  diverse  complications,  such  as  overreaching  and  quitters. 

The  causes  of  this  defect  it  is  important  to  recognize.  They  are 
dependent  upon  the  general  state  of  the  subject  and  the  faults  of  con- 
formation. 

The  general  causes  result  in  most  cases  from  weakness,  fatigue, 
excessive  use,  improper  training,  or  some  diseased  state.  Some  of 
these  are  persistent  and  irremediable ;  others  are  only  temporary,  and 
for  this  very  reason,  under  the  influence  of  good  hygiene,  nutritious 
alimentation,  judicious  exercise,  and  proper  attention,  forging  may 
disappear.  Young  horses  which  are  worked  too  early,  full-grown 
horses  which  are  overdriven,  finally,  those  which  are  not  accustomed 
to  work  at  speed,  may  be  corrected  of  this  fault  if  they  are  placed  in 
proper  conditions,  while  it  is  entirely  different  with  those  in  which  it 
becomes  a  symptom  of  weakness  consequent  upon  old  age. 

The  faults  of  conformation  capable  of  producing  forging  are  rather 
numerous.  We  will  cite  the  principal : 

1st.  The  volume  and  weight  of  the  head. 

2d.  The  shortness  of  the  neck,  its  muscular  development,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  shoulders. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  583 

3d.  The  vicious  axis  of  the  members,  which  renders  the  horse 
under  himself  and  low  in  front. 

4th.  The  excessive  length  of  the  posterior  members  in  relation  to 
that  of  the  anterior. 

5th.  The  deficient  length  of  the  body  relative  to  its  height. 

6th.  The  excessive  length  of  the  back  and  loins,  implying  too  great 
flexibility  of  the  spinal  column,  and  permitting  the  posterior-members 
to  reach  the  anterior  more  easily. 

The  action  of  all  these  it  is  easy  to  comprehend  : 

First,  it  must  be  noticed  that,  in  the  first  three  conditions,  the  sur- 
charge of  the  anterior  members  determines  a  longer  contact  of  the 
anterior  feet  with  the  ground,  in  consequence  of  an  appreciable  tardi- 
ness in  being  raised.  As  a  consequence  of  this  delay,  if  the  gait  be 
lengthened,  the  posterior  feet,  not  finding  the  place  free  which  they 
should  occupy,  strike  against  their  corresponding  homologues,  whence 
the  particular  sound  which  announces  that  the  horse  forges.  The 
same  result  is  produced,  and  for  identical  reasons,  if  the  rider,  badly 
seated  too  far  in  front,  surcharges  the  anterior  limbs  of  his  mount. 

In  other  cases,  it  is  because  the  forward  displacement  of  the  pos- 
terior member  is  greater  than  in  ordinary  conditions,  or  that  its  play 
cannot  be  entirely  accomplished,  from  the  insufficient  extent  of  the 
field  of  oscillation  under  the  body.  It  will  then  reach  the  anterior  mem- 
ber at  the  end  of  its  contact  or  the  commencement  of  its  elevation. 

There  are  horses  which,  in  the  trot,  forge  almost  at  each  step.  We 
have  known  several  which  had  to  be  put  to  another  kind  of  work,  and 
could  only  be  employed  at  a  walk.  Fortunately,  this  extreme  measure 
need  not  always  be  resorted  to. 

There  are,  in  fact,  some  means  of  remedying  this  defect  when  it 
results  from  a  bad  conformation. 

Thus,  the  elevation  of  the  head  and  the  neck,  either  directly, 
through  proper  intervention  of  the  rider,  or  indirectly,  by  making  the 
rein  shorter,  can  relieve  the  anterior  members  and  displace  upon  the 
posterior  a  portion  of  the  weight  which  overburdened  the  former. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  only  remedy.  Special  shoeing,  applied 
rationally,  is  often  the  most  efficacious  treatment.  The  principal, 
object,  as  H.  Bouley  has  so  well  expressed,  will  be  to  diminish  as 
much  as  possible  the  volume  of  the  parts  concerned  at  the  points 
where  they  strike  each  other.  It  will  consist,  in  the  hind-foot,  in  the 
diminution  of  its  antero-posterior  diameter  at  the  expense  of  the 
toe,  and,  at  times,  in  incrusting  the  shoe  in  the  horn,  which  then  pro- 
jects in  front ;  in  the  fore-foot,  in  shortening  the  branches  of  the  shoe, 


584  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

making  them  narrower,  or  even  in  applying  a  tip.  Bourgelat,  from 
purely  theoretical  considerations,  had  advised  a  method  of  shoeing 
different  from  that  in  question.  H.  Bouley  opposed  them,  and  demon- 
strated that  they  are  not  in  accord  with  the  facts  of  practice.1 

D. — Defects  existing  Separately  or  Simultaneously  in  the 
Anterior  or  the  Posterior  Members. 

1st.  Rocking. — Rocking  consists  in  a  lateral  balancing  of  the 
body,  comparable  to  the  to-and-fro  movements  of  a  cradle,  which  is 
apparent  particularly  in  the  trot  or  the  walk. 

The  horse  can  rock  in  front,  behind,  or  in  both  extremities  at  the 
same  time.  These  lateral  oscillations  always  consume  a  portion  of  the 
force  destined  for  propulsion,  and,  as  Lecoq  has  said,  the  more  ap- 
parent they  are  the  less  the  animal  machine  becomes  adapted  to  the  fast 
gaits. 

This  defect,  sometimes  due  to  weakness  and  exhaustion,  is  seen  pref- 
erably in  horses  having  an  excessive  width  of  the  chest,  of  the  croup, 
and  of  the  base  of  support.  It  is  observed,  besides,  in  horses  with 
crooked  legs  and  bovine  knees.  Finally,  let  us  add  that,  according  to 
our  observation,  horses,  at  first  very  regular  in  their  gait,  will  rock 
themselves  when  their  obesity  becomes  excessive ;  conversely,  we  have 
seen  the  defect  disappear  under  the  influence  of  emaciation. 

It  can  be  understood,  from  the  causes  mentioned,  that  slow  and 
weakened  animals  may  be  affected  with  this  balancing  only  temporarily, 
for  with  age,  moderate  work,  and  sufficient  nourishment  they  may 
acquire  the  energy  and  strength  which  they  lack.  As  to  those  whose 
rocking  is  due  to  irregularities  in  the  axes  of  the  limbs,  they  can  never 
be  corrected,  and  there  exist  no  means  of  palliation. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  certain  trotters  rock  in  the  walk  or  the 
slow  trot,  but  show  nothing  abnormal  when  their  gait  acquires  a  greater 
velocity. 

Rocking  never  takes  place  in  the  gallop,  on  account  of  the  great 
speed  employed,  the  feebleness  of  the  transverse  displacements  of  the 
centre  of  gravity,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  base  of  support.  We 
know  that,  in  such  cases,  the  imprints  of  the  left  members  tend  to 
approach  those  of  the  opposite  side,  and  we  have  even  seen  that  the 
trail  in  race-horses  is  represented  only  by  a  single  line  of  imprints. 

This  defect  is  therefore  more  or  less  grave  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  work. 

1  For  more  details,  see  the  excellent  article  by  H.  "Bouley  upon  forging,  in  Nouveau  Diction- 
naire  de  medecine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v£teriuaires,  t.  vii.  p.  214. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  585 

2d.  Strain  of  the  Loins. — Strain  of  the  loins,  a  symptom 
of  diverse  diseases  of  the  dorso-lumbar  region,  most  frequently  a  strain 
of  the  vertebral  column,  is  manifested  by  a  want  of  rigidity  of  the 
spine,  a  defect  of  harmony  between  the  movements  of  the  anterior  and 
posterior  quarters,  as  well  as  lateral  swinging  and  great  weakness  of 
the  latter. 

Saddle-  and  shaft-horses  are  most  predisposed  to  it ;  at  otheT  times, 
the  affection  is  a  simple  accident  and  has  no  relation  with  the  work 
performed. 

The  animal  affected  with  this  alteration  has  no  firmness  in  his  pos- 
terior members,  which  maintain  him  in  equilibrium  with  difficulty.  It 
suffices  to  push  against  the  haunches  or  pull  on  the  tail  to  make  him 
totter  from  side  to  side.  He  lies  down,  rises,  and  backs  with  great 
difficulty,  and  is  incapable  of  carrying  the  least  weight  on  his  back. 
During  locomotion  he  oscillates  alternately  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
The  plane  of  movement  of  the  posterior  members  is  not  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  body ;  the  members  are  moved  inward,  outward,  and 
knock  against  each  other  awkwardly ;  their  contact  is  not  firm,  and 
their  hoofs  pivot  upon  themselves  so  as  to  make  the  toes  converging ; 
finally,  their  imprints  are  marked  without  symmetry,  and  their  gait 
has  lost  its  normal  rhythm.  All  these  facts  are  more  exaggerated  in 
turning  and  in  trotting ;  falling  upon  the  side  is  quite  frequent. 

It  is  evident  that  the  horse  in  this  state  cannot  render  good  service ; 
when  the  symptoms  are  very  severe,  it  is  even  impossible  to  employ 
him  at  any  kind  of  work.  Nevertheless,  there  are  some  inattentive 
buyers,  notably  contractors,  who  buy  the  horse  under  such  conditions. 
He  is  presented  for  sale  in  the  shafts  of  the  cart,  where  he  is  more 
supported,  and  is  constantly  more  or  less  excited  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  dealer's  whip.  They  perceive  the  irregularities  in  the 
movement  the  following  day,  but  it  is  too  late,  the  defect  not  being 
redhibitory. 

Strain  of  the  loins,  known  also  under  the  names  winding  of  the  loins, 
dorso-lumbar  strain,  is  always  grave,  and  results  most  frequently  from 
a  fall  or  from  carrying  too  heavy  a  weight  on  the  back.  There  is  little 
encouragement  for  the  cure  of  the  animal,  which  has  now  lost  the  greater 
part  of  his  value.  At  present  he  is  abandoned  to  the  slaughter-house 
or  to  the  knacker  to  save  the  expense  of  treatment,  in  most  instances 
ineffectual,  which,  from  its  duration,  may  exceed  his  intrinsic  value.1 

1  For  more  details,  see  Arm.  Goubaux,  De  1'entorse  dorso-lombaire  conside're'e  chez  le  cheval, 
in  Recueil  de  m6decine  v£t6rinaire,  annee  1851,  pp.  414  et  498. 
H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire,  etc.,  t.  v.  p.  362. 


586  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

E. — Defects  existing  Indiscriminately  in  the  Four  Members. 

1st.  Billarder. — Billarder  (rowing,  paddling)  is  the  action  of  the 
horse  in  which,  during  locomotion,  he  throws  his  feet  outside  of  the 
plane  of  movement  of  his  members.  Usually,  all  the  regions  from 
the  canon  to  the  foot  participate  in  this  deviation ;  at  other  times, 
only  the  regions  from  the  fetlock  down  are  involved.  In  either 
circumstance,  this  peculiarity  of  locomotion  is  observed  in  the  poste- 
rior as  well  as  in  the  anterior  members,  and  it  is  incorrect,  in  our 
opinion,  for  authors  to  consider  it  as  being  exclusively  confined  to  the 
latter. 

As  there  exists  no  technical  word  to  characterize  this  irregularity 
in  the  hind-limbs,  we  propose  to  designate  it  by  the  word  paddling  in 
both  bipeds  indiscriminately. 

The  animals  which  paddle  in  front  are  those  whose  axis  of  move- 
ment of  the  anterior  members  is  deviated,  at  the  level  of  the  knee, 
outside  of  the  vertical  line,  or  whose  feet  are  turned  outward ;  such 
are  horses  with  crooked  legs  or  with  ox-knees. 

Horses  which  paddle  behind  are  affected  with  an  analogous  vice  of 
conformation.  They  include  such  as  are  close-hocked,  bow-legged, 
and  crooked -legged. 

According  to  Lecoq,1  "  horses  whose  feet  are  wide  and  flat  are  more 
subject  to  this  defect,  because  they  are  forced  to  separate  their  feet  from 
each  other  to  avoid  interfering." 

It  is  in  the  walk  and  in  the  trot  that  the  defect  is  especially  appar- 
ent. Besides  rendering  these  gaits  ungraceful,  it  occasions  a  waste  of 
time  and  force,  and  is  therefore  a  serious  cause  of  fatigue  and  slowness 
of  the  gait.  Horses  thus  formed  and  still  capable  of  speed,  owe  the 
latter,  if  our  observations  are  correct,  only  to  the  frequent  repetition 
of  their  movements ;  but  it  is  certain,  all  things  being  equal,  that  they 
waste  more  energy. 

2d.  Interfering. — Interfering  is  that  irregularity  in  the  horse's 
action  in  which  one  of  the  feet  strikes  the  inferior  part  of  one  of  the 
other  members. 

This  defect,  says  H.  Bouley,2  has  particular  degrees  and  modes, 
which  are  designated  by  different  expressions. 

Relative  to  its  degrees,  it  is  said  that  the  horse  brushes  when  the 
faulty  member  simply  touches  the  skin,  always  in  the  same  place,  and 


1  Lecoq,  Trait6  de  1'exterieur  du  cheval,  etc.,  5e  6d.,  p.  383. 

2  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire,  etc.,  t.  iv.  p.  442. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  587 

leaves  no  other  mark  than  the  forward  deviation  of  the  hairs  and  a 
deposit  of  mud  or  dirt  or  of  coloring  matter  with  which  the  hoofs  may 
have  been  coated. 

If  the  defect  be  more  severe  and  the  contact  of  the  moving  member 
produces  pain,  but  without  abrading  the  epidermis,  it  is  expressed  by 
saying  that  the  animal  touches  himself. 

He  strikes  or  cuts  himself  when  the  injury  is  so  intense  as  to  make 
a  wound  ;  finally,  when  each  member  of  the  same  biped,  during  pro- 
gression, alternately  gives  and  receives  a  blow  which  is  always  upon 
the  same  place,  we  have  the  phenomena  which  essentially  characterize 
the  vice  interfering.  The  blows  may  be  inflicted  sometimes  in  one 
place,  sometimes  in  another,  as  happens  in  the  race-horse  during  the 
projection  ;  it  is  then  said  that  the  horse  overreaches. 

Horses  interfere  more  often  behind  than  in  front ;  this  is  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  separation  between  the  hind-feet  is  generally  less 
marked  than  that  between  the  fore-feet. 

These  contusions  may  be  situated  in  various  places :  the  coronet, 
the  internal  face  of  the  fetlock  or  of  the  canon,  and,  more  rarely,  the 
internal  face  of  the  knee  and  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  forearm,  of 
which  we  have  seen  several  instances. 

The  wounds  do  not  always  present  the  same  characters.  If  recent, 
they  are  covered  with  blood ;  if  they  have  existed  for  some  days, 
they  are  covered  by  a  scab.  If,  however,  the  contusions  which 
produce  these  lesions  are  frequently  repeated,  the  latter  will  be  cir- 
cumscribed by  hard,  thick,  and  indurated  borders.  Finally,  they  are 
situated,  in  certain  cases,  over  osseous  tumors ;  we  have  found  this 
condition  upon  the  two  anterior  members  of  a  horse  which  interfered 
at  the  inferior  extremity  of  both  forearms. 

Their  gravity  depends  upon  their  depth,  their  seat,  the  frequency 
of  their  repetition,  and  the  nature  of  the  parts  involved. 

They  are  not  accompanied  by  lameness,  excepting  sometimes,  at 
the  moment  of  their  production  ;  they  always  blemish  the  animal  more 
or  less,  according  to  the  various  causes  which  occasion  them,  and  which 
we  will  arrange  into  six  principal  classes  : 

1st.  Weakness,  resulting  from  old  age,  privation,  fatigue,  excessive 
work,  and,  in  young  horses,  from  poor  nourishment  and  want  of  train- 
ing. There  is  every  hope,  in  the  latter  case,  that  the  fault  will  disap- 
pear under  the  influence  of  a  better  regimen  and  more  judicious  care, 
which  observation  has  demonstrated. 

2d.  The  faulty  conformation  in  horses  close  behind,  with  long  mem- 
bers, too  short  a  croup,  wide  and  disproportionate  feet,  in  those  that 


588  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

are  parrot-toed  or  crooked-legged,  and,  in  general,  in  those  with  defec- 
tive axes  of  the  members. 

The  extremities,  under  each  of  these  conditions,  approach  each 
other  inordinately,  either  in  the  anterior  or  in  the  posterior  biped,  or 
the  hind-members  do  not  find  sufficient  space  under  the  body  to  move 
freely. 

3d.  The  irregular  play  of  the  articulations,  which  prevents  the 
bony  levers  from  being-  flexed  and  extended  in  planes  parallel  to  the 
median  line,  as  is  seen  when  the  subject  has  excessive  knee-action  and 
the  knees  and  the  hocks  are  arched  outward. 

4th.  Enlargements  of  the  inferior  and  internal  parts  of  the  members, 
whatever  may  be  their  nature. 

5th.  Improper  shoeing,  when  the  foot  is  not  level,  has  a  defective 
axis,  or  the  shoe  and  the  hoof  are  too  wide. 

6th.  Finally,  fatigue,  which  has  the  same  effect  as  weakness,  and 
diminishes,  in  the  horse,  the  facility  of  moving  the  members  with  the 
proper  precision,  regularity,  extent,  and  direction.  The  defect,  in  this 
instance,  disappears  with  rest  and  moderate  exercise ;  it  must  therefore 
be  considered  as  accidental  and  temporary. 

All  horses  do  not  interfere  with  the  same  part  of  the  shoe ;  it  is 
sometimes  the  mamma  and  sometimes  the  quarter  which  strikes  and 
wounds  the  member  on  the  ground.  It  is  important  to  ascertain  this 
fact  in  order  to  apply  intelligent  treatment  concerning  the  shoeing. 

It  would  extend  beyond  our  plan  to  enter  more  minutely  into  the 
details  of  this  defect  of  the  gaits ;  hence  we  refer  the  reader  to  works 
which  deal  specially  with  this  condition.1 

Concerning  the  treatment,  we  will  limit  ourselves  simply  to  the 
following  principal  indications : 

In  weak  and  exhausted  horses  a  good  regimen,  moderate  work,  and 
rational  shoeing  give,  as* a  rule,  satisfactory  results.  In  those  which 
have  a  bad  conformation,  as  irregular  axes  of  the  members,  it  is 
entirely  different,  and  the  treatment  is  very  often  unsatisfactory.  In- 
terfering-boots, shin-boots,  etc.,  are  employed  to  protect  the  affected 
parts.  Finally,  a  particular  mode  of  shoeing  is  practised,  especially 
that  called  the  Turkish. 

3d.  Lameness. — This  name  is  given,  says  H.  Bouley,2  "to  an 
irregularity  of  the  gait,  determined  by  an  inequality  or  a  diminution 
of  the  action  of  one  or  several  of  the  locomotory  columns." 

1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire.  etc.,  t.  iv.  p.  441. 

2  We   borrow  the  details  which  follow  from   the  excellent  work    on   Lameness,  which 
H.  Bouley  has  published  in  the  Nouveau  Dictionnaire,  etc.,  t.  ii.  p.  503. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  589 

This  irregularity  should  always  be  considered  as  the  symptom  of  a 
local  or  a  general  disease.  The  diseased  member,  in  such  cases,  makes 
a  less  strong  beat,  and  its  contact  is  less  prolonged  than  that  of  the 
sound  member ;  its  step,  besides,  is  longer.  It  is  then  said  that  the 
horse  is  lame,  that  the  horse  limps  ;  he  is  called  sound,  on  the  contrary, 
when  the  gait  is  normal. 

Lameness,  on  account  of  its  frequency  and  its  variable  gravity  r  may 
temporarily  prevent  the  animal  from  working  or  diminish  his  services 
for  an  indefinite  period  and  even  permanently.  We  will  limit  ourselves 
in  this  study,  and  will  only  examine  here  the  interesting  points  relative 
to  the  exterior. 

Its  degree  of  intensity  is  indicated  by  diverse  symptoms  :  the  horse 
is  called  sore  when  the  irregularity  in  his  gait  is  very  slight ;  he  limps 
when  it  is  quite  apparent ;  he  hobbles  on  all-fours  when  he  hardly  leans 
at  all  on  the  diseased  member ;  finally,  he  hobbles  on  three  members 
when  this  member  supports  no  weight  at  all.1 

A  lameness  may  affect  one,  two,  three,  and  even  the  four  members, 
but  the  last  cases  are  rare,  the  services  of  a  veterinarian  being  called 
in  before  this  stage  has  been  reached. 

H.  Bouley  correctly  states  that  the  diagnosis  of  a  lameness  is  a 
triple  problem,  which  resolves  itself  thus :  Recognition,  1st,  of  the 
affected  member ;  2d,  the  seat  of  the  lameness ;  3d,  finally,  the  nature 
of  the  latter. 

The  first  point  alone  interests  us  in  relation  to  the  exterior ;  the 
others,  involving  a  special  profound  knowledge  of  diseases,  belong  to 
other  treatises. 

Recognition  of  the  Lame  Member. — To  arrive  at  this  result 
necessitates  an  examination  of  the  subject  at  rest,  in  the  walk,  and  in 
the  trot.  In  each  instance  he  must  be  led  by  the  hand  with  a  strap, 
or  be  mounted. 

a.  At  rest,  we  notice  if  the  position  of  the  members  is  regular  or 
irregular.  Sometimes  the  diseased  member  is  carried  in  advance  of  its 
vertical  axis,  which  is  expressed  by  saying  that  the  horse  points  ;  some- 
times it  is  placed  under  the  centre  of  gravity,  or,  again,  is  abducted 
from  its  vertical  axis.  Sometimes  it  rests  upon  the  ground  with  the 
toe,  or  is  held  altogether  in  the  air.  At  other  times  it  undergoes 
isochronous  movements,  being  incessantly  rested  and  elevated,  especially 
if  the  pain  is  great ;  the  litter  is  then  pawed  back  and  trampled  into 

1  We  say,  in  ordinary  language,  to  limp  on  three  legs.  This  is  technically  an  improper  expres- 
sion, which  results  from  confounding  the  members  of  the  animal  with  his  legs  (tibial  region). 
Quadrupeds  have  two  legs  and  not  four,  but  they  have  four  members. 


590  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

a  heap;  the  corresponding  shoe,  in  certain  cases,  presents  a  polish 
which  is  not  seen  in  that  of  the  other  members. 

6.  It  is  necessary  now  to  observe  the  horse  in  action.  In  this  pro- 
cess he  is  led  at  a  walk  by  the  hand,  with  the  precaution  of  not  giving 
him  too  much  liberty,  and,  at  the  same  time,  without  furnishing  any 
support  to  the  movements  of  the  head.  The  veterinarian  stations  him- 
self in  such  a  manner  as  to  see  the  movements  successively  from  in 
front,  from  behind,  and  in  profile  from  the  two  sides.  If  the  lameness 
is  slight  the  walk  is  insufficient  to  show  it,  and  the  animal  must  be 
trotted. 

The  irregularity  of  locomotion,  in  the  latter  gait,  is  rendered  more 
evident  on  account  of  the  stronger  concussion  against  the  soil.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  a  lameness  which  was  not  visible  in  the  walk 
becomes  apparent  in  the  trot. 

Having  seen  the  animal  trot  in  a  straight  line,  it  is  sometimes  well 
to  turn  him  around  a  circle,  with  a  view  of  surcharging  the  particular 
lateral  biped.  Finally,  he  is  rapidly  turned  from  side  to  side,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  see  whether  the  elevation  of  the  diseased  member  is 
more  rapid  and  its  contact  with  the  ground  more  painful  than  that 
of  the  healthy  member.1 

c.  The  choice  of  the  surface  over  which  the  horse  is  moved  must  be 
considered.  A  horse  which  appears  sound  may,  at  times,  limp  if  he 
suddenly  passes  from  a  dirt  road  to  a  hard  pavement.  Likewise,  it 
is  not  rare  to  see  the  lameness  augment  in  intensity  if  the  test  takes 
place  upon  a  ploughed  field  or  some  other  soft  surface.  The  horse,  in 
this  case,  is  obliged  to  use  greater  muscular  efforts,  which  means  more 
pain,  in  elevating  his  members  and  disengaging  them  from  the  soil  into 
which  the  feet  bury  themselves. 

The  Manner  of  Manifestation  of  the  Lameness. 

1st.  Lameness  in  an  Anterior  Member. — In  the  case  of  the  anterior  left  mem- 
ber, for  example,  the  contact  will  have  a  shorter  duration  than  that  of  the  ante- 
rior right ;  the  beat  will  also  be  less  strong.  This  is  not  all :  at  each  step  the 
head  will  be  elevated  and  inclined  to  the  right,  to  ease,  in  a  certain  proportion, 
the  diseased  member  and  render  its  concussion  more  feeble. 

Concerning  the  sound  member,  its  step  will  be  shorter,  the  beat  stronger  and 
louder,  and  the  contact,  more  prolonged,  coincides  with  the  lowering  of  the  head. 

2d.  Lameness  in  a  Posterior  Member. — As  in  the  preceding  instance,  the  beat 
of  the  diseased  member  is  less  strong  than  that  of  its  homologue  ;  likewise,  the 
duration  of  the  contact  is  shorter  and  the  step  less  long.  There  are,  in  the  trot, 
other  symptoms  to  which  it  is  necessary  to  direct  the  attention.  According  to 

i  Lemichel,  Le  cheval  et  le  mulct,  p.  123,  2e  ed.,  Versailles,  1872. 


DEFECTS    IN    THE    GAITS.  591 

the  judicious  remark  of  H.  Bouley,  the  nodding  of  the  head,  characteristic  of  lame- 
ness, takes  place  upon  the  side  of  the  lame  member  in  posterior  lameness,  while 
in  anterior  lameness  this  is  the  reverse. 

The  croup,  like  the  head,  also  shows  an  unequal  movement  of  equilibrium 
under  the  influence  of  the  unequal  action  of  the  lame  member ;  but,  less  marked 
than  that  of  the  head,  it  furnishes  a  less  certain  index.  It  consists  ordinarily  of 
an  exaggerated  lowering  of  this  region  at  the  moment  when  the  healthy  member, 
upon  which  the  body  takes  its  principal  point  of  support,  touches  the  ground, 
while  it  is  almost  imperceptible  when  the  diseased  member  touches  the  ground. 

An  error  rather  frequent  among  laymen  consists  in  believing  that  the  animal 
is  lame  in  the  foot  upon  which  he  falls.  This  results  from  a  false  interpretation 
of  the  objective  phenomena,  which  are  so  well  known  to  practitioners  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  give  the  proof  of  its  illogical  foundation ;  we  merely  mention  it 
here  because  the  veterinarian  has  frequently  to  argue  this  idea  out  of  his  client's 
mind. 

3d.  Lameness  in  Two  Members. — There  are  cases  in  which  the  horse  is  lame 
in  two  members  at  one  time, — in  the  anterior,  the  posterior,  the  lateral,  or  the 
diagonal  biped. 

"  The  symptoms  proper  to  a  lameness  of  the  anterior  or  the  posterior  biped 
give  rise  to  an  irregularity  or  an  impediment  of  action  in  general  as  intense  in 
the  right  as  in  the  left  member.  The  movements  of  the  biped  are  modified  to 
the  same  degree  on  both  sides,  making  thus  a  contrast  with  those  of  the  other 
biped,  which  acts  normally. 

"  As  to  lamenesses  of  the  lateral  bipeds  they  are  characterized  by  the  com- 
bined symptoms  of  anterior  and  posterior  lameness,  but  much  more  increased 
on  account  of  the  greater  difficulty  of  progression. 

"  Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  a  horse  lame  in  the  right  diagonal  biped ;  at 
each  step  the  nodding  of  the  head  and  the  lowering  of  the  croup  will  be  very 
decided  at  the  moment  when  the  left  diagonal  pair  touches  the  soil. 

"  At  first  sight  there  is  a  want  of  harmony  in  the  movements  which  is  not 
easily  explained,  but  by  directing  one's  attention  exclusively  to  the  anterior 
biped  on  the  one  part  and  the  posterior  on  the  other,  the  double  cause  which 
produces  it  is  soon  discerned. 

"  The  irregularity  in  the  progressive  movements  is  still  more  decided  when 
the  animal  is  lame  in  a  lateral  biped.  In  this  instance  it  is  difficult  for  him  to 
move  in  a  straight  line ;  if  he  limps  on  the  left,  for  example,  the  centre  of  gravity 
being  displaced  upon  the  right,  the  body  of  the  animal  will  be  carried  in  this 
direction,  and  progression  will  be  affected  on  that  side."1 

4th.  Lameness  in  Four  Members. — The  irregularity  of  the  locomotory  func- 
tion, here,  is  such  that  the  lameness  is  very  apparent  to  the  eyes  of  the  least 
experienced  persons.  It  is  therefore  useless  to  dwell  further  on  this  point. 

We  must  discuss  two  points  more :  the  duration  and  the  type  of  the 
lameness. 

In  relation  to  the  first  factor,  a  lameness  is  acute,  recent,  or  chronic. 
This  can  be  established  from  the  history  of  the  lame  animal,  and  a 


1  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit. 


592  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

logical  inference  based  upon  the  symptoms  and  alterations  which  he 
presents.  In  spite  of  the  interest  bearing  upon  this  question,  we  can- 
not go  into  details  without  passing  beyond  our  domain. 

As  to  the  type,  a  lameness  is  continued  or  intermittent.  The  animal, 
in  the  first  case,  is  lame  at  all  times  :  after  rest,  during  exercise,  at  the 
beginning  as  well  as  at  the  termination  of  the  latter. 

The  characters  of  an  intermittent  lameness  are  entirely  different. 
It  becomes  apparent  only  under  special  circumstances :  sometimes  only 
when  leaving  the  stable,  cold  lameness  ;  sometimes  at  the  end  of  a  cer- 
tain period  of  exercise,  warm  lameness.  This  variety  of  lameness  is 
included  in  the  list  of  redhibitory  vices  and  diseases,  with  nine  days 
of  warranty,  which  is  mentioned  in  Article  II.  of  the  law  of  August 
2,  1884,  where  they  are  designated  under  the  generic  name  of  chronic 
intermittent  lamenesses. 

Fraudulent  Methods. — Unscrupulous  horse-dealers  sometimes 
attempt  to  deceive  purchasers  by  knowingly  oifering  for  sale  a  horse 
which  suffers  from  an  intermittent  lameness.  For  this  purpose  they 
intentionally  make  a  wound  which  renders  him  lame  from  a  simple 
and  apparent  cause  and  for  a  duration  which  always  exceeds  that  of 
the  guarantee  according  to  law.  We  must  be  on  our  guard  against 
such  malpractice.  In  general,  a  lame  horse  should  never  be  bought 
unless  his  price  is  notably  reduced.  It  is  especially  in  this  particular 
case  that  it  is  necessary  to  consult  the  veterinarian,  in  order  to  be 
informed  as  to  the  gravity  of  the  lesion  and  the  cause  of  the  lameness. 
If,  however,  it  be  determined  to  buy  a  lame  horse  having  a  recent 
wound,  it  is  well  to  require  from  the  seller  an  appropriate  bill  of  war- 
ranty, as  a  matter  of  precaution  in  case,  the  wound  having  entirely 
healed,  the  characters  of  a  chronic  intermittent  lameness  should  after- 
wards manifest  themselves. 


SECTION    FIFTH. 

AGE   OF   THE   HORSE. 


BY  the  word  age  is  generally  understood,  in  speaking  of  the  horse, 
the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  his  birth.  It  must  not  be  confounded 
with  ages,  or  periods,  a  paronymous  expression  by  means  of  which  the 
different  periods  of  life  are  designated. 

Physiology  teaches  us,  in  fact,  that  the  evolution  of  one  same 
organism  passes  through  three  very  distinct  periods  of  development  : 

The  first,  during  which  it  increases,  grows,  and  acquires,  little  by 
little,  possession  of  its  functional  activities. 

The  second,  stationary  or  adult  period,  in  which  it  has  acquired  its 
complete  development,  possesses  all  the  attributes  of  its  species,  all  its 
aptitudes,  and  remains  stationary. 

The  third,  finally,  of  decline,  in  which  it  manifests  more  and  more 
the  effects  of  organic  deterioration  and  insensibly  approaches  decay  and 
death. 

These  three  periods  of  life,  which  characterize  all  beings  whose  evo- 
lution is  normal  and  complete,  are,  as  will  be  understood,  intimately 
related  to  the  time  during  which  the  organism  has  already  lived. 

From  an  industrial  point  of  view,  the  adult  period  is  by  far  the 
most  important  as  it  concerns  our  domestic  animals.  Characterized 
by  the  regular  and  harmonious  development  of  all  his  parts,  this  is  the 
time,  says  H.  Bouley,  in  which  the  horse  enjoys  the  fulness  of  all  his 
functions  and  is  in  a  position  to  furnish,  as  a  motor,  the  largest  share 
of  useful  services.1 

It  is  of  special  interest  to  those  who  desire  to  reproduce  and  im- 
prove him,  prepare  him  for  the  sale,  and  develop  his  aptitudes,  to 
know  exactly  when  he  reaches  or  passes  beyond  this  period  in  which 
he  acquires  his  greatest  value. 

1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  pratique  de  medecine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v£t£ri 
naires,  t.  i.  p.  200. 

38  593 


594  THE   EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  body,  the  state  of  the  organization,  and 
his  particular  mode  of  functional  activity  furnish,  in  most  instances, 
the  indications  that  cannot  deceive  a  practised  eye,  but  they  are  not 
infallible  in  practice,  and  are  subject  to  variation  according  to  the 
rational  or  abusive  employment  which  has  been  given  to  the  animals. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  have  recourse  to  other  sources  to 
establish  the  basis  of  a  precise  determination  of  the  characters  indi- 
cative of  the  age  of  the  horse. 

Now,  of  all  the  organs  which  receive  and  preserve  with  the 
greatest  accuracy  the  marks  of  time,  the  teeth  of  solipeds  are,  without 
doubt,  those  which  register  them,  so  to  speak,  in  ineffaceable  signs. 
Admirably  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  organism,  instruments  con- 
structed in  view  of  the  mode  of  alimentation,  and  presenting  a  series 
of  landmarks  whose  successive  disappearance  marks  the  trace  of  the 
years,  the  teeth  appear,  develop,  wear  oif,  change  their  external  form, 
are  shed,  and  succeed  each  other  with  a  regularity  which  veterinarians 
have  learned  to  recognize  and  determine  scientifically. 

Hence  we  will  commence  the  study  of  the  age  of  the  horse  by  a 
minute  description  of  the  dental  apparatus,  in  order  to  place  the 
reader  in  a  situation  to  understand  fully  the  characteristics  upon  which 
it  is  based. 


PART    I. 

THE  TEETH. 


Definition ;  Number ;  Distribution. — "  The  teeth  are  mechan- 
ical instruments,  harder  than  bone,  placed,  in  vertebrate  animals,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  alimentary  canal,  to  seize,  cut,  tear,  and  bruise  the  nu- 
tritive substances  before  their  transmission  from  the  mouth  into  the 
oasophagus.  They  can  also  serve  the  animal  as  weapons  of  defence 
and  oifence."  * 

In  the  adult  animal  of  the  equine  species  the  teeth  number  from 
thirty-six  to  forty,2  and  are  designated  by  names  which  recall  their  use 
(Fig.  270) : 

1  G.  Cuvier,  Lecons  d'anatomie  compared,  t.  iv.,  Ire  partie,  p.  197. 

2  This  number  should  be  considered  as  absolute,  but  we  will  call  attention  to  some  variations 
which  it  presents,  according  to  the  individual. 


95 


596  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  most  anterior  are  called  incisors,  P,  M,  C,  destined  to  seize, 
tear,  and  cut  the  aliment. 

Then  come  the  tusks,  canine  teeth,  or  fangs,  Or,  whose  role  is  to  tear. 

Finally,  those  which  occupy  the  posterior  part  of  the  mouth  are 
the  molars,  MC,  MP,  which  serve  to  crush,  in  the  manner  of  a  mill- 
stone. 

Concerning  their  disposition  in  the  jaws,  the  teeth  form  a  parabolic 
curve  designated  under  the  name  dental  arcade.  The  dental  arcades, 
two  in  number  and  distinguished  as  superior  and  inferior,  are  composed 
of  three  parts  :  one  anterior  and  two  lateral. 

The  incisors,  six  in  number  in  each  jaw,  occupy  the  anterior  part, 
and  describe,  as  a  whole,  a  transverse  semicircle  convex  in  front. 

The  molars,  situated  behind  and  upon  the  lateral  parts,  are  twelve 
in  number  in  each  jaw :  six  on  the  right  side  and  six  on  the  left 
side. 

But  immediately  behind  the  incisive  arcade,  between  it  and  the 
molars,  exists  on  each  jaw  an  asymmetrical  interval  called  the  inter- 
dental space,  upon  the  course  of  which  the  canines  or  tusks  are  situated. 
The  bar,  as  we  already  understand  it,  is  the  name  given  to  the  region 
of  the  interdental  space  situated  behind  the  inferior  canine  tooth.  In 
the  mare,  in  which  the  canines  are  more  or  less  aborted,  the  interdental 
space  is  commonly  uninterrupted  ;  the  bar  is  consequently  longer  than 
in  the  male. 

We  count,  consequently,  in  the  adult,  in  each  jaw  and  on  each  side, 
3  incisors,  1  canine,  and  6  molars,  making  in  all  40  or  36  permanent 
teeth,  according  to  the  sex. 

During  the  first  period  of  life  the  teeth  are  not  quite  so  numerous  : 
only  three  molars  exist  on  each  side,  in  each  jaw,  and  the  tusks  are 
usually  wanting.  The  dentition  of  the  colt,  therefore,  comprises  12 
incisors  and  12  molars,  or  a  total  of  24  teeth,  whose  duration  is  alto- 
gether transient. 

Let  us  add  that  Daubenton,  Lafosse,  Tenon,  and  Girard l  have  said 
that  the  teeth  are  sometimes  44  in  number ;  in  this  case  there  are  super- 
numerary premolars ;  we  will  again  revert  to  these. 


1  Daubenton,  see  Histoire  naturelle  g6n£rale  et  particuliere  avec  la  description  du  cabinet 
du  Roi,  par  Buffon.  Edition  in-4o  de  rimprirnerie  royale,  t.  iv.,  Paris,  1763,  p.  334. 

Lafosse,  Cours  d'hippiatrique  ou  traite  complet  de  la  m^decine  des  chevaux,  in-folio,  Paris, 
1772,  p.  24. 

Tenon,  Second  essai  d'eiude,  par  gpoques,  des  dents  molaires  du  cheval.  Eead  and  depos- 
ited with  the  secretary  of  the  Institute  the  16th  day  of  the  fourth  month  in  the  fifth  year  (French 
calendar).  This  essay  has  been  published  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  National  Institute  of  Sciences 
and  Arts  for  the  fourth  year  of  the  Republic  (Sciences  mathematiques  et  physiques),  p.  W). 

J.  Girard,  Traite  de  1'age  du  cheval,  3e  6d.,  Paris,  1834,  p.  35. 


THE    INCISORS.  597 

CHAPTER    I. 

THE   INCISORS. 


A. — Incisors  of  the  First  Dentition. 

THESE  teeth,  also  called  foetal,  milk,  deciduous,  are  twelve  in  number :  six  in 
each  jaw,  three  on  each  side  (Figs.  271  and  272). 

They  have  received  the  particular  names  pincers,  intermediates,  and  corners. 

The  pincers  are  placed  almost  on  the  median  line,  the  one  to  the  right,  the 
other  to  the  left ;  the  intermediates,  external  to  the  pincers ;  finally,  the  cor- 
ners, external  to  the  intermediates. 

Collectively  they  form  a  regular  parabolic  curve.  By  their  free  portion  they 
present  distinctive  characters  which  depend  upon  their  situation,  their  width,  and 
their  degree  of  curvature. 

Compared  with  those  of  the  second  dentition,  their  width  is  much  less,  and 
there  exists  a  well-marked  constriction  or  neck  between  their  free  portion  or 
crown,  projecting  above  the  gums,  and  their  incased  portion,  root,  embedded  in 
the  alveolus.  The  presence  of  the  neck  allows  these  teeth,  in  all  cases,  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  former  at  a  glance  (Fig.  273).  Finally,  their  color  is  of 
a  dull  milky-,  or  yellowish-white ;  besides,  they  are  curved  in  the  direction  of 
their  length. 

They  present  for  study  two  faces,  two  borders,  and  two  extremities. 

Paces. — Each  of  the  faces  diminishes  gradually  from  the  free  extremity  to 
the  end  of  the  root. 

The  anterior,  convex  in  every  sense,  shows  longitudinal  striae  more  or  less 
marked,  which  consist  of  small  grooves  separated  from  one  another  by  small 
longitudinal  lines  in  relief.  As  the  animal  grows  older,  this  face  becomes  whiter 
and  more  polished  under  the  influence  of  the  friction;  a  semicircular  enlarge- 
ment of  the  gums  shows  its  separation  from  the  neck. 

The  posterior,  concave  longitudinally,  is  slightly  convex  transversely.  It 
presents  nothing  of  special  importance,  and  the  neck  is  here  less  apparent. 

Borders. — The  internal  border  is  thicker  than  the  external. 

Extremities. — In  the  virgin  tooth  (one  that  does  not  show  any  use)  the 
free  extremity  (Fig.  274)  is  flattened  from  before  to  behind,  and  limited  by  two 
borders :  one  anterior,  a,  the  other  posterior,  b,  and,  finally,  by  two  sides :  one 
external,  the  other  internal. 

The  two  borders  circumscribe  a  cavity,  the  external  dental  cavity,  occupying 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  free  extremity  of  the  tooth.  The  anterior,  a,  is  the  more 
elevated  and  longer  from  side  to  side.  Sharp  and  convex  transversely,  it  is  the 
first  to  pierce  the  gums ;  the  posterior,  b,  penetrates  the  gums  later,  and,  from  the 
effects  of  wear,  comes  on  a  level  with  the  preceding. 

The  external  dental  cavity,  c,  which  we  will  examine  in  detail  farther  on, 
diminishes  in  depth  for  the  same  reason,  little  by  little,  and  finally  disappears. 
The  tooth  is  then  levelled. 

As  these  teeth  must  be  replaced,  at  a  certain  epoch  of  life,  by  those  of  the 


598  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  271.— Deciduous  incisors  viewed  on  their  anterior  face. 


THE    INCISORS. 


599 


FIG.  272.— Deciduous  incisors.    (Profile  and  dental  tables.) 


600 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


second  dentition,  we  will  study  with  the  latter  the  modifications  in  the  dental 
table  from  wear. 

As  to  the  embedded  extremity,  it  is  provided  with  an  opening,  the  orifice  of 
the  internal  dental  or  pulp  cavity,  d,  in  which  the  papilla  or  pulp  of  the  tooth 
is  contained. 


B 


FIG.  273.— A  deciduous  pincer. 
A.  Posterior  face.  |  B.  Anterior  face.  |  C.  Profile. 

But,  as  the  young  animal  advances  in  age,  the  milk-teeth  increase  in  length 
by  growth  at  their  roots,  while  their  pulp  cavities  diminish  in  size  in  a  great 


FIG.  274.— Magnified  longitudinal  section  of  a  superior  virgin  pincer  of  the  first  dentition,  seen 

in  its  alveolus. 


measure.  The  maxillary  bones  at  the  same  time  become  thicker  and  the  perma- 
nent incisors  are  being  formed  in  their  thickness.  The  latter  are  situated  behind 
and  within  the  deciduous  teeth,  from  which  they  are  at  first  separated  by  the 


THE    INCISORS.  601 

alveolar  partitions.     These  partitions  then  become  absorbed  in  such  a  manner 
that  at  a  given  moment  the  two  teeth  are  found  to  lie  in  contact  (Fig.  275). 

There  results,  in  ordinary  cases,  from  the  relation  which  is  established 
between  the  posterior  face  of  the  deciduous  tooth  and  the  crown  of  the  replacing 
tooth,  a  direct  compression  of  the  one  upon  the  other,  the  effect  of  which  is  a 


FIG.  275.— Longitudinal  section  of  the  jaws  showing  the  relative  situation  of  milk  and  perma- 
nent incisors. 

flattening  and  atrophy  of  the  root  of  the  first  dentition.  The  permanent  teeth, 
nevertheless,  are  sometimes  placed  at  the  level  of  the  others,  without  compress- 
ing or  pushing  from  their  sockets,  but  simply  remain  situated  behind  them. 


B.— Incisors  of  the  Second  Dentition. 

These  teeth,  known  under  the  name  permanent  or  adult  incisors,  incisors  of 
replacement,  number  the  same  as  the  preceding,  which  they  succeed.  There  are, 
therefore,  in  each  jaw  two  pincers,  two  intermediates,  and  two  corners. 

They  are  distinguished  particularly  from  the  milk  incisors  in  that  they  are 


602 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


longer,  larger,  not  so  white,  deprived  of  a  neck  between  the  root  and  the  crown, 
and  have  a  wide  gutter  on  their  anterior  face. 

Form. — Their  general  form,  always  more  regular  in  the  pincers  than  in  the 
intermediates,  and  in  the  latter  more  so  than  in  the  corners,  is  that  of  an  irreg- 
ular cone,  whose  base,  flattened  from  before  to  behind,  corresponds  to  the  free 
extremity  of  the  tooth,  while  the  summit,  depressed  from  side  to  side,  corre- 
sponds to  the  root. 

This  double  flattening  of. the  two  extremities  of  the  tooth  necessarily  implies 
an  intermediary  zone  more  or  less  trifacial. 

The  incisor  tooth  is,  besides,  curved  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  which  is 
most  marked  in  the  pincers  and  least  in  the  corners ;  its  long  axis  appears  more 
or  less  twisted  upon  itself  from  side  to  side,  particularly  at  the  level  of  the  root. 
This  is  most  apparent  in  the  intermediates  and  the  corners.  In  order  to  facilitate 
the  description  we  will  recognize  in  each  incisor  (Fig.  276) : 


FIG.  276.— Unworn  inferior  pincer  of  the  second  dentition. 
A.  Posterior  face.  |  B.  Anterior  face.  |  C.  Profile. 


Two  faces :  the  one  anterior,  the  other  posterior. 

Two  borders :  external  and  internal. 

Finally,  two  extremities :  the  crown,  or  free  portion,  and  the  root,  or  incased 
portion. 

1st.  Faces. — The  anterior  face,  wider  at  the  crown  than  at  the  root,  is 
almost  flat  transversely  and  convex  in  the  direction  of  its  length.  It  contains  a 
longitudinal  gutter,  which  is  more  marked  on  the  crown  than  on  the  root. 

The  superior  incisors  (Fig.  277),  always  wider  and  more  curved,  sometimes 
have  two  grooves  on  the  anterior  face  instead  of  one. 

The  posterior  face,  rounded  transversely,  is  concave  from  the  summit  to  the 
base ;  its  width  and  its  curvature  are  more  pronounced  in  the  superior  incisors. 

2d.  Borders. — The  internal  border  is  thicker  than  the  external;  each  of 
them,  separating  the  two  faces,  augments  in  width  from  the  base  to  the  summit 


THE    INCISORS.  603 

of  the  tooth,  in  consequence  of  the  double  flattening  of  the  latter.     They  are 
similar  in  the  incisors  of  both  jaws. 

3d.  Extremities. — The  free  extremity  is  opposed  to  the  corresponding  tooth 
of  the  other  jaw,  and  should  be  examined  first  in  the  virgin  tooth. 


FIG.  277. — Superior  virgin  incisor  of  the  second  dentition  (pincer). 
A.  Anterior  face.  |  B.  Posterior  face.  |  C.  Profile. 

It  is  flattened  from  before  to  behind,  and,  consequently,  elongated  from  side 
to  side. 

This  extremity  (Fig.  278)  is  occupied  by  a  cavity  called  the  external  dental 
cavity,  c,  which  separates  two  borders,  an  anterior  and  a  posterior ;  two  sides,  an 
external  and  an  internal. 

These  two  borders  are  unequal.  The  anterior,  a,  is  more  prolonged  and 
more  salient  than  the  posterior ;  it  is  thin,  quite  sharp,  slightly  convex  trans- 
versely, and  is  the  first  to  appear  in  the  eruption  of  the  tooth  from  its  alveolus ; 
its  pressure  causes  absorption  and  perforation  of  the  gums. 

The  posterior  border,  b,  less  salient  than  the  anterior,  sometimes  has  a 
notch  in  its  middle  part,  which  renders  the  external  dental  cavity  much  less 
regular. 

As  to  the  sides,  they  constitute  the  commissures  of  the  two  borders ;  the 
external  is  thinner  than  the  internal  and  presents  a  small  notch. 

The  external  dental  cavity  or  infundibulum,  c,  circumscribed  by  the  central 
enamel,  d,  has  an  irregularly  conic  form.  Wider  at  its  entrance  than  at  its  bot- 
tom, and  partially  filled  with  cement,  e,  according  to  the  subjects  (see  Structure  of 
the  Teeth),  it  is  curved  upon  itself  in  its  length,  which  draws  its  summit  towards 
the  posterior  face  of  the  tooth. 

According  to  Girard,  whose  remarks  we  have  consulted,  in  horses  six  years 
of  age  the  external  dental  cavity  of  the  inferior  pincers  has  a  depth  of  0.016  to 
0.018  m. ;  that  of  the  intermediates,  0.020  m. ;  and  that  of  the  corners,  0.011  to 
0.013  m.  In  the  superior  jaw  its  depth  in  the  pincers  is  0.025  to  0.027  m. ;  in  the 
intermediates,  0.027  to  0.028  m. ;  in  the  corners,  0.018  to  0.020  m. 


604 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Whence  it  follows  that  the  external  dental  cavity  is  deeper,  all  things  being 
equal,  in  the  superior  incisors,  and  that,  in  each  jaw,  its  depth  is  greatest  in  the 
intermediates.  It  may  also  be  added,  as  a  differential  characteristic  relative  to 
this  cavity,  that  this  part  of  the  tooth  extends  closer  to  the  posterior  face  of  the 
incisors  of  the  inferior  jaw. 


FIG.  278.— Longitudinal  section  of  a  permanent 
incisor  that  has  been  used. 


FIG.  279.— Eccentric  and  longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  the  superior  and  inferior  interme- 
diates of  the  adult,  showing  the  different 
characters  of  the  external  dental  cavity. 


The  incased  extremity  or  root  presents  a  large  opening  which  leads  into  a 
cavity  in  the  interior  of  the  tooth,  in  which  the  dental  pulp  is  lodged.  This  is 
the  internal  dental  or  pulp  cavity. 

The  preceding  details  apply  in  a  general  manner  to  all  the  incisor  teeth. 
They  nevertheless  present  some  slight  modifications  if  each  individual  tooth  be 
examined  in  particular.  Hence  we  have  presented  in  Fig.  280  antero-posterior 
longitudinal  sections  of  three  superior  and  inferior  incisors  of  the  same  side, 
obtained  from  the  jaws  of  a  five-year-old  horse,  in  order  that  the  reader  may 
view  for  himself  the  modifications  of  which  we  speak. 

Successive  Forms  of  the  Dental  Table. — From  the  con- 
tinual friction  and  rubbing  against  each  other,  the  incisors  progressively 
level  their  crowns,  which  gives  to  the  extremity  of  the  latter  the  aspect 
of  a  plane  surface,  known  under  the  name  of  dental  table.  The  form 
of  this  table,  which  changes  more  and  more  as  we  approach  the  root 
of  the  tooth,  necessarily  varies  with  the  age  of  the  animal.  This  can 
be  proved  by  following,  in  the  horse,  its  successive  modifications  during 
several  years. 


THE    INCISORS.  G05 

It  is,  however,  more   convenient   and  much   less   complicated  to 


FIG.  280.— Longitudinal  and  median  sections  of  the  pincer,  intermediate,  and  corner  in  each  of 

the  jaws. 
P.  Pincers.  |  M.  Intermediates.  |  C.  Corners. 


arrive  at  the  same  results  by  making  with  a  saw,  upon  a  five-year-old 


{,06  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

pincer,  for  example,  a  series  of  transverse  sections  three  or  four  milli- 
metres in  thicknesss.  We  can,  in  this  manner,  obtain  artificially  the 
successive  forms  of  all  the  tables  which  are  furnished  by  the  natural 
usage.  The  forms  which  are  best  defined  may  be  arranged  successively 
in  the  following  manner  (Fig.  281)  : 

1st.  The  dental  table  is  at  fast  flattened  from  before  to  behind, — that 
is  to  say,  its  transverse  diameter  is  more  extensive  than  the  antero-pos- 
terior  (sections  1  and  2). 

2d.  The  dental  table  becomes  oval;  here  there  is  less  difference 
between  the  extent  of  the  two  diameters,  although  the  transverse  is 
still  greater  than  the  antero-posterior  (sections  3  to  5). 

3d.  It  takes  a  rounded  form,  and  its  two  diameters  are  almost  equal 
(sections  6  and  7). 

4th.  It  becomes  triangular,  and  is  limited  by  three  borders,  an 
anterior  and  two  lateral.  The  summit  of  the  triangle  looks  backward 
(sections  8  to  11). 

5th.  Finally,  the  wearing  surface  is  flattened  from  side  to  side  (sec- 
tions 12  to  16).  This  last  form  characterizes  old  age,  and  persists, 
whatever  may  be  the  duration  of  the  life  of  the  animal.  Girard  desig- 
nated it  by  the  metaphoric  expression,  biangular. 

These  configurations  of  the  dental  table  are  much  more  regular  in 
the  pincers  than  in  the  intermediates,  and  in  the  latter  more  so  than  in 
the  corners.  They  are  almost  identical  in  the  incisors  of  the  superior 
jaw,  but,  in  general,  the  latter  are  not  examined  in  this  relation. 

C. — Structure  of  the  Incisors. 

The  study  of  the  structure  of  the  incisors  furnishes  important  indications 
for  the  determination  of  the  age.  In  conjunction  with  what  we  have  already 
said,  it  enables  us  to  understand  fully  the  peculiarities  which  the  tooth  presents, 
according  to  the  age,  at  its  free  extremity. 

We  will  choose,  as  the  type  for  description,  an  inferior  incisor ;  the  reader 
can  easily  apply  the  details  into  which  we  shall  now  enter  to  the  superior 
incisors. 

The  sac  or  follicle  in  which  all  the  incisors  are  developed  presents  for  con- 
sideration two  papillary  prolongations  or  papillae,  one  superior,  a,  the  other 
inferior,  b  (Fig.  282),  which  penetrate  each  other  mutually.  The  former,  or 
enamel  germ,  conical  in  form,  is  lodged  in  the  external  dental  cavity;  the  second, 
or  dentine  germ,  bifid,  cup-shaped  at  its  summit,  and  flattened  antero-posteriorly, 
fills  the  pulp  cavity  in  the  interior.  The  one  is  endowed  with  the  formation  of 
u  substance  called  enamel ;  the  other,  secreting  the  dentine  or  ivory,  alone  per- 
sists, under  the  name  of  pulp,  until  a  very  advanced  period  of  life,  and  it  is 
from  this  structure  that  the  tooth  receives  its  nourishment.  In  the  very  old 
tooth  it  may  become  almost  entirely  absorbed. 


THE    INCISORS. 


607 


D 


FIG.  281.— Series  of  longitudinal  sections  of  the  right  inferior  incisors  of  a  five-year-old  horse. 

A.  Forms  flattened  from  before  to  behind.    B.  Oval  forms.    C.  Rounded  forms.    D.  Triangular 

forms.    E.  Biangular  forms. 


608 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


It  is  between  these  two  papillary  systems  that  the  constituent  parts,  d,  of  the 
tooth  are  deposited.     They  are  represented  at  first  by  a  thin  lamella,  hollowed 

internally  and  deeply  depressed  at 
the  level  of  its  free  extremity. 
Later,  the  parietes  of  the  dental 
follicle,  <?,  are  transformed  into 
the  alveolar  periosteum.  This 
much  being  said,  let  us  view  the 
incisor  at  a  more  advanced  period 
of  its  development. 

A  longitudinal  section  of  a 
tooth  "still  enclosed  in  its  alveolus 
shows  us  the  relations  which 
exist  between  the  two  cavities 
(Fig.  279).  It  is  there  seen  that 
the  point  of  the  enamel  sheath 
which  surrounds  the  external 
dental  cavity  approaches  the  pos- 
terior face,  but  is  not  confounded 
with  it.  Whence  it  follows  that 
the  internal  cavity  is  prolonged 
around  the  periphery  of  this 
sheath  and  leaves  the  latter  abso- 
lutely free.  The  case  is  different 
in  the  aged  tooth :  the  pulp  cavity 
at  a  later  period  becomes  filled 
up  behind  this  projection  and 
remains  only  in  front,  as  is  seen 
in  Fig.  283. 

Three  substances   enter  into 

the  construction  of  an  incisor  tooth  :  one  fundamental  and  two  enveloping.  They 
differ  in  situation,  thickness,  position,  hardness,  and  microscopical  structure. 
Let  us  rapidly  examine  them. 

Of  the  two  enveloping  substances,  the  most  superficial  has  received  the 
name  cement ;  the  other  is  the  enamel. 

1st.  The  Cement,  (7,  (Fig.  283),  forms  a  superficial  coating  directly  applied 
upon  the  enamel.  It  envelops  the  entire  periphery  of  the  tooth  and  is  reflected 
into  the  external  dental  cavity,  at  the  bottom  of  which  it  forms  a  more  or  less  thick 
nucleus,  according  to  the  subjects  and  the  teeth  which  are  examined.  There  are 
cases  in  which  this  layer  is  only  2  or  3  millimetres  in  thickness ;  in  others  it  reaches 
10, 15,  and  even  20  millimetres.  Generally,  it  is  less  thick  in  the  superior  incisors. 
This  fact  has  been  determined,  but  it  is  not  very  long  since  that  Messrs.  Chau- 
veau  and  Arloing,1  in  France,  and  Mr.  Mayhew,  in  England,2  have  recognized  its 
practical  importance  concerning '  the  determination  of  the  age,  to  whose  works 
the  reader  is  referred.  It  is  perceived  that  the  depth  of  the  unfilled  portion  of 


FIG.  282.— Schematic  section  of  the  dental  follicle  of 

an  inferior  incisor  of  a  horse. 

a,  superior  papilla,  enamel  germ ;  b,  inferior  pa- 
pilla, dentine  germ  or  dental  pulp;  c,  parietes  of 
follicle;  d,  dentine. 


1  Chauveau  et  Arloing,  Traite  d'anatomie   compared  des  aniinaux   domestiques,  3e  6d., 
Paris,  1879,  p.  404. 

2  Mayhew,  The  Horse's  Mouth,  showing  the  Age  by  the  Teeth,  p.  32. 


THE    INCISORS. 


the  external  dental  cavity  depends, 
in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  thick- 
ness of  the  cementous  deposit.  It 
is  much  more  rare  to  find  it  due 
to  an  exaggerated  length  of  the 
enamel  diverticulum,  as  most 
authors  have  written. 

The  cement,  which  gives  bulk 
and  strength  to  the  teeth,  does  not 
offer,  by  a  great  deal,  the  same 
resistance  to  wear  which  the  other 
substances  possess.  It  is  spread 
over  the  faces  of  the  tooth  in  the 
form  of  a  very  thin  layer,  and 
gradually  disappears  by  reason  of 
the  friction  of  the  aliment,  the 
lips,  and  the  tongue.  It  persists, 
on  the  contrary,  at  the  bottom  of 
the  external  dental  cavity,  while 
the  free  portion  of  the  latter  exists 
upon  the  dental  table,  in  the  form 
of  a  blackish  spot  or  "  mark,"  more 
and  more  confined  and  surrounded 
by  a  round  band  of  enamel. 

The  cement  is  very  similar 
to  bone,  as  its  microscopic  exami- 
nation demonstrates.  It  is  formed 
by  the  alveolar  periosteum,  prin- 
cipally at  the  limit  between  the 
root  and  the  crown  of  the  tooth, 
and  is  not  the  result,  as  Si- 
monds  has  advanced,  of  the  trans- 
formation of  the  dentine  into  bone. 
In  very  old  teeth  (Fig.  284)  it  ex- 
ists in  great  abundance  around 
the  roots,  and  the  following  ap- 
pears to  us  to  be  the  mechanism 
of  this  new  cementous  formation. 
As  the  maxillary  bones,  little 
by  little,  push  the  greater  part 
of  the  tooth  from  its  alveolus 
as  age  advances,  the  root  which 
then  constitutes  the  wearing  sur- 
face is  no  longer  attached  with 
sufficient  solidity  to  resist  the  en- 
ergetic actions  of  the  jaws,  par- 
ticularly of  the  inferior,  which 
rubs  against  the  superior ;  it  there- 
fore becomes,  little  by  little,  dis- 


FIG.  283.— Longitudinal  and  median  section  of  a 

permanent  inferior  pincer  (enlarged). 
FA,  anterior  face;   FP,  posterior  face ;   C,  cement; 
39  E,  enamel ;  /,  ivory. 


610 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


turbed  in  its  cavity  of  reception,  and  so  much  the  more  as  the  surface  of  friction 
is  less  extensive,  for  the  animal  is  obliged  to  increase  the  frequency  of  the  move- 
ments to  compensate  for  the  imperfections  of  its  instruments  of  mastication. 


FIG.  284.— Radical  cementation  of  the  incisors  of  the  horse. 
A.  Dental  tables.  |  B.  View  of  the  same  teeth  in  their  alveoli. 

These  continual  displacements  to  which  the  dental  stumps  are  submitted 
stimulate  the  action  of  the  alveolar  periosteum,  whose  irritation  is  manifested 
by  the  production  of  very  dense  osseous  layers  which  are  deposited  in  propor- 
tion to  the  intensity  of  the  dental  displacements,  and  solidly  seal  the  tooth  in  its 
alveolus  at  the  same  time  that  they  increase  the  area  of  its  surface  of  friction. 

It  is  perceived  that  this  cementation  is  the  more  active  as  the  dental  stump 
is  shorter,  narrower,  and  the  aliment  coarser ;  in  a  word,  as  it  offers  less  resist- 
ance to  the  diverse  causes  tending  to  break  its  adherence  with  the  living  parts. 
Thus,  in  the  horse,  it  is  the  teeth  of  the  inferior  jaw,  those  which  occupy  the 
centre  of  the  incisor  and  molar  arcades,  which  present  the  greatest  thickness 
of  radical  cement.  The  violent  and  brutal  tractions  exercised  upon  the  bit  often 
lead  to  similar  formations  around  the  corner  teeth.  The  same  results  are 
observed,  finally,  after  surgical  operations  in  which  a  tooth  is  accidentally  dis- 
turbed or  partially  dislocated  in  its  alveolar  cavity. 

It  is  easy  to  comprehend  the  utility,  to  the  organism,  of  such  a  new  forma- 
tion. The  nature  of  the  aliment  on  which  our  large  herbivora  subsist  would 


THE    INCISORS.  611 

render  it  impossible  for  the  teeth  to  fulfil  their  functions,  and  would  determine 
their  early  shedding,  were  it  not  for  this  fortunate  restoration,  in  advanced  age, 
to  preserve  their  properties  for  a  still  long  time.1 

If,  as  Simonds  2  thinks,  this  radical  cement  be  the  consequence  of  the  trans- 
formation of  the  ivory  into  bone,  the  teeth  upon  which  it  is  deposited  should 
not  augment  in  volume  in  consequence  of  its  appearance  ;  in  the  centre  of  the 
dental  table  is  always  found,  in  such  cases,  an  area  of  dentine  the  dimensions 
of  which  are  exactly  the  same  as  those  of  the  normal  root.  The  peripheral 
cement  is  therefore  superadded  to  the  tooth,  and  is  not  formed  at  the  expense 
of  the  latter. 

2d.  The  enamel,  E,  is  the  true  protective  layer  of  .the  teeth.    Situated 
underneath  the  cement,  it  represents  a  sort  of  polished  coating  covering  the 
whole  of  the  surface  of  the  dentine  and  forming  the  pa- 
rietes  of  the  external  dental  cavity;   it  does  not  extend 
into  the  pulp  cavity.     As  Lecoq  has  indicated,  "  its  thick- 
ness is  greater  upon  the  anterior  than  upon  the  posterior 
face  of  the  tooth,  and  it  also  extends  lower  down  upon  the 
former."     It  becomes  quite  thin  towards  the  extremity  of 
the  root. 

These  facts,  to  which  no  importance  has  been  attrib- 
uted, nevertheless  deserve  to  arrest  our  attention.  It  is 
well  known  that  there  exist,  upon  the  dental  table,  a  certain 
number  of  intermediary  phases  between  the  commencing 
triangular  form  and  the  lateral  flattening,  or  that  which 
Girard  has  called  biangular.  Nothing  is  more  difficult, 
then,  than  to  determine  whether  a  certain  triangular  form 
is  more  recent  than  another  which  may  differ  but  little 
in  shape.  This  is,  nevertheless,  a  problem  which  an 
attentive  examination  can  solve,  since  we  know  that  the 
enamel  will  disappear  earlier  upon  the  surface  of  friction 
behind  than  in  front.  It  will  suffice,  then,  to  ascertain  FIG.  285.—  Longitudinal 
its  relative  thickness  upon  the  periphery  of  the  table  ;  or,  antero-posterior  section 


again,  to  prove  its  absence  or  its  presence  upon  the  pos-  °ho^"n  ^J^  ^{ 
terior  border  of  the  tooth.  The  degree  of  wear  of  the  sheath,  A,  prolonged  in- 
latter  can  thus,  with  practice,  be  easily  determined.  to  the  external  dental 

An  error  rather  frequently  committed  in  France,  and  t  cavity- 
which  Messrs.  Chauveau  and  Arloing  have  corrected,  con- 

sists in  believing  that  the  layer  of  enamel  which  forms  the  wall  of  the  external 
dental  cavity  (central  enamel)  is  prolonged  in  the  form  of  a  cone  or  enamel 
horn  well  beyond  the  bottom  of  the  external  cavity  properly  so  called.  We 
have  demonstrated  3  that  the  sections  upon  which  such  a  disposition  is  observed 
are  not  made  exactly  according  to  the  axis  of  the  tooth,  but  pass  to  one  side 
of  the  latter.  There  results  thus  a  more  or  less  oblique  section  of  the  parietes 
of  this  cone,  which  may  deceive  a  superficial  observer.  Fig.  285,  A,  repre- 
sents precisely  such  a  section,  and  shows  that  similar  ones  can  be  obtained  at 


»  Goubaux  et  Barrier,  loc.  cit. 

8  James  Beart  Simonds,  The  Age  of  the  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Pig,  London,  1854,  p.  34. 

8  Goubaux  et  Barrier,  loc.  cit. 


612  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

will  whenever  the  observation  is  made  in  the  defective  manner  that  we  have 
indicated. 

If,  however,  the  section  be  made  so  as  to  divide  the  point  of  this  cul-de-sac 
into  two  moieties  absolutely  equal,  its  disposition  will  be  different ;  at' its  summit 
the  layer  of  enamel  does  not  present  any  thickening,  and  in  certain  cases  it  is 
even  somewhat  thinner  than  anywhere  else. 

These  facts  are  demonstrated,  besides,  in  the  transverse  sections  (Fig.  281). 
After  the  external  cavity  has  disappeared,  the  central  cement,  which  fills  its 
bottom,  still  persists  in  the  form  of  a  white  spot  bordered  by  a  thin  band  of 
enamel.  This  spot  then  diminishes  in  size,  approaches  the  posterior  border  of 
the  dental  table,  and  is  finally  effaced  at  the  same  time  as  the  zone  of  enamel 
which  surrounds  it. 

In  relation  to  its  hardness,  the  enamel  is  certainly  the  most  remarkable  layer 
of  the  teeth.  When  the  latter  are  still  Enclosed  by  the  gums  in  their  alveoli,  it 
can  be  easily  cut  by  a  sharp  instrument,  and  its  histological  elements,  disposed 
almost  perpendicularly  to  the  surface  which  it  covers,  disassociate  themselves 
readily.  But  as  soon  as  this  substance  has  been  submitted  to  the  contact  of  the 
air  it  becomes  hard,  even  to  the  extent  of  striking  fire  with  steel.  It  is  also 
much  more  resistant  to  wear  than  the  dentine,  and  shows  itself  constantly  in 
relief  upon  the  surface  of  friction. 

The  enamel  is  a  tissue  of  epithelial  origin  formed  by  the  superior  papilla 
of  the  primitive  dental  follicle.  It  is  composed,  microscopically,  of  an  infinite 
number  of  small  hexagonal  prisms  (enamel  prisms),  solidly  united  and  directed 
obliquely  in  relation  to  the  subjacent  surfaces  ;  it  is,  by  its  deep  surface,  applied 
upon  the  peripheral  lacunar  spaces  of  the  dentine. 

It  does  not  cover  the  extremity  of  the  root  of  very  old  teeth ;  but,  as  soon 
as  it  has  disappeared  on  their  table,  it  is  replaced  by  the  cement  in  the  man- 
ner which  we  have  already  described.  (See  the  longitudinal  sections  of  Fig. 
286.). 

Of  a  milky-white  color  more  or  less  clear  according  to  the  lustre  of  the 
tooth,  but  always  very  brilliant  and  slightly  striated  longitudinally,  the  enamel 
preserves  the  same  thickness  when  once  it  is  formed,  and  does  not  repair  its 


3d.  The  fundamental  substance,  the  eburnated  substance,  the  den- 
tine or  the  ivory,  /  (Fig.  283),  constitutes  the  greater  portion  of  the  tooth. 
Produced  by  the  inferior  papilla  of  the  dental  follicle,  and  strongly  depressed  at 
its  superior  extremity  for  the  reception  of  the  central  enamel,  it  is  everywhere 
covered  by  the  enamel.  It  forms  the  parietes  of  the  pulp-cavity  and  surrounds 
the  point  of  the  central  enamel,  at  first  projecting  into  its  interior. 

Primitively  not  abundant,  it  does  not  delay  to  fill  the  cavity  which  it  con- 
tains in  its  interior  by  the  addition  of  new  layers  which  are  deposited  on  the 
surface  of  the  old  ones.  This  leads  to  a  progressive  atrophy  of  the  pulp,  which 
extends  gradually  from  the  crown  to  the  root. 

The  more  recent  layers  have  a  deeper  coloration ;  the  tint  of  the  obliterated 
parts  also  allows,  in  transverse  and  longitudinal  sections,  the  recognition  of  the 
outlines  of  the  internal  cavity  at  the  beginning.  This  cavity  is  obliterated  at 
first  behind  the  central  enamel,  the  distance  which  separates  the  latter  from  the 
posterior  face  being  less  considerable  than  that  which  separates  it  from  the  an- 
terior. Then  the  obliteration  takes  place  in  front.  It  is  these  layers  of  this  new 


THE    INCISORS. 


61 B 


614 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE   HORSE. 


formation  which,  appearing  upon  the  table  at  a  given  period  in  the  form  of  a 
transverse  yellowish  band  in  front  of  and  behind  the  central  enamel,  constitute 
what  is  called  the  dental  star. 

To  speak  accurately,  there  are  two  of  these  dental  stars,  but  the  posterior, 
always  less  distinct,  most  frequently  passes  unperceived.  Nevertheless,  in  cer- 
tain teeth  it  is  seen  quite  plainly. 

Fig.  286  represents  the  median  longitudinal  sections  of  pincers  from  horses 
of  different  ages,  which  show  the  gradual  diminution  of  the  internal  dental 
cavity.  It  will  be  seen,  too,  in  the  very  old  teeth,  that  the  extremity  of  the  root 
is  covered  by  an  abundant  formation  of  radical  cement  directly  applied  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ivory,  from  the  fact  of  the  disappearance  of  the  enamel.  On 
that  account  these  teeth,  when  the  wear  has  reached  this  level,  never  display  the 
whiteness  which  they  did  primitively. 

The  dentine  is  a  substance  less  hard  than  the  enamel,  but  much  more  resistant 
to  wear  than  the  bone  or  the  cement.  A  microscopic  examination  of  desiccated 
or  macerated  teeth  shows  that  it  is  penetrated  by  a  multitude  of  extremely  fine 
canaliculi,  which  extend  in  a  radiating  manner  from  the  internal  cavity  of  the 
pulp  to  terminate,  after  anastomosing  with  one  another,  under  the  deep  surface 
of  the  enamel  in  the  lacunar  spaces,  called  the  interglobular  spaces  of  CzermaJc. 


FIG.  287.— Transverse  section  of  an  inferior  right  pincer,  showing  the  different  layers  constituting 
the  tooth,  with  their  relative  thickness.    (Magnified  five  diameters.) 


A,  anterior  face. 

B,  posterior  face. 

C,  peripheral  cement. 
C",  central  cement. 

E,  peripheral  enamel. 


E',  central  enamel. 

I,  ivory  (external  layers);  I',  ivory  darker 

in  color  surrounding  the  central  enamel 

(internal  layers). 


Such  are  the  principal  details  which  it  is  essential  to  understand  before  pro- 
ceeding farther.  They  may  also  be  examined  in  transverse  sections  analogous  to 
those  of  Fig.  287. 

Let  us  now  see  what  modifications  the  free  extremity  of  the  permanent 
incisors  undergo  under  the  influence  of  wear  and  tear. 


THE    INCISORS.  615 

D. — Details  of  the  Dental  Table  according  to  the  Age. 

These  details  are  dependent,  in  an  intimate  manner,  upon  the  form 
and  the  structure  of  the  incisors.  We  will  study  them  from  the  period 
of  the  eruption  of  the  teeth  until  very  advanced  age. 

1st.  Primitively  the  free  extremity  is  occupied  by  the  external  dental 
cavity,  circumscribed  by  the  central  enamel,  almost  conical  in  form,  oj)lique 
from  before  to  behind,  terminating  in  a  cul-de-sac,  and  containing  the 
central  cement,  which,  however,  does  not  completely  fill  it. 

The  border  which  limits  it  anteriorly  is  higher  than  the  posterior. 

2d.  At  the  end  of  a  certain  time  the  two  borders  of  the  central 
enamel  are  placed  on  a  level  with  each  other  from  the  effects  of  wear. 
The  external  cavity,  less  deep,  no  longer  occupies,  as  it  did  before,  the 
whole  of  the  free  extremity ;  it  appears  more  removed  from  the  ante- 
rior border  on  account  of  the  direction  of  its  great  axis,  which  is  oblique 
backward. 

The  layers  of  enamel,  in  consequence  of  this  modification,  present 
a  new  disposition,  for  the  enamel  now  forms  two  distinct  parts  (Fig. 
287) :  the  one,  E,  which  always  circumscribes  the  external  surface  of 
the  tooth,  receives  the  name  peripheral  enamel ;  the  other,  Ef,  which 
surrounds  what  remains  of  the  external  cavity,  is  called  central  enamel. 
The  latter  is  the  less  thick  of  the  two  ;  it,  as  well  as  the  peripheral 
enamel,  stands  in  relief  above  the  dentine  and  in  relation  \vith  the 
cement  which  fills  the  external  dental  cavity. 

3d.  When  this  cavity  has  entirely  disappeared,  there  only  remains 
a  small  "  island"  of  cement,  limited  by  the  central  enamel.  But  the 
configuration  and  location  of  this  island  do  not  remain  invariable.  It 
diminishes  little  by  little  in  area,  tends  to  become  round,  and  approaches 
more  and  more  the  posterior  border  of  the  table,  in  consequence  of  the 
disposition,  the  direction,  and  the  length  of  this  cone  of  enamel. 

A  levelled  incisor  tooth  is  characterized  by  the  disappearance  of  its 
external  cavity. 

All  are  agreed  in  this  respect.  However,  after  what  has  been  said 
concerning  the  structure,  when  the  wear  has  reached  this  point,  there 
still  exists  a  more  or  less  considerable  part  of  the  external  enamel  cup, 
whose  bottom,  filled  with  cement,  does  not  present,  as  is  believed,  a  solid 
point  prolonged  far  beyond  into  the  thickness  of  the  dentine.  (See  Fig. 
285.)  The  presence  of  the  central  enamel,  after  the  tooth  is  levelled, 
furnishes  an  important  indication  for  the  determination  of  the  age. 

About  the  same  time  a  spot  of  a  deeper  yellow  appears  in  the 
middle  of  the  dentine,  between  the  anterior  border  of  the  table  and  the 


616  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

central  enamel ;  it  has  been  called  the  dental  star  by  Girard,  who  was 
the  first  to  observe  it.  AVe  know  that  a  second  one  exists  close  to  the 
posterior  border  of  the  dental  table,  but  it  is  so  little  marked  that  it  does 
not  concern  us. 

The  dental  star  is  at  first  narrow  and  elongated  transversely  ;  after- 
wards its  situation,  dimensions,  and  form  change  in  a  notable  degree, 
in  proportion  to  the  age  of  the  animal.  It  progressively  gains  the 
central  part  of  the  dental  table,  diminishes  in  length  transversely  and 
increases  in  thickness  antero-posteriorly,  and,  finally,  becomes  tri- 
angular and  round.  It  never  stands  in  relief  above  the  surface  of 
friction,  and  can  therefore  never  be  confounded  with  the  central  enamel. 
It  is  constituted  by  the  dentine  of  more  recent  formation,  which  is 
deposited  by  successive  layers  in  the  internal  cavity  of  the  tooth. 

4th.  Save  a  few  modifications,  the  preceding  details  are  maintained 
during  many  years ;  then  the  central  enamel  disappears,  and  with  it 
the  nucleus  of  cement  which  it  enclosed. 

From  this  period  until  extreme  old  age  nothing  but  the  dental  star 
and  the  dentine  are  found  upon  the  surface  of  friction.  The  periph- 
eral enamel  diminishes  in  thickness;  it  is  effaced  very  late,  at  first 
behind,  and  afterwards  in  front;  finally,  there  appears,  upon  many 
teeth,  the  radical  cementation  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  when 
on  the  subject  of  the  structure. 

E. — Direction  of  the  Incisors. 

The  incisors  must  be  viewed  in  two  principal  directions :  the  one, 
relative  to  the  plane  of  meeting  of  the  arcades,  is  judged  by  inspecting 
the  jaws  in  profile ;  the  other,  relative  to  the  median  plane,  is  appreci- 
ated by  viewing  the  latter  from  in  front.  Both  furnish  important  data 
for  the  determination  of  the  age. 

1st.  Direction  in  Relation  to  the  Plane  of  Meeting  of 
the  Jaws. — If  the  teeth  of  a  young  horse  be  exposed  by  removing 
the  bone  with  a  chisel  (Fig.  288),  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  greatly 
convex  upon  the  anterior  face.  It  follows  therefrom  that,  viewed  in 
profile,  they  project  in  the  manner  of  a  vertical  arc,  at  first  almost 
regularly  semicircular.  At  this  moment  each  of  the  moieties  of  this 
arc  is  therefore  opposed  to  the  other,  like  two  semi-circumferences 
that  are  placed  in  contact  by  their  diameter  in  such  a  manner  that 
a  tangent  to  the  point  of  contact  of  the  jaws  will  be  perpendicular  to 
their  plane  of  apposition.  But  as  the  table  of  friction,  in  consequence 
of  the  progress  of  wear,  approaches  more  and  more  the  region  of  the 
root,  the  aforesaid  semicircle  becomes  altered  and  resembles  an  ogive 


THE    INCISORS. 


617 


more  and  more  acute  in  proportion  as  the  plane  of  meeting  of  the 
jaws,  which  is  being  displaced  above  and  below  parallel  to  itself,  is 
gradually  separated  from  the  primitive  diameter.  Consequently,  the 


FIG.  288.— Incisive  arcades  exposed  to  show  the  progressive  inclination  of  the  teeth  in  relation  to 
the  plane  of  meeting  of  the  jaws. 


tangents  aa',  bbf,  cc',  drawn  through  the  new  points,  a,  6,  c,  of  contact 
of  the  arcades,  will  no  longer  be  perpendicular  to  this  plane,  but  will 
tend,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  more  and  more  parallel  to  it. 

This  permits  the  conclusion  that  the  incidence  of  the  incisors  aug- 
ments in  obliquity  with  age,  and  that  the  horizontally  of  the  arcades 
indicates  fairly  the  age,  save,  of  course,  in  certain  exceptional  cases 
which  are  sometimes  met. 

Consequent  on  this  change  of  direction  there  are  certain  modifica- 
tions which  appear  at  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  head.  The  latter, 
voluminous  and  rounded  in  young  animals,  becomes  thin  and  pointed 
in  the  old,  whose  teeth,  often  very  long,  project  so  much  that  the  lips 
can  scarcely  meet  and  occlude  the  buccal  opening. 


618 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


M.I. 


FIG.  289.— Incisors  exposed  by  their  ante- 
rior face  to  show  their  relative  inclination 
towards  the  median  line. 


2d.  Direction  in  Relation  to 
the  Median  Plane. — In  the  young 
animal  (Fig.  289),  in  consequence  of 
the  greater  extent  of  the  arcades 
formed  by  the  surfaces  of  friction 
elongated  transversely,  and  also  on 
account  of  the  lateral  flattening  of  the 
roots,  the  incisors  all  appear  to  be 
convergent  at  the  level  of  their  roots. 
They,  however,  do  not  remain  so. 
With  the  progress  of  age  the  crown 
of  the  tooth  is  little  by  little  worn 
off,  at  the  same  time  that  the  maxil- 
lary bones  push  them  out  farther  and 
farther  from  their  alveolar  cavities. 
Under  the  combined  influence  of 
these  two  causes  the  roots,  which  at 
first  were  almost  contiguous,  are 
gradually  separated  from  each  other, 
and  draw  towards  the  entrance  of 
the  alveolus,  while  the  tables  dimin- 
ish in  width  transversely. 

The  evolution  of  these  facts  has 
for  its  result  a  modification  of  the 
primitive  direction  of  the  incisors : 
their  axis  is  slowly  separated  from 
the  median  line,  so  much  so  that  at 
a  given  moment  it  becomes  alto- 
gether parallel  to  it  (Fig.  284). 

Finally,  the  phenomenon  of  the 
gradual  expulsion  of  the  teeth  from 
their  alveoli  continuing  to  manifest 
itself  in  concert  with  the  transverse 
narrowing  of  the  arcade,  there  comes 
a  time  when  the  teeth  are  found  con- 
verging by  their  free  extremity  and 
diverging  by  their  opposite  extrem- 
ity,— that  is  to  say,  inversely  dis- 
posed in  relation  to  the  axis  of  the 
jaws.  In  this  case,  the  intervals 
separating  the  pincers  from  the  in- 


THE    INCISORS.  619 

termediates,  and  the  latter  from  the  corners,  are  well  marked,  and 
enable  us  to  ascertain  with  the  greatest  ease  the  changes  which  have 
taken  place.  To  observe  this,  it  suffices  to  separate  the  lips  of  the 
animal  and  to  examine  the  mouth  from  in  front. 

The  following  facts  result  from  the  preceding  phenomenon,  concern- 
ing the  general  direction  of  the  teeth  : 

1st.  That  the  incidence  of  the  arcades  increases  in  obliquity  with 
the  age. 

2d.  That  their  curvature  and  their  transverse  diameter  diminish. 

3d.  Finally,  that  the  roots,  at  first  converging,  become  parallel, 
then  diverging,  while  the  free  extremities  approach  each  other  and 
leave  between  themselves,  at  their  base,  a  triangular  space  occupied  by 
the  gum,  so  much  the  more  exaggerated  as  the  animal  increases  in  age. 

The  Tusks  or  Canine  Teeth. 

Four  in  number  in  the  adult  horse,  and  situated  between  the  in- 
cisors and  the  molars,  the  tusks  are  absent  or  but  little  developed  in 
the  mare,  as  a  rule.  Formerly,  those  which  were  provided  with  canines, 
called  brehaignes,  were  wrongly  considered  as  being  sterile. 

Does  each  one  of  the  two  dentitions  present  canines  ? 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  answer  this  question  with  precise  accuracy. 
Girard  mentions  that  Rigot  and  Forthomme  have  observed  deciduous 
canines.  The  latter  showed  him  jaws  which,  independently  of  these 
deciduous  teeth,  presented  behind  the  latter  their  two  replacing  teeth 
stripped  of  their  alveolus.  Rigot  said  that  this  fact  was  not  rare,  and 
that  he  had  seen  it  not  infrequently  in  colts  three  or  four  years  old. 
As  to  Girard,  he  had  never  witnessed  it. 

If  the  teetli  of  colts  be  examined,  there  is  constantly  found  in  the  two 
sexes,  in  the  place  of  the  canines,  very  small  teeth  which  are  exceedingly 
thin  and  needle-like.  Are  these  the  deciduous  canines  ?  This  is  prob- 
able ;  but  it  is  certain  that  if  these  teeth  simulate  them  in  position,  they 
do  not  at  all  possess  their  particular  form.  The  facts  of  Rigot  and 
Forthomme  should  therefore  be  regarded  as  very  exceptional.  In  the 
absence  of  a  detailed  description,  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  ask  if  these 
were  not  abnormal  instances  of  double  canines.  We  are  rather  in- 
clined to  adopt  this  latter  opinion,  having  witnessed  a  case  of  this  kind 
in  an  old  ass,  of  which  we  will  represent  the  inferior  jaw  (Fig.  290). 

A  short  time  after  their  eruption  the  canines  have  the  general  form 
of  a  cone,  and  are  curved  upon  themselves  in  the  direction  of  their 
length.  There  is  no  well-defined  limit  between  the  crown  and  the 


620  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

root.     Almost  similar  in  the  two  jaws,  the  inferior  are,  nevertheless,  a 
little  longer  and  more  porous  and  roughened  at  the  level  of  their  free 


FIG.  290.— Double  inferior  right  canine  tooth  in  the  ass. 

part.  They  present  for  study  two  faces,  two  borders,  and  two  extrem- 
ities. 

Paces. — The  external  or  labial  face  (Fig.  291,  A)  is  convex  in  both 
its  diameters, — that  is  to  say,  from  above  to  below  and  from  before  to 
behind.  Its  free  portion  shows  very  fine  striae,  which  eventually  dis- 
appear under  the  effects  of  friction. 

The  internal  or  lingual  face  (Fig.  291,  B)  is  less  convex  than  the 
preceding.  It  presents,  on  the  crown,  two  well-marked  grooves,  the 
one  anterior,  the  other  posterior,  which  follow  the  corresponding  borders 
of  the  tooth.  Between  the  two  is  found  a  triangular  eminence  whose 
base  is  confounded  with  the  remainder  of  the  same  face. 

Borders. — The  anterior  border  is  convex,  the  posterior  concave ; 
both  augment  in  thickness  from  the  free  extremity  towards  the  incased 
extremity. 

Extremities. — The  free  extremity  or  crown  of  the  virgin  canine 
tooth  (Fig.  292)  terminates  in  a  blunt  point,  flattened  transversely, 
while  the  embedded  extremity,  much  more  voluminous,  is  occupied  by 
a  round  opening,  which  leads  into  a  cavity  in  the  interior  of  the  tooth, 
terminating  in  a  cul-de-sac.  This  cavity,  of  a  conical  form,  contains 
the  pulp.  At  first  spacious,  it  is  gradually  obliterated,  until  it  is  con- 
stituted only  by  a  shorjt  and  narrow  canal.  The  tusk  elongates  from 
its  root,  which  becomes  pointed,  while  the  opposite  end  becomes  rounded 
and  blunt  from  the  effects  of  wear. 

But  as  the  canines  are  not  placed  in  definite  relation  to  each  other 


THE    MOLARS. 


621 


at  any  period  of  life,  the  inferior  being  always  more  anterior  than  the 
superior,1  this  wear  is  caused  by  the  lips,  the  tongue,  and  the  aliment. 


C.5 


FIG.  291.— Superior  right  canine  tooth. 
A.  External  face.    |    B.  Internal  face. 


FIG.  292.— Longitudinal  and  median  section 

of  the  canines. 
CS.  Superior  canine.    |    CL  Inferior  canine. 


The  dental  table  ultimately  shows,  in  its  central  portion,  a  dental  star 
having  the  form  of  a  round  spot.  The  configuration  of  the  internal 
face  likewise  becomes  effaced. 

In  proportion  as  these  modifications  are  produced,  the  free  part 
diminishes  ordinarily  in  length ;  sometimes,  however,  it  remains  very 
salient  above  the  gums,  even  in  very  old  horses. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE   MOLARS. 


i.     Supplementary   Premolars. 

THESE  teeth  (Fig.  270),  first  recognized  by  Daubenton,2  do  not  exist  always. 
They  are  present  more  frequently  in  the  superior  than  in  the  inferior  jaw,  and 
rarely  do  they  exist  in  both  simultaneously.  Girard  says  that  they  appear  at 
about  the  age  of  ten  months,  and  that  their  shedding  is  usually  simultaneous 

1  It  is  very  rare  to  observe  these  teeth  rubbing  against  each  other,  but  we  have,  nevertheless, 
witnessed  an  example. 

2  Daubenton,  Histoire  naturelle  g6n£rale  et  particuliere,  avec  la  description  du  Cabinet  du 
roi,  Edition  in-4o  de  I'lmprimerie  royale,  t.  iv.  p.  344. 


622  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

with  the  eruption  of  the  first  permanent  molars.  Their  alveoli  are,  in  fact, 
placed  immediately  in  front  of  these  teeth  ;  we  have,  nevertheless,  seen  examples 
in  the  inferior  jaw  in  which  the  supplementary  teeth  and  the  first  permanent 
molars  were  separated  by  a  space  of  three  centimetres.  Finally,  they  persist 
sometimes  in  very  aged  horses. 

Their  presence  renders  the  dental  formula  somewhat  variable. 

Elongated  and  slightly  curved  upon  itself  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  the 
supplementary  premolar  resembles,  by  the  form  of  its  free  part,  the  incisor  of 
a  carnivorous  animal.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  certain  authors  have  given  it 
the  name  wolf  tooth.  Its  incased  extremity  is  unicuspid.  One  of  these  teeth, 
measured  in  a  horse  six  years  old,  had  a  length  of  0.025  m. 

As  to  the  posterior  supplementary  molars,  which  Girard  has  simply  mentioned, 
we  have  never  seen  them ;  it  is  probable  that  he  has  mistaken  certain  anomalies 
for  such  teeth.  We  will  further  refer  to  these  anomalies. 

2.    The    Molars    Proper. 

They  form  the  lateral  parts  of  the  dental  arcades,  and  are  distinguished,  like 
the  incisors,  according  to  their  epoch  of  eruption,  into  molars  of  the  first  and 
of  the  second  dentition. 

We  will  commence  our  study  with  the  former. 

A. — Molars  of  the  First  Dentition. 

There  are  twelve  deciduous  milk  molars,  or  molars  of  the  first  dentition :  six 
in  each  jaw  and  three  on  each  side.  It  was  believed  for  a  long  time,  upon  the 
authority  of  Ruini,1  that  they  were  only  eight  in  number ;  Tenon  has  demon- 
strated that  this  is  an  error.2 

These  teeth,  strong  and  short,  have  the  general  form  of  a  quadrangular 
prism,  save  the  first,  which  has  only  three  faces. 

They  present  four  faces  and  two  extremities. 

Paces.— rThe  anterior  and  posterior  faces,  almost  plane,  show  nothing  re- 
markable; but  in  the  first  tooth,  above  as  well  as  below,  the  anterior  face  is 
replaced  by  a  border  of  no  great  thickness ;  it  is  the  same  for  the  posterior  face 
of  the  third  inferior  molar. 

In  the  superior  jaw,  the  external  face,  FE,  has  three  grooves  in  the  first 
and  two  in  the  second  and  third  (Fig.  293). 

The  internal  face,  FI,  irregular,  very  slightly  concave  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  presents  gutters  much  less  distinct. 

In  the  inferior  jaw  (Fig.  294),  the  external  face,  FE,  shows,  in  the  middle 
of  it's  length,  a  groove  which  augments  in  depth  and  diminishes  in  width  from 
the  first  to  the  third  molar. 

The  internal  face,  FI,  almost  plane,  is  irregularly  grooved. 

Each  of  the  deciduous  molars  is  provided,  at  the  level  of  its  root,  with  a 
constriction  or  neck  rather  well  marked  and  completely  encircling  the  tooth. 

Extremities. — 1st.  Incased  Extremity. — The  inferior  molars  have  two  roots, 
the  one  anterior,  the  other  posterior.  They  are  strong,  convex  externally,  and 


i  Anatomia  del  Cavallo,  by  Carlo  Ruini,  Venice,  1598. 
*  Tenon,  loc.  cit.,  p.  60. 


THE    MOLARS. 


623 


concave  internally.  Each  is  penetrated  by  an  opening  which  leads  into  the 
interior  of  the  tooth.  These  roots,  sometimes  divided  into  several  somewhat 
narrow  points,  when  they  are  examined  at  a  period  approaching  that  when  they 
are  shed,  leave  between  themselves  a  mammillated  surface  which  is  moulded 
upon  the  corresponding  extremity  of  the  replacing  tooth. 


FIG.  293.— The  three  superior  deciduous  molars  (right  side). 
FI.  Internal  face.  i  FE.  External  face. 

All  the  molars  of  the  superior  jaw  have  three  roots:  one  anterior  and  two 
posterior  in  the  first ;  two  external  and  one  internal  in  the  last  two.  These  roots 
are  slightly  diverging  in  such  a  manner  that  the  tooth  occupies  more  space  in 
the  direction  of  this  extremity  than  in  the  other. 

2d.  Free  Extremity. — The  free  extremity,  in  the  virgin  teeth  of  both  jaws,  is 
irregular,  covered  with  eminences  and  hollow  cavities ;  but  the  external  border 
is  always  more  salient  than  the  internal  in  the  superior,  while  it  is  the  contrary 
in  the  inferior. 

This  extremity  changes  its  aspect  under  the  influence  of  the  friction,  and 
ultimately  constitutes  a  surface  formed  of  planes  alternately  oblique  in  different 


624 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


directions,  and  upon  which  are  outlined  in  relief  the  zones  of  enamel  of  which 
we  have  spoken  in  connection  with  the  structure  of  the  teeth. 

I.I. 

I  g  3 


FIG.  294.— The  three  inferior  deciduous  molars  (right  side). 
FI.  Internal  face.  |  FE.  External  face. 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  the  molars  of  the  first  dentition 
(a)  Thickness  from  without  to  within,  measured  in  the  middle  portion  : 

Inferior.  Superior. 


1st 0.009  m. 

2d 0.010  m. 

3d 0.012  m. 

(b)  Length  from  before  to  behind : 

Inferior. 

1st 0.035  m. 

2d 0.032  m. 

3d                                                                       .  0.039  m. 


0.021  m. 
0.020  m. 
0.022  m. 

Superior. 
0.043  m. 
0.033  m, 
0.035  m. 


1  We  only  cite  these  dimensions  to  give  a  general  idea  of  them.  It  is  evident  that  they  are 
subject  to  variation ;  but  as  all  our  figures  are  taken  from  the  same  animal,  it  will  be  known 
what  relations  exist  among  the  teeth  themselves. 


THE    MOLARS. 


625 


(c)  Total  length  from  above  to  below,  measured  through  the  centre : 

Inferior.  Superior. 

1st 0.020  m.  0.027  m. 

2d 0.021  m.  0.021  m. 

3d 0.026  m.  0.026  m. 

(d)  Length  of  the  roots : 

Inferior  molars 0.012  to  0.015  m. 

Superior  molars 0.010  to  0.013  m. 


FIG.  295. 

A.  Transverse  section  of  the  inferior  jaw,  showing  the  third  molar  of  the  first  dentition  and 
its  replacing  one,  with  the  relations  which  they  affect  in  the  alveolus  at  the  moment  of  eruption. 

B.  Third  inferior  molar  of  the  second  dentition  covered  by  its  milk-tooth. 

The  free  part  of  the  molars,  in  proportion  as  the  animal  advances  in  age, 
diminishes  in  length  until  finally  it  becomes  a  small  shell  or  plate  which  is 
moulded  exactly  upon  the  extremity  of  the  replacing  tooth ;  the  latter  is  thus, 
as  it  were,  crowned.  The  deciduous  molars  are  always  expelled  regularly  at 
the  period  of  eruption  of  the  permanent  molars. 


B. — Molars  of  the  Second  Dentition. 

The  permanent  molars,  twenty-four  in  number  (twelve  in  each  jaw  and 
six  on  each  side),  are  designated  numerically,  proceeding  from  before  to  behind, 
under  the  names  first,  second,  etc.  The  first  three,  called  premolars,  always  suc- 

40 


626 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


ceed  the  milk  molars ;  the  last  three  are  also  called  hind-molars,  or  persisting 
molars. 


FIG.  296. 

A.  Transverse  section  of  the  superior  jaw,  showing  the  third  molar  of  the  first  dentition  and 
its  replacing  one,  with  the  relations  which  they  affect  in  the  alveolus  at  the  moment  of  eruption. 

B,  Third  superior  molar  of  the  second  dentition  covered  by  its  milk-tooth. 

This  set  forms  the  branches  of  the  dental  arcade,  which  describe  a  line 
slightly  convex  externally  in  the  superior  jaw,  but  straight  in  the  inferior.  The 
superior  molar  arcade,  a  little  wider  than  the  inferior,  surpasses  the  sides  of  the 
latter. 

General  Characters. — A  molar  of  the  second  dentition  resembles,  in 
general,  a  quadrangular  prism  flattened  from  within  to  without,  save  the  first  and 
the  sixth,  which  have  only  three  sides.  We  can  recognize  four  faces  and  two 
extremities. 

It  presents,  in  situ,  a  free  part  or  crown  and  an  incased  part  or  root :  the 
former  projects  above  the  level  of  the  gums ;  the  second  is  deeply  implanted  in 
the  alveolus.  As  there  is  no  line  of  demarcation  between  these  two  parts,  it  is 
useless  to  describe  them  separately. 


THE    MOLARS. 


627 


a.  Superior  Jaw. 

Paces. — Each  of  the  molars  has  its  posterior  face  almost  plane. 

In  the  sixth,  however,  the  face  is  constituted  by  a  thick  border,  concave  above 
and  behind. 

The  anterior  face  presents  the  same  general  configuration,  excepting  in  the 
first  molar,  in  which  it  is  constituted  by  an  almost  rectilinear  border,  extending 
from  one  extremity  of  the  tooth  to  the  other. 

The  external  face,  E  (Fig.  297),  has  two  deep  longitudinal  grooves,  separated 


E.  External  face. 


FIG.  297. — Superior    molar   of  re- 
placement. 

(Right  side.    Virgin  tooth.) 
|        /.  Internal  face.        |        E,  I.  Surface  of  friction. 


from  each  other  by  a  salient  ridge.  That  of  the  first  molar  has  three  of  these 
grooves,  separated  by  two  intermediary  ridges. 

The  internal  face,  I,  is  traversed  by  two  grooves  on  the  first  molar  and  only 
one  for  all  the  others.  In  the  last  five  this  groove  is  nearer  to  the  posterior  face 
of  the  tooth. 

Extremities. — Of  the  two  extremities,  the  one  is  free,  the  other  incased. 
The  latter  corresponds,  properly  speaking,  to  the  roots  of  the  teeth. 

The  free  extremity,  or  crown,  El,  quadrilateral  in  general,  is  triangular  in  the 
first  and  the  sixth  molars.  It  does  not  show  the  same  disposition  at  all  periods 
of  life.  4 

If  the  unworn  tooth  be  first  considered,  there  is  seen  an  irregular  surface, 
somewhat  resembling  a  Gothic  S3,  whose  "  branches,"  turned  inward,  would  cir- 
cumscribe two  deep  cavities,  more  or  less  filled  with  cement,  according  to  the  sub- 
ject. To  the  anterior  of  these  branches  is  found  annexed  a  secondary  loop,  which 
is  attached  to  it  by  a  narrow  pedicle.  The  external  border  of  this  surface  of 
friction,  always  more  salient  than  the  internal,  is  soon  worn  off,  and  the  primitive 


628 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


vj^^^w^K v 


cavities  also  disappear.  It  is  then  that  a  verita- 
ble dental  table  manifests  itself;  but,  far  from 
remaining  plane,  it  soon  presents  in  relief,  upon 
the  middle  part  of  the  branches  of  the  $5,  two 
transverse  crests,  sometimes  feebly  marked,  which 
determine  there  certain  planes,  alternately  oblique 
in  opposite  directions,  and  render  it  much  more 
adapted  to  crush  the  alimentary  substances. 

The  incased  extremity,  or  root,  is  primitively 
provided  with  several  openings  leading  into  cavi- 
ties in  the  interior  of  the  tooth,  and  containing 
the  pulp,  rich  in  blood-vessels  and  nerves.  Later, 
a  variable  number  of  prolongations  develop  at 
this  extremity ;  at  this  period  said  extremity  is 
composed  of  three  roots  in  the  first  and  last  molars, 
and  four  in  all  the  others.  According  to  Girard, 
these  divisions  of  this  extremity  begin  to  develop 
at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  become  more  strongly 
characterized  with  the  advance  of  age. 

Antero-posterior  Diameter  of  the  Ta- 
bles.— If  the  six  molars  occupy,  for  example,  a 
length  of  0.166  m.,  in  an  antero-posterior  sense, 
it  should  not  be  believed  that  all  the  teeth  share 
equally  in  its  production.  This  diameter  dimin- 
ishes, on  the  contrary,  gradually  from  the  first  to 
the  sixth,  inclusive.  In  fact,  below  are  the  figures 
which  we  have  obtained  from  the  superior  arcade 
of  a  horse  six  or  seven  years  old,  whose  teeth 
have  been  measured  in  the  middle  part  of  their 
surface  of  friction  (Fig.  298) : 


1st 

2d 0.028  m. 

3d 0.027  m. 

4th 0.026m. 

5th 0.025m. 

6th    .  .   .  0.024  m. 


0.166  m. 


Transverse  Diameter  of  the  Tables. — 
The  teeth,  in  this  respect,  are  thicker  as  they  are 
examined  more  towards  the  middle  of  the  arcade 
to  which  they  belong. 

Separation  of  the  Two  Branches  of 
the  Superior  Molar  Arcade. — It  suffices,  in 
order  to  give  an  idea  of  it,  to  measure  this  separa- 
tion at  three  points :  at  the  middle  and  at  each 
extremity. 

1st.  In  front:  from  the  anterior  border  of 
the  first  molar  to  the  corresponding  part  of  the 
opposite  tooth,  0.064  m. 

2d.  At  the  middle:   from  the  median  emi- 


THE    MOLARS.  629 

nence  on  the  third  molar  to  the  corresponding  part  of  the  opposite  tooth, 
0.108  m. 

3d.  Finally,  behind :  from  the  middle  of  the  posterior  border  of  the  sixth 
molar  to  the  corresponding  part  of  the  opposite  tooth,  0.097  m. 

Direction. — All  the  superior  molars  have  not  the  same  direction.  (See 
Fig.  270.)  If  the  head  be  placed  horizontally,  the  first  is  almost  vertical,  while 
the  others  are  curved  from  below  upward  and  from  before  to  behind  in  a  degree 
which  varies  somewhat  according  to  the  subjects.  However  it  may  be,  this  direc- 
tion is  always  more  pronounced  in  the  last  than  in  those  which  precede  it. 

Relations. — The  superior  molars  are  implanted  in  their  alveoli  of  a  quad- 
rangular form,  moulded  exactly  upon  the  former,  and  separated  from  each  other 
by  thin  osseous  septa,  whose  thickness  augments  from  below  upward.  The  bottoms 
of  the  last  three  alveoli  alone  project  into  the  maxillary  sinus ; '  those  of  the  first 
three  are,  on  the  contrary,  placed  in  the  thickness  of  the  bone.  It  is  for  the  above 
reasons  that  diseases  of  these  teeth  sometimes  extend  to  the  mucous  membrane 
which  lines  these  sinuses  ;  that  the  face,  upon  its  lateral  planes,  appears  convex 
in  young  horses  and  concave  in  old,  whose  molars  are  much  shorter;  finally, 
that  perforation  of  the  superficial  table  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone  is  pro- 
duced in  the  young  by  the  roots  of  one  or  other  of  the  first  three  molars. 

Length. — The  following  table  shows  the  data  which  we  have  obtained  in 
this  respect  from  the  head  of  a  horse  over  six  years  old,  whose  teeth  have  been 
measured  from  the  middle  of  their  external  border  to  the  notch  which  separates 
the  two  roots  on  this  side,  roots  that  are  sensibly  of  the  same  dimensions : 


1st 0.054m. 

2d    .  .  0.068m. 


3d    ..'....'..  0.079m. 

4th 0.065m. 

5th  .  .  0.072m. 


plus  the  antero-external  root,  =  0.018  m.  =  0.072  m. 

"  "  "  =  0.012  m.  =  0.080  m. 

"          =  0.008  m.  =  0.087  m. 

=  0.014m.  =  0.079m. 

-0.008m.  =  0080m. 


6th,  which  presents  no  roots,  has  a  total  length  of 0.072  m. 

It  might  almost  be  said,  from  the  results  of  these  measurements,  that  the 
length  of  the  superior  molars  augments  gradually  from  the  first  to  the  third,  and 
then  diminishes  from  the  latter  to  the  sixth.  This  conclusion  is,  nevertheless, 
not  altogether  accurate,  for,  as  the  table  will  show,  the  fifth  is  slightly  longer 
than  the  fourth. 

b.     Inferior  Jaw. 

In  order  to  avoid  repetitions,  the  descriptions  of  the  inferior  molars  will  be 
as  concise  as  possible.  These  teeth,  as  we  already  know,  of  the  same  number 
as  in  the  superior  jaw,  are  also  designated  by  numbers. 

They  have  the  same  general  form,  but  are  less  voluminous  and,  particularly, 
less  thick  in  their  transverse  diameter. 

Faces. — The  anterior  and  posterior  faces,  almost  plane,  present  nothing 
particular.  The  anterior  face  of  the  first  and  the  posterior  face  of  the  sixth  are 
replaced  by  a  slightly-thickened  border. 

The  external  face,  E  (Fig.  299),  is  traversed  by  a  longitudinal  groove  in  the 
first  five ;  the  sixth  has  two  grooves  on  this  face.  All  are  limited  in  front  and 
behind  by  a  more  or  less  rounded  ridge. 

1  In  old  horses  we  have  seen  the  inferior  maxillary  sinus  extend  beyond  the  root  of  the 
second  molar. 


630 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


On  the  internal  face,  I,  the  grooves  are  more  numerous:  in  the  first  and 
sixth  three  are  observed ;  in  the  other  molars  several  grooves  of  variable  length 
and  depth  are  seen. 


E.  External  face. 


FIG.  299.— Inferior  molar  of  the  second 

dentition. 

(Left  side.    Virgin  tooth.) 
|        /.  Internal  face.         |         E,  I.  Surface  of  friction. 


Extremities. — The  free  extremity,  El,  triangular  in  the  first  and  sixth, 
and  quadrilateral  in  all  the  others,  is  less  extensive  transversely  than  from  before 
to  behind.  Irregularly  mammillated,  elevated  at  some  points  and  hollow  at 
others,  it  is  always  bevelled  obliquely  from  within  to  without.  The  branches  of 
the  Gothic  53  are  turned  outward. 

The  incased  extremity,  bicuspid  in  the  first  five,  is  unicuspid  in  the  sixth. 
The  divisions  of  the  root  are  divergent,  and  each  contains  an  opening  which 
penetrates  the  interior  of  the  tooth  where  the  dental  pulp  is  lodged. 

Length. — The  length  increases  from  the  first  to  the  third,  and  diminishes 
from  the  latter  to  the  sixth.  Below  are  the  measurements  which  we  have  ob- 
tained from  the  teeth  of  the  head  previously  mentioned : 

1st 0.044  m.,  plus  the  posterior  root,  =  0.018  m.  =  0.062  m. 

2d 0.063m.,        "  "  "        =  0.015  m.  =  0.078  m. 

3d 0.078m.,        "  "  "        =  0.009  m.  =  0.087  m. 

4th 0.063m.,        "  "  "        =0.017  m.  =  0.080  m. 

5th 0.067m.,        "  "  "        =  0.009  m.  =  0.076  m. 

6th,  which  is  deprived  of  roots,  has  a  total  length  of 0.066  m. 

Direction. — After  removing  the  external  table  of  the  inferior  maxilla  in 
order  to  expose  the  teeth,  it  is  easy  to  recognize  that  all  have  not  the  same  direc- 
tion. Placing  the  head  upon  a  horizontal  plane,  the  first  and  sixth  are  ver- 
tical, while  the  others  are  more  oblique,  particularly  in  the  incased  extremity,  as 
they  are  examined  more  posteriorly. 

Relations. — The  alveoli,  which  contain  the  teeth,  have  a  corresponding 
form,  and  are  separated  from  each  other  by  osseous  septa  (interalveolar  septa), 
quite  thick,  which  become  thinner  towards  the  entrance  of  these  cavities. 


THE    MOLARS. 


631 


Their  bottoms,  as  well  as  the  dental  canal,  are  at  first  in 
close  proximity  with  the  inferior  border  of  the  maxillary 
bones;  but  as  the  teeth  are  shortened  and  pushed  from 
their  sockets  by  the  progress  of  age,  the  alveoli  diminish 
in  depth  and  the  aforesaid  canal  is  elevated  in  almost  the 
same  proportion.  This  fact  is  particularly  observable  in 
the  first  three  or  four  molars.  It  can  be  understood,  from 
this,  that  the  border  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone  will  be 
thicker  as  the  animal  is  younger,  or  as  the  teeth  are  more 
deeply  implanted  in  their  cavities  of  reception,  and,  con- 
versely, thinner  as  the  animal  grows  older. 

Separation  of  the  Two  Inferior  Molar  Arcades. 
— The  inferior  molar  arcades,  considered  as  a  whole,  are 
rectilinear  and  divergent  behind.  The  following  measure- 
ments can  be  easily  compared  with  those  which  have  already 
been  given  for  the  superior  arcades  of  the  same  horse : 

1st.  The  separation  of  the  anterior  border  of  the  first 
molar  from  the  corresponding  border  of  the  opposite  tooth 
was  0.043  m. 

2d.  The  separation  on  a  level  with  the  middle  part  of 
the  third  molar  (measured  from  the  outside)  was  found  to  be 
0.072  m. 

3d.  Finally,  at  the  level  of  the  posterior  border  of  the 
last  molar  it  measured  0.077  m. 

Extent  of  the  Table  of  the  Six  Inferior  Molars 
in  the  Antero-Posterior  Sense. — The  total  length  of 
the  arcade,  in  the  horse  in  question,  was  0.164  m.,  which 
was  shared  by  each  tooth  in  particular,  as  follows : 


1st 0.029  m. 

2d 0.027m. 

3d 0.027m. 

4th 0.025m. 

5th 0.025  in. 

6th  .  0.031  m. 


0.164  m. 


C. — Development  and  Structure  of  the 
Molars. 

These  teeth  have  the  same  general  organization  as  the 
incisors,  but  the  substances  constituting  them  have  a  very 
complex  arrangement,  which  must  be  examined  in  the 
molars  of  both  jaws. 


i.  Development. 

Superior  Molars. — If  a  superior  molar  be  viewed 
in  the  interior  of  the  sac  in  which  it  appears,  it  is  ob- 
served that  prominent  papillae,  two  in  number,  penetrate 
the  thickness  of  its  free  extremity,  while  at  the  incased 
extremity  only  one  is  found,  but  which  is  much  more  com- 


632  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

plicated.  Besides,  the  dental  sac  sends  forth  into  the  grooves  or  notches  of  the 
faces,  as  prolongations,  longitudinal  folds  which  continue  without  interruption 
with  the  external  papillary  system  (Fig.  301). 


a    i 
c  h. 

FIG.  301.— Superior  right  molar  removed  from  its  dental  follicle. 
A.  Viewed  by  its  free  part : 


a,  anterior  infundibulum. 

a',  posterior  infundibulum. 

e,  external  border  of  the  infundibula. 


i,  internal  border  of  the  infundibula. 
c,  accessory  column  of  the  anterior  infun- 
dibulum. 


B.  Viewed  by  its  incased  extremity  (same  letters). 

Each  external  papilla  penetrates,  from  below  upward,  into  the  thickness  of 
the  tooth,  in  the  same  manner  as  that  which  forms  the  central  enamel  of  an  in- 
cisor tooth.  It  fills  thus  a  cavity,  a  veritable  infundibulum,  at  first  open  at  its 
bottom,  and  afterwards  terminating  in  a  cul-de-sac,  when  it  is  completely  de- 
veloped (Fig.  SOI,  A  :  a,  a'). 

There  are  two  infundibula  on  the  table :  an  anterior,  a,  and  a  posterior,  of , 
absolutely  distinct  from  each  other.  The  cavity  of  each,  almost  elliptical,  wider 
from  before  to  behind,  is  limited  by  two  borders,  e,  i,  of  which  the  external  is  the 
more  salient.  The  internal,  ?',  presents,  as  a  singular  peculiarity,  a  sort  of  column, 
c,  flattened  or  depressed,  but  rather  thick,  situated  towards  the  middle  part  of  this 
border,  and  annexed  to  the  anterior  infundibulum.  This  column  is  limited  by 
two  grooves,  </,  h  ;  the  posterior,  d,  forms  a  sort  of  re-entering  angle  forward,  and 
is  deeper  than  the  anterior. 

The  incased  extremity  (Fig.  301,  H)  does  not  resemble  that  which  we  have 
described.  It  presents  a  number  of  folds  whose  disposition  appears  at  first  sight 
complicated,  and  which  have  been  compared  with  much  correctness,  by  Bracy 
Clark,  to  a  Gothic  VB.1 

On  careful  examination,  there  can  be  clearly  distinguished :  first,  the  bottom 
of  the  infundibula,  a,  a',  which  we  mentioned  above,  and,  around  these,  an  irreg- 
ular cavity  folded  upon  itself.  The  latter  opens  at  the  incased  extremity,  but, 
terminating  in  a  cul-de-sac  towards  the  free  extremity,  is  continued  into  the  ac- 
cessory column,  c,  of  the  anterior  infundibulum,  a.  A  superficial  observer  might 
be  led  to  believe  in  the  presence  of  five  cavities, — namely,  two  close  to  the  ex- 
ternal border,  e,  e,  two  close  to  the  internal  border,  ?',  i,  and,  finally,  one  for  the 
accessory  column,  c,  on  the  internal  face.  This  would  be  an  error ;  in  fact,  there 


1  Bracy  Clark,  On  the  Knowledge  of  the  Age  of  the  Horse  by  his  Teeth,  4to,  London,  1826. 
(See  Fig.  8.) 


THE    MOLARS.  633 

is  only  a  single  cavity,  very  diverticulated,  in  the  interior  of  which  the  dental 
pulp  is  contained. 

It  will  be  understood  from  this  that  the  infundibula  of  the  free  extremity 
correspond  to  two  somewhat  conical  reflections  which  are  situated  one  in  front 
of  the  other  and  surrounded,  outwardly  as  well  as  inwardly,  by  the  internal 
cavity. 

Inferior  Molars. — The  development  of  the  inferior  molars  is  much  more 
simple.  In  fact,  if  the  free  extremity  be  first  examined  (Fig.  302,  A),  It  is  seen 


FIG.  302.— Inferior  left  molar  removed  from  its  dental  follicle. 
A.  Viewed  by  its  free  extremity : 

a,  anterior  infundibulum.  i       e,  external  border  of  the  infundibula. 

a',  posterior  infundibulum.  I       i,  internal  border  of  the  infundibula. 

B.  Viewed  by  its  incased  extremity  : 

m,  n,  o,  pulp  cavity.    Other  letters  same  as  in  A. 

that  the  infundibula,  a  and  a',  are  produced  by  two  reflections  of  the  enamel  from 
the  internal  face  towards  the  centre  of  the  tooth.  They  are  also  cleft  outwardly 
throughout  their  whole  length.  The  cleft  of  the  posterior  infundibulum,  a', 
occupies  the  middle  part  of  this  cavity,  while  that  of  the  anterior,  a,  is  situated 
much  more  in  front.  An  inferior  left  molar  can  thus  at  a  glance  be  recognized 
from  its  hoinologue  of  the  right  side. 

The  mode  of  formation  of  the  infundibula  of  the  inferior  molars  is  therefore 
different  from  that  of  the  superior.  Both  result  from  the  penetration  of  the  pa- 
pillse,  but,  in  the  former,  it  is  through  one  of  its  lateral  faces  that  a  longitudinal 
papilla  enters  the  tooth ;  in  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  a  conical  papilla  enters 
through  the  summit. 

Concerning  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  inferior  molar  (Fig.  302,  £>),  there  is 
found  a  spacious  cavity,  m,  n,  o,  very  much  diverticulated,  surrounding  the  periph- 
ery of  the  infundibula,  a  and  a',  isolating  the  one  from  the  other,  and  separating 
them  from  the  external  face,  m,  n.  The  three  diverticula,  m,  n,  o,  of  this  cavity, 
communicating  with  one  another,  lodge  three  prolongations  of  the  internal  pa- 
pilla or  the  pulp  ;  all  terminate  in  cul-de-sacs  at  the  free  extremity  of  the  tooth. 

2.     Structure. 

The  molars,  like  the  incisors,  are  composed  of  a  fundamental  substance  and 
two  protecting  envelopes. 

a.  The  enamel  constitutes  the  only  element  in  the  tooth  when  the  latter  is 
first  developed.  Having  formed  the  four  faces,  it  is  reflected  upon  the  free  ex- 
tremity (superior  molars)  to  circumscribe  the  infundibula. 


634 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


If  the  table  of  a  supe- 
rior molar  which  has  al- 
ready been  used  be  exam- 
ined, the  enamel  presents 
itself  in  the  form  of  more 
or  less  sinuous  lines,  which 
have  not  everywhere  the 
same  thickness  (Fig.  303, 
SG}.  These  bands  are 


S.G 


FIG.  303.-ID.  Table  of  inferior 
right  molar.  SG.  Table  of  fric- 
tion of  a  superior  left  molar. 

thicker  in  the  tract  of  two 
transverse  lines  which  pass 
through  the  middle  part  of 
the  branches  of  the  SB,  and 
it  is  at  the  points  corre- 
sponding to  these  that  they 
stand  slightly  in  relief 
above  the  other  points.  In 
the  inferior  molars,  it  is  the 
parietes  of  the  infundibula 
which  possesses  the  least 
thickness  (Fig.  303,  ID). 

However  it  may  be, 
the  enamel  layer  is  always 
relatively  rather  thin,  and 
undergoes  no  modifications 
under  the  influence  of  age 
when  once  the  teeth  have 
acquired  their  full  develop- 
ment. 


FIG.  304— Inferior  left  molar  arcade  of  a  very  old  horse,  show- 
ing the  radical  cementation  of  the  middle  teeth. 

A,  A,  A,  vestiges  of  the  roots;  B,  B,  B,  radical  cement.     The 
enamel  has  disappeared. 


THE    MOLARS. 


635 


b.  The  ivory  or  dentine  is  deposited  little  by  little  upon  the  internal  face  of 
the  enamel,  and  soon  fills,  from  the  crown  to  the  roots,  the  diverticula  of  the  pulp 
cavity.     At  first  covered  by  the  enamel,  it  soon  becomes,  under  the  influence  of 
wear,  an  integral  part  of  the  dental  table.     It  is  seen,  in  the  superior  molars,  to 
surround  the  periphery  of  the  two  infundibula  and  to  constitute  the  basis  of  the  S3 
which  their  table  resembles ;  upon  many  of  these  teeth  this  comparison  is  so  exact 
that  it  is  outlined  by  brown  lines,  sometimes  very  dark.     In  the  inferior  molars, 
the  dentine  is  found,  so  to  speak,  only  upon  the  outer  side  of  the  infendibula ; 
its  central  parts  also  have  a  brown  coloration  in  a  large  number  of  subjects. 

c.  The  cement  is  extremely  abundant  upon  the  molars.     It  is  this  which 
is  Directly  applied  upon  the  enamel,  covers  the  faces,  penetrates  the  notches,  and 
fills  .the  infundibula.    The  tooth  seems  to  become  covered  with  it  in  proportion 
as  it  is  expelled  from  its  socket,  and  at  the  level  of  its  free  extremity  particularly, 
for  the  radicular  extremity  only  carries  a  thin  layer ;  but  when  the  latter  becomes 
the  surface  of  friction,  in  very  old  horses,  it  excites  an  abundant  secretion  of 
radical  cement,  which  consolidates  it  into  its  cavity  of  reception  and  considerably 
augments  the  area  of  the  dental  table,  as  we  have  already  seen  a  propos  of  the 
structure  of  the  incisors  (Fig.  304). 

It  is  easy  to  account  for  the  relations  of  the  different  layers  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  a  molar,  by  making  transverse  sections  of  the  latter  parallel 


FIG.  305. — Transverse  section  of  a  superior  left  molar  (enlarged). 

to  the  surface  of  friction.      The  enamel  is  there  outlined  by  porcelain-white, 

sometimes  vitreous,  bands,  the  cement  by  very  clear  coffee-and-milk  color,  the 

dentine,  finally,  by  darker  coffee-and-milk  color,  always  veined  with  darker  lines. 

The  accessory  branch  or  loop,  in  the  superior  molars  (Fig.  298),  is  always 


636 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


attached  to  the  anterior  branch  of  the  53  by  a  narrow  pedicle  of  ivory.  In  this 
respect  there  is  no  exception  in  the  horse.  In  the 
hipparion,  on  the  contrary,  which  some  evolutionists 
consider  as  the  ancestor  of  the  preceding,  this  loop 
is  constantly  isolated  on  the  dental  table  (Fig.  306). 

Numerous  differences  concerning  the  disposition 
of  the  folding  of  the  enamel  are  also  found.  They 
form  at  times,  in  certain  animals,  remarkable  wavy 
or  sinuous  folds,  analogous  to  those  on  the  tooth  of 
the  hipparion.  Some  anatomists  have  considered 
these  characteristics  as  sufficient  reasons  for  the  es- 
tablishment, among  equine  fossils,  of  an  intermediary 
species  between  the  hipparion  and  our  actual  horse, 
the  Equus  plicidens  (plio-hippus).  Whether  this  dis- 
tinction is  justified  or  not,  the  truth  is  that  these 
enamel  plications  still  exist  in  many  horses  of  to-day. 

In  the  inferior  molars,  the  configuration  of  the 
surface  of  friction  differs  slightly  from  that  of  the 
superior ;  Fig.  307  gives  a  sufficiently  accurate  idea 
of  this. 

Let  us  recall,  in  conclusion,  that  the  three  sub- 
stances, enamel,  dentine,  and  cement,  are  not  equally 


FIG.  306  —Superior  left  molar 
arcade  of  the  hipparion. 


FIG.  307.— Transverse  section  of  an  inferior  right  molar 
(enlarged). 


ERUPTION    OF    THE    TEETH.  637 

resistant  to  wear.  Hence  the  first  is  always  in  relief  above  the  second,  and  the 
latter  above  the  third.  In  consideration  of  this  fact,  Cuvier  rightly  said  that  the 
molars  of  the  horse  were  comparable  to  millstones,  which  incessantly  rub  against 
each  other.  These  asperities  of  the  surface  of  friction,  in  fact,  render  the  crush- 
ing of  the  alimentary  substances  much  more  complete.  In  old  horses,  when  the 
enamel  bands  have  disappeared,  these  substances  can  without  doubt  be  bruised 
or  broken,  but  no  longer  crushed  as  before.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  digestion  is 
less  perfect,  and  that  many  of  the  cereal  grains,  having  resisted  the  actitm  of  the 
teeth  and  the  digestive  juices,  still  preserve  all  their  germinating  properties  after 
having  traversed  the  entire  length  of  the  alimentary  canal. 


CHAPTER    III. 

ERUPTION   OF   THE   TEETH. 


A. — Eruption  of  the  Incisors. 

THE  eruption  of  the  milk  incisors  determines,  in  general,  no  par- 
ticular phenomenon  susceptible  of  attracting  the  attention  of  persons 
who  care  for  the  young  animal,  though  it  is  probable  that  it  sometimes 
occasions  depression  and  inappetency.  For  this  reason  these  teeth  will 
not  especially  concern  us  here. 

In  proportion  as  the  colt  approaches  the  period  in  which  the 
second  dentition  begins  to  appear,  certain  peculiarities,  which  it  is 
important  to  recognize,  take  place.  Thus  the  head  augments  in  vol- 
ume and  becomes  more  prominent  upon  the  sides  of  the  region  of  the 
face.  This  aspect  of  the  face  is  due  to  the  development  of  the  molars, 
which  are  enclosed  in  the  alveoli  of  the  superior  maxillary  bones. 

The  effects  of  this  dentition  generally  seem  to  pervade  the  whole 
organism ;  the  first  attacks  of  periodic  fluxion,  strangles,  and  other 
diseases  manifest  themselves  at  this  epoch,  as  Professor  Dupuy  and 
other  authors  have  stated.  But  if  these  facts  are  frequent,  it  does  not 
follow  that  they  can  be  extended  to  the  generality  of  young  horses. 

When  the  colt  arrives  at  the  age  at  which  the  adult  incisors  should 
make  their  eruption,  it  is  observed  that  the  milk-teeth  have  already 
been  shed,  leaving  vacant  the  place  for  the  permanent  teeth,  or  they 
may  still  remain  in  place.  Let  us  examine  the  two  cases : 

1st.  The  Milk- Teeth  being  shed. — The  spaces  which  they  occupied 
then  present  a  swelling,  tumefaction,  and  redness,  having  an  ex- 
aggerated sensibility,  which  goes  so  far  as  to  be  painful  when  the 


638  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

gum  is  touched.  Soon  after,  the  anterior  border  of  the  replacing 
tooth,  which  has  compressed,  thinned,  worn  out,  so  to  speak,  the  gum 
from  its  deep  to  its  superficial  face,  gradually  appears  and  perforates 
the  latter  by  commencing  at  its  internal  moiety.  This  border  is  not 
always  directed  transversely  to  the  median  line;  it  is  sometimes 
oblique  from  before  to  behind  and  from  within  to  without.  Little  by 
little  the  tooth  disengages  itself  from  the  alveolus,  arrives  on  a  level 
with  its  neighbors,  and,  finally,  opposes  itself  to  that  of  the  other  jaw. 

2d.  The  Milk-Teeth  still  in  Place. — The  phenomena  in  this  case  are 
less  visible.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  make  an  examination  of  the  incisive 
arcades  by  their  anterior  faces ;  it  is  also  necessary  to  separate  the  two 
jaws  to  see  if  there  is  any  particular  evidence  showing  that  the  erup- 
tion of  the  permanent  teeth  is  about  to  take  place.  It  happens,  even, 
in  certain  cases,  that  this  has  already  been  accomplished  for  the  pincers, 
as  we  have  observed  in  the  English  horse  Vade-Mecum.  After  sepa- 
rating the  lips  of  the  horse,  only  the  milk-teeth  were  perceived,  but  on 
opening  the  mouth,  the  superior  permanent  pincers,  well  developed, 
and  even  slightly  used,  were  discovered,  while  the  inferior  still  remained 
covered  by  the  gums. 

We  will  remark,  in  conclusion,  that  nearly  always  the  eruption 
of  the  superior  incisors  is  earlier  than  that  of  the  inferior.  In  both 
jaws  it  takes  place  by  pairs,  commencing  with  the  pincers  and  termi- 
nating with  the  corners. 

Causes  which  may  hasten  or  retard  the  Eruption  of  the 
Incisors  of  the  Second  Dentition. — We  cannot  take  under  con- 
sideration here  the  extraction  of  the  deciduous  teeth,  a  fraudulent 
practice  which  we  will,  however,  study  separately ;  but  will  speak  only 
of  the  physiological  causes  which  may  hasten  or  retard  the  eruption  of 
the  permanent  teeth. 

According  to  Girard,1  the  precocity  of  the  race,  the  vigor  of  the 
temperament,  and  abundant  assimilation  are  capable  of  hastening  the 
eruption  of  the  incisors  of  the  second  dentition,  and  of  advancing  it 
three  or  four  months. 

According  to  Traeger,2  pregnancy  can  retard  this  eruption  for  a 
year,  notably  that  of  the  corners : 

All  the  pregnant  mares,  born  in  1841,  were  no  more  advanced  in 
relation  to  the  dentition  than  the  unimpregnated  ones  which  were 
foaled  in  1842  ;  while  other  mares,  also  born  in  1841,  but  which  were 

1  Girard,  loc.  cit.,  p.  58. 

2  Traeger,  Magazin  fur  die  gesammte  Thierheilkunde,  1846,  in  Recueil  de  medecine  veteri- 
naire,  1849,  p.  136. 


ERUPTION    OF    THE    TEETH.  639 

not  impregnated,  presented,  without  exception,  the  teeth  of  a  five- 
year-old. 

One  of  our  confreres  in  the  army,  M.  Bizard,  has  communicated 
to  us  an  observation  of  the  same  nature :  a  half-bred  mare,  foaled  on 
the  26th  of  May,  1875,  and  served  on  the  8th  of  May,  1880,  when, 
five  years  of  age,  was  still  provided  with  her  four  corner  milk-teeth ; 
the  latter  were  only  shed  from  the  18th  to  the  30th  of  July,-  1881, 
— that  is  to  say,  at  the  age  of  six  years  and  two  months. 

Facts  of  this  nature  are  undoubtedly  more  frequent  than  is  believed, 
in  consequence  of  the  difficulty  which  is  experienced  in  obtaining  exact 
information  as  to  the  age  of  the  subjects.  If  these  facts  were  to  be 
made  a  criterion  in  this  connection  they  would  tend  to  increase  rather 
than  diminish  the  age  of  pregnant  mares. 

Girard l  has  equally  noticed  the  action  of  the  climate.  The  horses 
of  Southern  France,  raised  in  their  native  country,  are  more  precocious 
than  those  of  the  North  ;  in  them  the  eruption  of  the  permanent  teeth 
takes  place  sometimes  in  the  early  part  of  September,  and  most  often 
at  the  beginning  of  October ;  they  are  always  entirely  through  the  gums 
by  the  middle  of  December. 

In  the  cold  climates  of  the  North,  in  Normandy,  for  example,  it 
takes  place  normally  only  at  the  beginning  of  January,  February, 
March,  and  even  April.  In  the  Limousin  district,  it  is  rarely  termi- 
nated before  the  month  of  January.  These  variations  depend  so  much 
upon  the  climate  that  the  transportation  of  colts  from  cold  into  warm 
countries  hastens  the  eruption;  it  is  retarded  in  a  contrary  case, 
and  this  so  much  the  more  as  the  difference  in  the  temperature  is 
greater. 

Finally,  Bernard,2  Magne,3  and  M.  Sanson4  have  advanced  the  opin- 
ion that  the  race-horse,  always  very  strongly  nourished,  constitutes  an 
exception  to  the  principles  of  Girard.  Our  noted  colleague,  M.,  Tous- 
saint,5  has  furnished  the  proof  that  the  thoroughbred  horse  is,  in  this 
respect,  not  different  from  the  common  draught-horse.  Our  observa- 
tions fully  confirm  his. 

That  there   are   subjects   presenting   exceptions   to  these   general 


1  Girard,  loc.  cit.,  p.  60. 

2  Bernard,  Guide  des  acheteurs  et  des  vendeurs  d'animaux  domestiques,  Toulouse,  1845, 
p.  175. 

3  Magne,  Memoire  sur  1'allaitement  et  le  sevrage  des  jeunes  animaux.    See  Bulletin  de 
1' Academic  de  medecine,  annee  1876,  p.  965. 

4  A.  Sanson,  Le  cheval  de  Solutre ;  memoir  read  at  the  Soc.  anthropologique,  dans  sa  seance 
du  15  Octobre,  1878. 

5  Toussaint,  De  1'age  de  chevaux  de  course,  au  point  de  vue  de  la  doctrine  de  la  precocity. 
See  Recueil  de  medecine  veterinaire,  annee  1872.  p.  992. 


640  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

laws,  that  the  eruption  of  the  incisors  of  the  adult  is  premature  in 
some  and  slow  in  others,  we  will  willingly  admit.  Nevertheless,  this 
does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  exclusively  the  result  of  the  fact  that  they 
belong  to  such  or  such  a  race,  possess  such  or  such  a  temperament, 
or,  finally,  that  they  are  abundantly  or  poorly  nourished.  We  will  cite, 
in  this  connection,  the  example  which  Jules  Goubaux,  veterinarian 
at  the  depot  of  stallions  at  Blois,  showed  us  in  1857  :  it  was  a  small 
horse  of  a  common  race,  which  had  placed  all  the  incisors  of  the  second 
dentition  in  the  course  of  the  same  year.  This  early  eruption,  ex- 
tremely rare  in  the  horse,  occurs  less  seldom  in  the  bovine  and  in 
the  ovine  species.  It  must  depend  upon  very  diverse  causes,  which, 
in  our  opinion,  still  remain  to  be  determined. 

B. — Eruption  of  the  Canines. 

The  eruption  of  the  canine  teeth  is  of  little  utility  in  the  determi- 
nation of  the  age  :  first,  because  it  is  very  variable ;  secondly,  because 
these  are  absent  in  the  majority  of  mares. 

The  eruption  of  the  tusks  is  preceded,  accompanied,  and  followed 
by  the  same  inflammatory  phenomena  as  those  which  concern  the 
incisors.  According  to  Girard,  there  is  nothing  regular  about  it. 
Sometimes  these  teeth  exist  at  three  years ;  at  other  times  they  only 
appear  at  six  ;  in  general  they  appear  at  four  years.  The  indications 
which  can  be  drawn  from  their  state  are  therefore  very  uncertain. 

C. — Eruption  of  the  Molars. 

In  proportion  as  the  animal  advances  in  age  the  molars  of  the 
first  dentition,  as  a  result  of  wear,  become  shorter  and  shorter,  re- 
duced somewhat  to  the  state  of  small,  loosened  plates,  which  envelop, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  corresponding  extremity  of  those  of  the  second 
dentition,  and  are  held  only  very  imperfectly  in  their  alveoli.  Their 
asperities,  wounding  the  internal  face  of  the  cheek,  sometimes  cause 
abnormal  movements  of  the  jaws.  The  animal  does  not  eat  in  the 
ordinary  manner :  this  is  what  attracts  the  attention  and  leads  to  an 
examination  of  the  interior  of  the  mouth. 

It  is  good  practice,  under  such  circumstances,  to  extract  these  teeth 
so  as  to  favor  the  eruption  of  the  replacing  ones ;  an  easy  operation, 
and  one  which  veterinarians  in  breeding  districts  practise  very  often. 

The  last  three  molars  of  each  jaw,  or  the  hind-molars,  also  appear 
one  after  the  other ;  but,  situated  very  deeply  in  the  interior  of  the 
mouth,  it  is  difficult  to  observe  well  their  eruption. 


ERUPTION    OF    THE    TEETH. 


641 


Eruption  of  the  Molars  in  Particular.— We  knew  already 
that  the  opinions  of  Girard  concerning  the  period  of  this  eruption  were, 
contested  by  those  veterinarians  who  had  had  occasion  to  examine 
them  ;  hence  we  applied  to  one  of  our  collaborators,  Lecellier  the  elder, 
veterinarian  at  Yvetot.  This  distinguished  practitioner,  who  for  a  long 
time  has  directed  his  attention  to  the  dental  apparatus  of  the  horse, 
has  succeeded  in  ascertaining  some  facts  of  great  importance. 

1st.  Molars  of  the  First  Dentition. — According  to  Girard,  the  first 
two  deciduous  molars  have  generally  pierced  the  gums  at  birth,  or,  at 
the  latest,  from  three  to  four  days  after ;  as  to  the  third,  it  should 
always  appear  at  the  end  of  the  first  month. 

LeceUier1  and  Mayhew2  assert,  on  the  contrary,  that  these  teeth  all 
exist  at  birth,  and  that  they  can  serve  for  mastication  at  the  end  of 
thirty  or  forty  days. 

2d.  Molars  of  Replacement  and  Persistent  Molars. — The  observa- 
tions of  Girard,  Lecellier,  'and  Mayhew  are  not  in  accord  upon  this 
point ;  they  differ  especially  as  to  the  period  of  eruption  of  the  sixth 
molar.  We  have  presented  them  in  the  following  table : 


DESIGNATION 

OF  THE 

TEETH. 

PERIOD  OF  ERUPTION. 

DESIGNATION  OF  THE 
TEETH. 

PERIOD  OF 
ERUPTION, 

AFTER 

LECELLIER. 

After  Girard. 

After  Mayhew. 

Inferior 
Molars. 

Superior 
Molars. 

4th. 
5th. 
1st. 
1st  and  2d. 
2d  and  3d. 
6th. 
6th  and  3d. 

10  months. 
20     " 
30  to  32  months. 

36  months. 
4  to  6  years. 

12  months. 
18  to  24  months. 

36  months. 
60  months. 

4th. 
5th. 
1st  and  2d. 
6th. 
3d. 
3d 

4th. 
5th. 
1st. 
6th. 
2d. 
3d. 

10  to  12  months. 
20  to  24 
30  to  36 
32  to  36 
40  to  42 
44  to  48 

According  to  Lecellier,  the  inferior  deciduous  molars  are  constantly 
shed  before  the  superior,  while  the  eruption  of  the  permanent  molars 
takes  place  in  both  jaws  at  the  same  time. 


1  Lecellier  pere,  note  communique^. 

2  Mayhew,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  69,  70,  71,  72,  and  82. 


41 


642  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


PART   II. 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  AGE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

DURATION   OF   LIFE   IN   THE    HORSE. 

ACCORDING  to  BufFon,1  "the  duration  of  the  life  of  horses  is,  as  in 
all  the  other  species  of  domestic  animals,  proportional  to  the  duration  of 
their  period  of  growth  or  increase.  A  man,  in  whom  this  period  is 
fourteen  years,  can  live  six  or  seven  times  this  space  of  time, — that  is  to 
say,  ninety  or  a  hundred  years ;  the  horse,  whose  period  of  increase  con- 
tinues throughout  four  years,  can  live  six  or  seven  times  as  long, — that 
is  to  say,  twenty-five  or  thirty  years." 

According  to  Bourgelat,2  "  one  can  suppose  the  ordinary  life  of  a 
horse  to  continue  eighteen  or  twenty  years,  the  number  of  those  which 
surpass*  this  time  being  very  small.  Aristotle  observed  that  horses 
kept  in  stables  live  a  much  shorter  time  than  those  which  run  at 
large  ;  the  state  of  stabulation  and  domestication  are  well  calculated 
to  produce  some  differences.  Athenseus  and  Pliny  claimed  that 
horses  have  been  known  to  live  sixty-five  and  even  seventy  years. 
Augustus  Nipheus  also  speaks  of  the  horse  of  Ferdinand  I.  as  a  septu- 
agenarian horse,  but  these  last  observations  are  only  exceptions,  similar 
in  the  equine  species  to  those  which  sometimes  take  place  in  the  human 
species.  .  .  ." 

• "  The  life  of  mares,"  says  Hartmann,3  "  is  ordinarily  longer  than 
that  of  the  males.  This  observation,  already  made  by  Aristotle  (Hist. 
Animal.,  vol.  v.),  corresponds  to  that  made  at  different  periods  upon 
the  human  species,  in  which  the  females  generally  live  longer  than  the 
males. 

"  It  is  an  indubitable  sign  that  &  stud-horse  is  of  a  good  race,  or  at 


1  Buffon,  Histoire  naturelle  generate  et  particuliere,  t.  iv.  p.  226. 

*  Bourgelat,  Trait6  de  la  conformation  extSrieure  du  cheval,  2e  6d.,  Paris,  1775,  p.  286. 

»  Hartmann,  Trait£  des  haras,  etc.,  translated  from  the  German,  Paris,  1788,  p.  32. 


DURATION    OF   LIFE    IN    THE    HORSE.  643 

least  that  he  is  healthy,  if  he  be  slow  in  attaining  his  maturity.  One 
that  only  ceases  to  grow  at  six  or  seven  years  of  age  will,  barring 
particular  accidents,  be  of  good  service  for  twenty  years  or  more,  and 
can  even  live  forty  years  and  longer.  On  the  contrary,  one  which 
reaches  full  growth  in  four  years,  will  live  at  most  only  twenty  or 
twenty-five.  Heavy  and  lymphatic  horses,  which  attain  their  full 
growth  in  still  less  time,  are  also  shorter  lived,  and  are  already  old  at 
the  age  of  six  or  seven  years. 

"  Instances  of  an  age  of  thirty  or  forty  years  would  not  be  so  rare 
among  these  animals  if  the  brutality  of  men  did  not  shorten  their 
lives,  if  they  were  less  abused,  and  if  they  were  better  cared  for. 
Commonly,  one  has  not  the  least  regard  for  a  horse  after  he  has 
attained  a  certain  age ;  one  endeavors  to  dispose  of  him  in  order  to 
save  the  expense  of  his  keep ;  and  his  ordinary  recompense,  after 
having  rendered  the  best  services  for  a  fair  length  of  time,  is  to  be 
worked  to  a  cart  and  reserved  for  the  most  severe  labor,  or  to  be  sent 
to  the  knacker." 

This  passage,  written  in  Germany,  is  equally  applicable  in  France : 
it  proves  that  men  act  everywhere  the  same  towards  the  animals, 
auxiliaries  in  their  work. 

Among  the  principal  causes  which  modify  the  longevity  we  will 
cite  the  slowness  of  the  development,  the  size,  the  service,  and  the 
care. 

We  believe  that  there  are  precocious  individuals  and  not  precocious 
races.  Nevertheless,  agreeing  with  the  opinion  of  some  authors,  we 
will  admit  that  certain  races  live  longer,  and  that  the  duration  of  life 
is  in  proportion  to  the  time  which  the  animal  requires  to  reach  his 
maturity,  although  until  the  present  no  one  has  furnished  proof  of  it. 

However  it  may  be,  H.  Bouley  has  endeavored  to  demonstrate  the 
foundation  of  this  opinion.  "  There  are,"  says  he,  "  tardy  races  and 
precocious  races.  In  the  latter,  the  precocity  results  from  the  com- 
bined action  of  heredity  and  of  the  alimentary  regimen,  so  that  the 
organic  formation  is  effected  in  a  hurried  manner,  so  to  speak,  in  the 
subjects  which  compose  them,  which  causes  an  earlier  maturity; 
whence  it  follows  that  the  duration  of  the  first  period  is  shortened,  and, 
as  a  fatal  consequence,  that  of  their  life,  for  the  more  rapid  processes 
of  growth  impressed  upon  their  organism  have  no  other  effect,  in  view 
of  the  industry  which  produces  them,  than  to  hasten  the  moment  of 
their  death."  * 

1  See  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  pratique  de  m£deciue,  de  chirurgieet  d'hygiene  v6te>inaires, 
t.  i.,  annee  1856,  art.  "Ages,"  p.  189. 


644  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Concerning  the  size,  it  appears  to  us  that  the  life  of  small  horses  is 
longer  than  that  of  large  ones,  but  it  would  be  very  perplexing  to  give 
the  explanation  of  this  fact. 

The  service  produces  its  principal  effects  through  the  more  or  less 
intense  fatigue  and  wear  which  it  occasions.  Certain  subjects  have  such 
a  quiet  existence  and  such  good  hygienic  surroundings  that  they  often 
attain  a  very  advanced  age.  Those  which  inhabit  the  large  industrial 
centres  live  under  entirely  different  conditions.  There,  more  than  any- 
where else,  the  services  at  a  fast  gait,  which  exact  frequently-repeated 
violent  efforts,  the  prolonged  duration  of  the  daily  work,  the  inclem- 
encies of  the  weather,  etc.,  exhaust  the  vitality,  predispose  the  system 
to  diseases,  and  cause  premature  death.  Hence,  for  opposite  reasons, 
horses  kept  in  the  country  attain  a  more  advanced  age  than  those  in 
cities. 

The  care  received  from  man  has  likewise  a  great  influence.  Bad 
treatment,  privation  of  nourishment,  insufficiency  of  the  latter  and  its 
poor  quality,  do  not  permit  the  necessary  reparation  of  the  incessant 
losses  due  to  the  work,  and  shorten  the  duration  of  the  services. 

To  recapitulate,  it  will  be  understood  that  this  question  cannot  be 
determined  in  a  very  precise  manner :  the  causes  which  tend  to  com- 
plicate the  subject  are  too  numerous,  and  yet  it  is  necessary  to  take 
cognizance  of  them.  One  horse  is  old,  worn  out,  at  the  age  of  twelve 
years ;  another  still  performs  his  work  at  twenty  or  twenty-two. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  following  are  some  remarkable  examples  of 
longevity : 

One  of  our  friends,  M.  Laurent,  has  sent  us  the  jaws  obtained  from 
horses  which  had  lived  forty-two,  forty-three,  and  forty-nine  years, 
We  have  known  several  which  had  passed  thirty-Jive  years.  Finally, 
we  have  seen,  in  1845,  at  the  Petite- Villette,  a  horse  which  had  served 
in  a  regiment  of  cuirassiers  during  the  Russian  campaign  in  1813. 
If,  at  the  beginning  of  the  campaign,  this  animal  was  six  years  of  age, 
he  must,  therefore,  have  been  thirty-eight  at  the  time  when  we  saw  him. 

It  is  rare  to  observe  such  advanced  age,  because  owners  generally 
dispose  of  the  subjects  whose  work  becomes  insufficient.  Rather  than 
deliver  them  to  the  slaughter-house,  the  proprietor  sells  them  ordinarily 
for  a  low  price,  and  it  is  then  that  they  enter  upon  the  most  pitiable 
existence  which  can  be  imagined.  Financial  interest  and  sentiment 
are  not  always  in  accord  ! 


PARTS   TO  BE  EXAMINED  FOR  DETERMINATION  OF  AGE.     645 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE    PARTS    TO    BE   EXAMINED    FOR    THE    DETERMINATION   OF    THE 

AGE. 

HOWEVER  little  one  may  be  accustomed  to  the  handling  of  horses, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  the  young  from  the  old.  In  the  very 
'aged  white  hairs  appear  upon  the  region  of  the  temples,  around  the 
eyes,  the  nostrils,  etc.,  when  the  robe  is  dark-colored ;  the  inferior  ex- 
tremity of  the  head  is  more  pointed ;  the  lateral  parietes  of  the  face 
are  depressed.  Besides,  a  roach-back,  alterations  of  the  axes  of  the 
members,  and  blemishes  of  the  members  also  denote  a  variable  degree 
of  wear,  often  in  a  certain  relation  with  the  duration  of  this  degenerated 
existence.  Every  one  is  able  to  observe  these  facts ;  but  there  are  per- 
sons who  flatter  themselves  that  they  are  able  to  estimate  the  age  of  the 
horse  by  the  sole  examination  of  the  jaws,  or  by  other  procedures  of 
equally  trifling  importance.  It  is  upon  these  pretended  means  that  our 
attention  will  be  arrested  for  an  instant,  to  dispose  of  them  once  for  all, 
and  warn  the  reader  against  those  individuals  who  put  them  in  practice. 

1.  Examination  of  the  Jaws. — We  know  that  the  teeth  are  so 
much  the  more  deeply  incased  in  their  alveoli  as  the  animals  are  younger. 
The  teeth,  in  fact,  are  little  by  little  pushed  from  their  sockets  in  order 
to  compensate  for  the  losses  occasioned  by  the  friction  of  mastication, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  two  tables  of  the  maxillary  bone  are  drawn 
towards  each  other.      It  results  from  this  that  the  free  border  of 
the  jaws  becomes  thinner  with  the  progress  of  age.     Nevertheless,  the 
recognition  of  this  fact  is  incapable  of  furnishing  the  least  precise 
indication.     With  prolonged  practice,  we  can  thus  distinguish  young 
horses  from  old   horses,  but  we  doubt  whether  such  an  examination 
does  not  ordinarily  expose  one  to  error. 

2.  Raising  of  the  Skin  of  the  Forehead  or  of  the  Cheek. 
— "  One  of  the  signs  by  which  a  horse  that  is  old  can  be  recognized 
consists  in  pinching,  between  the  index  finger  and  the  thumb,  the  skin 
of  the  forehead,  raising  it  with  the  fingers  from  the  parts  below,  and 
then  suddenly  letting  go ;   if  this  skin  then  quickly  returns  to  its 
place  and  presents  a  very  smooth  surface,  as  it  did  before,  the  animal 
will  be  very  good  to  serve  as  a  stallion,  etc."  l 

1  Ibn-el-Awiimm,  Le  livre  de  1'Agricultnre.  translated  from  the  Arabian  by  J.  J.  ClGment 
Mullet,  Paris,  1867,  t.  ii..  2e  partie,  pp.  27  et  58.  (This  book  appears  to  have  been  Avritten  in  the 
twelfth  century  of  the  Christian  era.) 


646  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Aristotle  recommended  this  same  procedure,  but  he  preferred  the 
skin  of  the  lips  to  that  of  the  forehead.1  "  If,"  says  he,  "  in  raising 
the  skin  from  the  lips,  it  is  promptly  retracted,  the  animal  is  young ; 
if  it  remains  wrinkled  for  a  long  time,  he  is  old." 

3.  Examination  of  the  Nodes  of  the  Tail. — The  practice 
of  this  ancient  procedure,  upon  which  Minot,  one  of  our  associates,  has 
particularly  insisted,  is  no  more  positive  than  the  preceding. 

What  Minot2  called  nodes  or  knots  are  nothing  more  than  the 
prominences  formed  upon  the  lateral  surface  of  this  appendage  by  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  first  coccygeal  vertebrae.  The  first  of  these 
nodes  should  appear  between  thirteen  and  fourteen  years,  should  be 
altogether  distinct  at  fourteen  and  one-half  years,  and  should  show 
a  depression  behind  at  fifteen  years.  The  second  should  be  distinct 
between  seventeen  and  eighteen  years,  and  the  third  at  twenty-one 
years. 

These  lateral  projections  of  the  coccygeal  vertebrae  are,  perhaps, 
most  marked  in  very  emaciated  subjects,  but  their  prominence  only 
appears  to  indicate  this  to  us.  We  likewise  consider  the  caudal  exam- 
ination as  being  useless. 

4.  Examination  of  the  Teeth. — This  is  the  only  positive  ex- 
amination.    It  comprises  two  steps  : 

1st.  The  examination  of  the  incisors  upon  their  anterior  surface. 

2d.  That  of  their  tables,  of  the  tusks,  and  of  the  molars. 

First  Step. — The  observer  stations  himself  on  the  left  side ;  the 
two  lips,  seized  with  the  open  hand,  are  separated  from  each  other. 
If  the  animal  offer  any  resistance,  the  right  foot  is  raised  without 
being  given  a  point  of  support,  and,  if  necessary,  he  is  subdued  by  the 
application  of  a  twitch  to  the  ear. 

It  is  then  easy  to  recognize : 

a.  If  the  incisive  arcade  is  composed  of  teeth  of  the  first  or 

of  the  second  dentition,  or  of  those  belonging  to  both. 

b.  If  the  teeth  are  normal  in  number. 

c.  If  they  have  the  normal  situation,  direction,  and  dimen- 

sions. 
I  d.  If  they  correspond  with  one  another  reciprocally. 

e.   If  their  anterior  face  and  their  free  border  are  intact. 
/.   If,  finally,  they  have   not   been   subjected  to  fraudulent 
practices. 

1  Aristotle,  Hist,  anim.,  t.  i.  p.  401. 

2  J.  Minot,  Appreciation  des  chevaux  d'apres  les  caracteres  du  pouls  et  1'examen  des  formes 
ext6rieures,  Paris,  1850,  p.  244. 


PARTS  TO  BE  EXAMINED  FOR  DETERMINATION  OF  AGE.     647 

The  existence  of  these  facts  having  been  ascertained,  the  observer 
releases  the  lips  and  prepares  for  the  second  step. 

Second  Step. — The  left  hand  is  applied  upon  the  nose  to  prevent 
the  horse  from  advancing ;  the  right  is  introduced  into  the  mouth  and 
seizes  the  tongue  in  the  manner  already  indicated  (Fig.  25).  This 
procedure  must  be  executed  with  gentleness,  as  before  stated,  for  the 
brutal  tractions  exercised  upon  this  organ  are  painful  and  often  incite 
resistance  from  the  animal. 

It  suffices,  in  most  instances,  to  insert  the  index  and  middle  fingers 
into  the  interdental  space  and  separate  these  two  digits  in  order  to  cause 
the  animal  to  open  his  mouth ;  the  inferior  lip  is  lowered  with  the 
thumb  •  as  to  the  left  hand,  it  is  kept  in  position  upon  the  nose. 

The  observer  must  then  fix  his  attention  : 
Upon  the  incisors  of  the  two  jaws. 
Upon  the  canines. 
Upon  the  molars. 

Relatively  to  the  incisors  he  will  observe : 

a.  Their  form  and  the  details  of  their  dental  table. 

b.  Their  direction  and  their  length. 

c.  The  state  of  freshness  of  the  corners. 
Concerning  the  canines,  he  will  examine : 

a.  Their  freshness. 

b.  Their  degree  of  wear. 

c.  Their  direction  and  their  length. 

Finally,  the  examination  of  the  molars  must  be  made  upon  the 
two  sides,  the  tongue  being  grasped  by  the  left  hand  and  the  right 
hand  successively,  to  expose  the  corresponding  arcades.  With  the 
hand  which  remains  free  one  or  other  commissure  will  be  separated 
outwardly.  If  the  horse  offers  any  resistance,  he  should  be  backed 
into  a  corner  and  the  head  kept  in  an  elevated  attitude  by  an  as- 
sistant. 

This  examination  is  important,  for  an  abnormal  condition  of  the 
molars  prevents  the  animal  from  masticating  properly,  which  di- 
minishes his  vitality  and  his  resistance  to  fatigue.  It  will  reveal, 
therefore : 

1st.   The  number  of  the  molars  and  the  dentition  to  which 

they  pertain. 

2d.    The  state  of  their  surface  of  friction. 
3d.    Their  length  and  their  direction. 

4th.  Finally,  the  integrity  of  their  substance,  the  state  of  the 
gums  and  of  the  cheeks. 


648  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

CHAPTEK    III. 

THE   CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY   THE   TEETH. 

AT  the  point  at  which  we  have  now  arrived,  is  not  the  reader  jus- 
tified in  asking  why  we  have  led  him  into  the  details  of  so  minute  an 
anatomical  description  ?  Would  it  not  be  better,  after  a  summary  ex- 
position of  the  construction  of  a  tooth,  to  enter  immediately  upon  what 
we  appropriately  call  the  characters  of  the  age  ?  Evidently  not,  as  he 
will  hereafter  comprehend. 

The  effects  of  the  friction,  pertaining  to  the  dental  apparatus,  are 
slow,  insensible,  and  variable,  three  factors  which  render  the  wear  diffi- 
cult of  appreciation.  Incessantly  cleansed,  rubbed,  polished,  worn, 
and  displaced  by  the  action  of  the  saliva,  the  lips,  the  cheeks,  the 
tongue,  the  aliment,  and  the  muscles  of  mastication,  the  teeth,  which 
always  seem  to  the  eyes  of  the  superficial  observer  to  have  the  same 
appearance,  nevertheless  modify  their  form  at  every  movement.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  we  have  thoroughly  studied  the  configuration,  the 
structure,  the  mode  of  eruption,  and,  in  a  word,  the  manner  of  exist- 
ence. The  wear  resulting  from  these  diverse  influences  is  so  feeble, 
when  we  endeavor  to  trace  it  during  a  short  interval,  that  it  necessarily 
implies,  in  order  to  be  intelligently  recognized,  a  profound  anatomical 
knowledge.  The  theoretical  details,  which  have  been  the  theme  of  the 
preceding  chapters,  are  consequently  justified. 

Restrictions  to  be  made. — Does  this  mean  that  we  shall  neces- 
sarily obtain  invariable  indications  for  the  determination  of  the  age  ?  By 
no  means,  for  the  variety  of  the  conditions  of  existence  of  the  animal  is 
an  influence  which  the  tissues,  apparently  the  most  unchangeable,  obey 
like  the  organism  itself.  If,  for  example,  the  alimentary  substances 
are  different  in  nature,  texture,  origin,  and  physico-chemical  properties, 
the  functional  activity  of  the  tooth  will  be  proportionally  increased  or 
diminished,  and  its  resistance  to  the  deteriorating  agents  will  be  more 
considerable  or  more  feeble.  Besides,  identical  results  will  manifest 
themselves  if  the  tooth  does  not  possess,  in  all  subjects,  the  same  con- 
figuration, hardness,  inclination,  volume,  and  dimensions.  Moreover, 
the  horses  of  the  North  do  not  mark  their  teeth  like  those  of  the 
South,  East,  and  West ;  those  of  the  mountainous  countries  like  those 
of  the  plains;  those  of  the  finer  races  like  those  of  the  common 
races,  etc.  As  these  two  sorts  of  variations,  in  fact,  always  exist  face 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  649 

to  face,  it  follows  that  the  characters  of  the  age  can  never  be  formulated 
upon  absolute  principles.  To  endeavor  to  establish,  upon  this  point, 
some  invariable  principles  would  be  systematizing  beyond  all  rational 
bounds  and  in  defiance  of  the  most  elementary  observation. 

We  will  therefore  give  the  reader  nothing  more  than  altogether 
general  indications,  and  he  will  have  to  interpret  them,  saying  to  him- 
self that  the  wear  of  the  dental  apparatus  is  manifested  rather  in  this 
manner  than  otherwise.  His  theoretical  knowledge  and  his  practical 
sense,  his  perception,  and  his  good  judgment  will  do  the  rest.  Called 
iipon  to  exercise  his  judgment  in  certain  localities  in  purchasing  for 
himself  or  for  others  horses  differing  as  to  their  intended  service,  it 
will  be  his  duty  to  examine,  at  the  beginning,  some  particular  types 
of  jaws ;  thus  he  will  be  enabled,  at  the  end  of  a  relatively  short 
time,  to  recognize  the  age  with  an  accuracy  sometimes  surprising. 
Passing  into  other  localities,  he  will  be  obliged  to  complete  his  tech-, 
nical  education  and  adapt  himself  to  new  mouths  and  to  new  types 
of  wear. 

In  the  remarks  which  follow,  we  will  first  review  the  actual  state 
of  the  science,  and  add  thereto  our  own  views  and  observations ;  then 
we  will  present  for  the  consideration  of  the  reader  a  series  of  plates, 
chosen  from  the  numerous  authentic  mouths  of  our  collection,  and  as  to 
which  we  will  furnish  some  explanatory  information. 

In  France,  all  foals,  save  those  which  are  thoroughbred,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  born  in  spring-time,1 — that  is  to  say,  in  the  season  of  the 
year  when  pasturage  is  abundant  and  affords  a  convenient  nourish- 
ment for  the  young  animals.  There  are,  nevertheless,  some  exceptions 
in  this  respect,  ahd  it  is  on  account* of  the  variable  periods  of  the 
dressing  and  the  sale  of  the  animals  that  it  is  necessary  to  employ 
certain  variations  in  the  terminology  by  the  use  of  the  following 
expressions  : 

It  is  said  that  a  horse  is  coming  or  rising  to  a  certain  age  when  his 
mouth  is  at  the  point  of  presenting  the  classical  characters  of  the  age  to 
which  reference  is  made  ;  for  example,  a  rising  six-year-old.  He  has  a 
certain  age  when  all  these  characters  really  exist.  Finally,  he  is  past 
a  certain  age  when  these  characters,  more  marked,  commence  to  dis- 
appear, to  be  replaced  by  those  of  the  age  which  immediately  follows 
that  which  was  previously  indicated  ;  for  example,  a  six-year-old  past. 

The  knowledge  of  the  age  of  horses  is  based  upon  the  observations 


1  It  is  not  the  same  in  England,  at  least  for  thoroughbred  horses,  whose  age  is  always  esti- 
mated from  the  1st  of  January. 


650  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

as  a  whole,  which  it  is  necessary  to  classify  methodically,  in  order  to 
render  its  study  more  simple.  We  should  mention  once  for  all  that 
this  knowledge  does  not  include  that  of  the  canines  or  the  molars  : 
the  former,  because  they  do  not  exist  in  all  subjects,  and  because  their 
wear  is  too  irregular ;  the  latter,  because  they  are  practically  not  very 
accessible  in  the  examination,  and  because  they  have  already  been 
discussed. 

A  division  which  naturally  presents  itself  consists  in  distinguishing, 
on  the  one  part,  the  phenomena  that  pertain  to  the  milk-teeth,  and,  on 
the  other,  those  which  relate  to  the  permanent  teeth  ;  but  the  following 
subdivisions  must  also  be  made  : 

1st.   The  period  of  eruption  of  the  incisors  of  the  first  dentition. 

2d.  The  period  of  their  levelling,  their  progressive  wear,  and  their 
expulsion  from  the  alveolus. 

3d.  The  period  of  shedding  of  the  deciduous  incisors  and  their 
replacement  by  those  of  the  second  dentition. 

4th.   The  period  of  levelling  of  the  latter. 

5th.  The  period  of  the  successive  forms  which  their  table  of  friction 
presents,  and  the  details  that  are  observed  there. 

Whence  it  follows  that  there  are  five  principal  periods  from  birtli 
to  extreme  old  age. 

First  Period. — Eruption  of  the  Incisors  of  the  First  Den- 
tition.— At  the  moment  of  birth  none  of  the  incisors  have  penetrated 
through  the  gums ;  the  anterior  border  of  the  pincers  alone  is  outlined 
underneath  the  mucous  membrane,  which  is  red  and  congested  in  both 
jaws.  (Plate  I.) 

About  One  Week. — The  pincers  generally  appear  in  from  six  to 
eight  days,  and  the  eruption  of  the  superior  precedes  that  of  the 
inferior.  (Plate  II.) 

It  is  of  very  little  importance  to  examine  the  teeth  at  this  epoch 
of  life,  for  the  general  aspect  of  the  foal, — -its  gait,  which  is  not  yet 
defined,  the  state  of  the  hairs  and  of  the  mane, — all,  in  a  word,  indi- 
cate at  a  glance  that  the  animal  is  still  young. 

About  One  Month. — The  intermediates  emerge  through  the 
gums  in  from  thirty  to  forty  days,  and  the  anterior  border  of  the 
pincers  shows  the  effects  of  wear.  (Plate  III.) 

About  Three  Months. — The  jaws  now  present  four  teeth  above 
and  below,  which  have  emerged  through  the  gums  ;  the  pincers  com- 
mence to  wear  on  their  posterior  border.  (Plate  IV.) 

About  Four  Months. — The  incisive  arcade  is  wider  trans- 
versely ;  the  inferior  intermediates  have  emerged  still  more  through 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  651 

the  gums  ;  their  anterior  border  commences  to  wear,  but  only  on  its 
internal  part,  which  alone  comes  in  contact  with  the  corresponding 
superior  teeth.  (Plate  V.) 

About  Five  Months. — The  eruption  of  the  pincers  is  complete  ; 
the  intermediates  touch  by  the  whole  extent  of  their  anterior  border ; 
the  mucous  membrane  behind  these  teeth  is  sometimes  sensitive,  in 
consequence  of  the  presence  of  the  corner  tooth,  which  is  at  the  point 
of  piercing  the  gums.  (Plate  VI.) 

About  Six  Months. — The  intermediates  are  more  prominent; 
their  posterior  border  commences  to  wear.  The  mucous  membrane,  in 
the  region  of  the  corner,  is  tumefied  and  vascular ;  sometimes,  even,  the 
anterior  border  of  this  tooth  has  pierced  it  very  close  to  and  behind  the 
intermediate. 

Eight  to  Ten  Months. — The  corner  is  ordinarily  visible  by  its 
anterior  border  only,  but  more  or  less  slowly  according  to  the  subjects. 
As  to  the  intermediates,  they  are  well  emerged  from  the  gums,  which 
are  at  the  level  of  their  necks.  The  inferior  incisive  arcade  forms  an 
almost  regular  semicircle.  (Plate  VII.) 

It  is  impossible  to  pass,  with  precision,  deeper  into  the  details, 
diverse  causes  being  susceptible  of  influencing  the  eruption  of  the  teeth 
and  their  wear.  Some  subjects  are  strong  and  vigorous,  others  are 
delicate.  The  nourishment  also  may  have  been  more  or  less  abundant. 
Finally,  it  is  certain,  although  it  may  not  always  be  possible  to  appre- 
ciate the  reason,  that,  all  things  being  equal,  there  are  some  animals 
more  precocious  than  others. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  first  period  of  life  the  foal  is  nour- 
ished by  the  milk  of  its  mother ;  the  wear  of  its  teeth,  but  little 
marked,  is  due  only  to  their  simple  apposition, — to  their  contact  with 
the  superiors ;  it  is  only  at  a  later  period  that  the  animal  commences 
to  consume  the  fibrous  and  resisting  aliments,  and  that  its  incisors 
become  more  blunt.  However  this  may  be,  the  wear  will  be  more  pro- 
nounced upon  the  pincers,  whose  eruption  took  place  first.  It  will  be 
the  same,  in  each  tooth,  with  the  anterior  border  as  compared  with  the 
posterior. 

Besides,  after  the  supposed  epoch  of  birth,  it  is  not  very  difficult 
to  judge,  almost  exactly,  the  age  of  the  young  subject,  which,  in  most 
instances,  is  still  suckling  its  mother.  It  is  at  the  end  of  this  time, 
which  continues  eight,  nine,  or  ten  months,  that  the  animal,  in  certain 
localities,  is  sold,  as  we  have  seen  in  Brittany,  and  taken  into  districts 
where  the  food  is  more  abundant,  and  where,  especially,  he  is  reared 
with  a  view  of  utilizing  him  for  work  and  preparing  him  for  sale. 


652  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Second  Period.— Levelling  and  Progressive  Wear  of  the 
Incisors  of  the  First  Dentition.— About  One  Year. — The  cor- 
ners are  well  emerged  through  the  gums,  but  the  inferiors  have  not  yet 
come  in  contact  with  the  superiors.  The  inferior  pincers,  if  not  levelled, 
are  much  worn  upon  their  two  borders;  the  incisive  arcade  com- 
mences to  be  slightly  depressed  at  their  level.  The  superior  pincers 
and  the  intermediates  are  scarcely  worn  through  upon  their  posterior 
border.  (Plate  VIII.) 

About  Sixteen  Months. — The  superior  corners  are  in  apposition 
with  the  inferior,  and  have  commenced  to  wear,  in  both  jaws,  by  their 
anterior  border  which  touches  the  intermediates ;  their  necks  are  quite 
visible  above  the  gums.  The  inferior  pincers  are  often,  at  this  time, 
completely  levelled,  but  in  the  intermediates  this  is  much  more  rare. 
In  the  upper  jaw  the  table  of  the  two  sorts  of  teeth  is  completely 
formed ;  the  depression  of  the  incisive  arch  is  present.  (Plate  IX.) 

About  Twenty  Months. — The  inferior  corners  are  much  worn 
over  the  whole  extent  of  their  anterior  border ;  the  superior  corners 
show  the  wear  a  little  less.  The  inferior  pincers  become  more  con- 
stricted at  their  base  and  are  completely  levelled ;  the  intermediates  are 
often  levelled.  Ordinarily,  the  incisive  arch  is  still  less  convex. 
(Plate  X.) 

About  Two  Years. — The  inferior  dental  arcade  is  completely 
worn  down  to  the  level  of  the  pincers  and  the  intermediate  teeth ;  the 
superior  arcade  is  less  worn.  The  neck  of  the  superior  pincers  is  above 
the  level  of  the  gums.  Pressure  on  the  palatine  arch  posterior  to  these 
teeth  shows  a  sensitiveness  of  the  gums,  and  reveals  the  presence  of 
the  permanent  incisor  underneath  the  mucous  membrane.  The  inter- 
mediate teeth  commence  to  show  their  necks,  above  and  below.  Finally, 
the  incisi've  arcade  becomes  wider  transversely,  and  is  much  flattened 
in  its  central  portion.  (Plate  XI.) 

It  can  be  seen  from  the  preceding  characters  that  the  levelling  of 
the  milk-teeth  does  not  furnish  as  precise  an  index  as  Girard  would 
seem  to  indicate.  According  to  this  author,  in  fact,  "  the  pincers  should 
always  be  levelled  at  ten  months,  the  intermediate  teeth  at  one  year,  and 
the  corners  at  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  months."  Unfortunately, 
there  are  too  many  allowances  to  be  made  in  this  respect,  for  these 
changes  follow  each  other  with  much  less  regularity.  Some  variations 
result,  as  we  know,  from  the  thickness  of  the  nucleus  of  cement 
which  occupies  the  bottom  of  the  external  dental  cavity  ;  they  depend 
also  upon  the  character  of  the  food  and  the  manner  of  existence  of  the 
animals. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  653 

It  is  especially  at  the  end  of  this  period  that  the  observer  must 
exercise  his  perception  and  judgment  in  giving  to  all  the  variations  of 
the  wear  their  proper  value,  particularly  that  of  the  corners  and  the 
superior  incisors.  He  .will  see,  little  by  little,  the  free  portion  of  the 
pincers  diminishing  in  length,  their  necks  insensibly  protruding  above 
the  gums,  and  their  color  assuming  a  brownish  hue.  As  they  are 
pushed  out  they  become  loose,  movable,  break  off  in  fragments,  and 
naturally  fall  out,  preparatory  to  being  replaced  by  the  permanent  teeth. 
This  falling  out  will  mark  the  third  period  of  the  life  of  the  horse. 

Third  Period.— Eruption  of  the  Permanent  or  Adult  In- 
cisors.— The  eruption  of  these  teeth  commences  at  the  age  of  two  and 
one-half  years  and  terminates  at  that  of  five  years. 

About  Two  and  One-half  Years. — The  successive  shedding 
of  the  milk  pincers,  the  tumefaction  of  the  gums  at  their  level,  and 
the  appearance  of  the  anterior  border  of  the  one  or  the  other  permanent 
pincers  usually  begin  in  the  superior  jaw ;  in  six  weeks  or  two  months 
their  evolution  is  completed. 

Rising  Three  Ye'ars. — This  expression  indicates  that  the  colt 
has  not  yet  attained  its  third  year,  but  that  it  is  closely  approaching 
this  age. 

In  the  superior  jaw  the  adult  pincers  have  perforated  the  gums 
and  are  at  the  point  of  reaching  the  level  of  the  milk  intermediates ; 
in  the  inferior  jaw  their  borders  and  sometimes  a  variable  portion  of 
the  crown  emerge  from  the  gums.  In  all  cases  these  teeth  are  unworn. 
The  milk  intermediates  appear  constricted  at  their  base  and  much  worn 
off;  as  to  the  corners,  the  wear  involves  their  external  border.  (Plate 
XII.) 

Three  Years. — The  animal  has  now  completed  his  third  year, 
and  his  jaws  present  four  permanent  pincers  well  emerged  through  the 
gums,  whose  surface  of  friction  is  found  at  the  same  level  as  that  of 
the  neighboring  teeth.  By  carefully  examining  the  mouth,  the  pres- 
ence of  the  incisors  of  the  second  dentition  can  now  be  immediately 
recognized.  By  their  greater  volume,  their  slightly-square  form,  their 
deeper  color,  and  the  groove  on  their  anterior  face  they  can  be  clearly 
differentiated  from  the  others,  always  constricted  at  their  base,  smaller, 
more  convex,  whiter,  and  not  grooved  in  front.  We  must  also  take 
cognizance  of  the  time  of  the  year  and  the  race  in  fixing  the  age  of 
three  years.  Thoroughbred  colts  attain  it  in  the  month  of  January, 
while  those  of  the  common  races,  whose  birth  takes  place  later, — "  in 
the  spring-time,  in  the  grass,"  as  it  is  called, — will  reach  this  age  only 
in  the  months  of  March,  April,  or  May. 


654  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Three  Years  Past. — The  colt  has  passed  his  third  year  by  two, 
three,  or  four  months.  The  four  permanent  pincers  show  wear  on 
their  two  borders  (anterior  and  posterior),  which  are  on  the  same  level, 
but  the  external  dental  cavity  is  not  yet  circumscribed  by  the  circle  of 
central  enamel.  The  milk  intermediates  are  much  worn  and  pushed  out, 
so  as  to  show  their  bases,  and  are  more  or  less  broken  ;  one  of  them  is 
sometimes  almost  ready  to  fall  out ;  the  table  of  the  corners  is  sensibly 
enlarged  and  prolonged  towards  its  external  border.  (Plate  XIII.) 

Rising  Four  Years. — Eruption  of  the  adult  intermediates  and 
progressive  falling  out  of  the  milk  intermediates.  The  latter  are  at 
times  replaced  in  the  two  jaws.  The  newly-erupted  teeth  are  alto- 
gether virgin  and  have  not  attained  the  level  of  the  corners ;  they 
show  no  trace  of  wear.  The  central  enamel,  in  the  pincers,  circum- 
scribes the  external  dental  cavity,  flattened  from  before  to  behind  and 
already  greatly  diminished.  The  milk  corners  appear  much  pushed 
out  from  the  gums  and  bare  at  their  bases.  (Plate  XIV.) 

Four  Years. — Each  jaw  shows  four  permanent  teeth  whose 
tables  have  all  reached  the  same  level.  The  intermediates  are  worn 
upon  both  of  their  borders  (anterior  and  posterior),  but  the  central 
enamel  is  not  yet  completely  separated  from  the  peripheral  enamel. 
Often  the  inferior  pincers  are  levelled,  especially  in  thoroughbred 
horses.  Finally,  the  corners  of  the  first  dentition  are  constricted  at 
their  bases,  pushed  out,  and  much  levelled.  (Plate  XV.) 

Four  Years  Past. — Loosening  and  successive  shedding  of  the 
deciduous  corners,  which  look  like  stumps  barely  able  to  retain  their 
places.  Sometimes  one  of  the  superior  falls  out,  and  leaves  the  perma- 
nent incisor  in  its  place,  ready  to  penetrate  through  the  gums ;  at  other 
times  the  superior  jaw  already  presents,  on  one  side,  the  free  part  of 
the  corner  of  the  second  dentition.  Pronounced  wear  of  the  pincers 
and  the  intermediates,  anomalies  in  the  eruption,  also  frequently  takes 
place  at  this  period.  It  is  not  rare,  in  fact,  to  see  the  eruption  of 
the  intermediates  and  the  corners  occurring  at  the  same  time.  The 
animal  is  then  only  four  and  one-half  years  old,  sometimes  only  four, 
although  the  teeth  may  actually  mark  five.1  (Plate  XVI.) 

Rising  Five  Years. — The  four  milk  corners  have  fallen  out  and 
are  replaced  by  those  of  the  adult  teeth.  The  latter,  not  having  reached 
the  same  level  as  the  intermediates,  do  not  show  the  least  trace  of  wear. 
The  pincers  show  considerable  wear ;  their  central  enamel,  elongated 
transversely,  is  separated  from  the  anterior  border  of  the  dental  table. 

1  Yvon,  v6terinaire  a  Bayeux,  note  communiqu£e. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  655 

The  surface  of  friction  of  the  intermediates  is  completely  formed. 
(Plate  XVII.) 

Five  Years. — The  mouth  is  made,  full;  the  incisive  arch  is  a 
regular  semicircle.  All  the  permanent  teeth  have  reached  the  same 
level  in  both  jaws.  The  anterior  border  of  the  corners  touches  and 
begins  to  wear ;  the  posterior  is  not  worn.  (Plate  XVIII.) 

Five  Years  Past. — The  preceding  characters  on  the  pincers-and  the 
intermediates  are  more  marked.  It  is  especially  from  the  full  develop- 
ment and  the  freshness  of  the  corners  that  this  age  is  determined.  The 
posterior  border  of  these  teeth  in  the  superior  incisive  arcade  is  only 
commencing  to  wear.  The  jaws  form  a  regular  semicircle,  convex  in 
front  and  from  above  to  below,  when  examined  in  profile  from  the  side. 

Fourth  Period. — Levelling  of  the  Permanent  Incisors.— 
The  signs  furnished  during  this  period  by  the  dental  apparatus  already 
become  more  difficult  to  recognize.  The  determination  of  the  age  also 
now  becomes  more  uncertain  than  in  the  preceding  period.  The  prin- 
cipal points  to  be  examined  are  the  degree  of  wear  of  the  corners,  the 
form  and  transverse  diameter  of  the  incisor  teeth,  and  the  form  and 
situation  of  the  central  enamel  in  relation  to  the  posterior  border  of 
the  tables  of  friction.  Finally,  too  much  stress  should  not  be  laid 
upon  the  indications,  often  fallacious,  of  the  levelling  of  the  teeth,  the 
disappearance  of  the  so-called  "  mark,"  which  is  nothing  more  than 
the  external  portion  of  the  external  dental  cavity  colored  black,  and 
filled  sometimes  with  alimentary  matter. 

Six  Years. — Very  marked  levelling  of  the  pincers,  whose  table 
tends  to  assume  the  oval  form.  Wearing  of  the  posterior  border  of 
the  corners,  and  the  formation  of  a  complete  circle  of  central  enamel 
around  the  external  dental  cavity.  The  latter,  in  the  intermediates,  is 
almost  worn  away  to  its  bottom,  and  sometimes  even  these  teeth  are 
completely  levelled.  The  cement  is  now  commencing  to  disappear 
from  the  anterior  face  of  the  pincers,  especially  towards  the  anterior 
border,  which  makes  them  appear  whiter  than  at  five  years.  (Plate 
XIX.)  [The  corner  incisor  is  very  often  a  shell  tooth,  its  posterior 
border  being  entirely  absent.  In  such  a  case,  a  six-year-old  can  be 
recognized  by  the  fact  that  not  only  the  anterior  border  but  also  its 
external  extremity  are  decidedly  worn.] 

Seven  Years. — The  layer  of  cement  which  covers  the  anterior 
face  of  the  incisors  is  worn  off,  so  as  to  show  the  pearly  tint  of  the 
enamel.  The  inferior  corner,  narrower  from  in  front  to  behind  than 
the  superior,  wears  off  the  table  of  the  latter,  so  as  to  form  on  it  a 
noteh  towards  its  posterior  part,  more  or  less  visible  according  to  the 


656  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

» 

subject.  This  notch  may  sometimes  be  absent,  and,  in  some  cases,  is 
rasped  off  with  fraudulent  intent  before  selling  the  horse.  [This  notch 
commences  to  form  at  six  years.]  The  table  of  the  inferior  intermedi- 
ates is  ordinarily  levelled,  or  at  the  point  of  becoming  so,  and  begins 
to  assume  the  oval  form.  The  central  enamel,  in  the  pincers,  is  smaller, 
and  becomes  convex  behind.  Viewed  in  profile,  the  jaws  form  a  semi- 
circle which  is  less  regular  than  at  six  years.  (Plate  XX.) 

Eight  Years. — The  incisors  have  a  yellowish  tint ;  all  the  lower 
ones  are  levelled  ;  their  arcade,  quite  regular,  is  narrower  transversely 
than  at  five  years.  The  pincers  are  becoming  round  ;  the  intermediates 
are  oval ;  the  corners  are  becoming  oval.  The  dental  star  is  shown 
upon  the  tables  in  the  form  of  a  yellowish  transverse  line ;  it  is  most 
marked  in  the  pincers,  and  often  indistinct  in  the  remaining  incisors. 
The  central  enamel,  still  less  extensive  in  the  pincers,  is  more  angular 
behind  and  nearer  to  their  posterior  border.  According  to  Mayhew,1 
the  base  of  the  corner  is  cut  squarely  by  the  gums,  which  gives  to  the 
free  part  of  this  tooth  a  square  form.  Besides,  the  mucous  membrane 
is  harder,  less  delicate,  and  the  mouth  now  seems  to  have  acquired  its 
full  strength.  The  inferior  border  of  the  maxillary  bone  is  compara- 
tively thinner ;  the  cheeks  are  flat.  Viewed  in  profile,  the  opposed  su- 
perior and  inferior  dental  arcades  no  longer  form  a  regular  semicircle. 
Their  arc  seems  to  be  broken  at  the  level  of  the  place  where  the  tables 
meet,  and  it  acquires  little  by  little  the  curve  of  an  ogive.  This  re- 
sults, as  we  know,  from  the  change  in  the  direction  of  the  teeth,  which 
are  now  opposed  obliquely  instead  of  perpendicularly,  as  at  five  years. 
(Plate  XXI.) 

Fifth  Period.— Disappearance  of  the  Central  Enamel 
and  the  Successive  Forms  of  the  Dental  Tables.— This  period, 
in  which  it  is  said  by  laymen  that  the  horse  is  old,  or  marks  no  more, 
extends  from  nine  years  to  extreme  old  age,  and  is  based  upon  char- 
acters less  and  less  reliable.  The  greater  the  number  of  years,  says 
Mayhew,2  with  good  practical  judgment,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  arrive 
at  an  exact  determination  of  the  age.  After  the  twelfth  year  there  is 
but  little  probability  of  judging  it  accurately ;  after  the  sixteenth  all 
is  confusion,  for  there  are  no  positive  signs  that  will  enable  us  to  give 
a  definite  opinion  upon  this  point,  and  it  is  better  now  to  be  cautious 
or  remain  silent. 

Certain  indications  are,  without  doubt,  capable  of  giving  rise  to  the 


1  Edw.  Mayhew,  The  Horse's  Mouth  showing  the  Age  by  the  Teeth,  London,  3d  edition, 
.  104. 

2  Mayhew,  loc.  cit.,  p.  107. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  657 

opinion  that  the  horse  is  over  fifteen  or  sixteen  years.  We  concede 
that  such  an  opinion  from  an  experienced  and  sagacious  man  may  at 
times  become  a  certainty.  Nevertheless,  we  do  not  think  that  any 
one  is  justified  in  saying  positively  how  much  older  than  sixteen 
years  the  animal  is.  Those  who  make  this  pretension  have  perhaps 
succeeded  in  a  few  isolated  cases ;  but,  if  it  were  possible  to  know  each 
time  their  absolute  reasons  and  their  success,  their  numerous- errors 
would  prove  that  in  most  instances  they  are  not  guided  by  any  positive 
principle  :  it  is  the  absence  of  proof  which  saves  them.  In  a  case  of 
advanced  age,  prudence  will  prompt  the  observer  or  the  expert  to  do  no 
more  than  hazard  conjectures.  All  those  who,  like  ourselves,  under- 
take the  task  of  studying  the  age  from  authentic  mouths  of  the 
horse,  will  soon  be  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  caution  in  making 
their  estimates.  We  have  seen  some  jaws  thirty-five,  forty,  forty- 
two,  and  forty-seven  years  of  age  which  evidently  presented  the 
definite  signs  of  old  age.  But  by  examination  it  was  impossible  to 
tell  at  what  age  the  subjects  from  which  they  had  been  obtained  had 
arrived. 

The  characters  of  this  period  are : 

1.  The  successive  forms  of  the  free  extremity  of  the  incisors. 

2.  The  disposition  of  the  cul-de-sac  of  the  central  enamel  in  the 
two  jaws. 

3.  The  form  and  situation  of  the  dental  star  upon  the  tables  of 
friction. 

4.  The  obliquity  or  the  degree  of  incidence  of  the  incisive  arcades. 

5.  The  convergence  of  the  teeth  by  their  free  part,  and  the  small 
transverse  diameter  of  the  same  arcades. 

6.  The  degree  of  thickness  of  the  peripheral  enamel  bordering  the 
dental  table  in  front  and  behind. 

7.  The  appearance  of  the  radical  cement. 

8.  The  external  state  of  the  tooth. 

Nine  Years. — The  pincers  are  round  ;  their  central  enamel  takes  a 
triangular  form,  and  their  dental  star,  narrower  but  more  marked, 
occupies  almost  the  middle  of  their  tables.  The  intermediates  are 
becoming  round,  and  the  corners  are  oval.  The  superior  pincers  are 
often  levelled.  The  notch  of  the  superior  corners  sometimes  disap- 
pears at  this  age.  In  profile,  the  jaws  form  an  ogive,  more  marked 
than  at  eight  years.  (Plate  XXII.) 

Ten  Years. — The  pincers  are  still  more  round  ;  their  central 
enamel  is  smaller,  distinctly  triangular,  and  approaches  more  towards 
their  posterior  border. 

42 


658  THE    EXTERIOR    OF   THE    HORSE. 

The  intermediates  are  round,  and  the  corners  tend  to  assume  this 
form.  The  dental  star,  more  apparent  in  all  the  teeth,  is  situated 
rather  in  the  middle  of  their  tables.  The  incidence  in  profile  is  still 
more  oblique.  (Plate  XXIII.) 

Eleven  Years. — Roundness  of  the  corners  and  of  the  interme- 
diates. The  central  enamel  forms  a  more  or  less  small  island,  placed 
very  close  to  the  posterior  border  of  the  teeth.  The  dental  star,  nar- 
rower transversely,  is  found  on  the  middle  of  the  surface  of  friction. 
The  inferior  corners,  viewed  in  profile,  are  more  narrow  and  almost  as 
wide  at  their  base  as  at  their  free  extremity  ;  the  gum  extends  squarely 
across  their  base.  The  superior  corners,  more  oblique,  show  a  new 
notch  ;  they  are  levelled  or  at  the  point  of  becoming  so.  (Plate 
XXIV.) 

Twelve  Years. — All  the  teeth  are  round,  and  at  times  the  central 
enamel  has  disappeared.  Frequently,  however,  a  slight  trace  of  the 
latter  still  exists  in  some  of  them.  The  tables  in  which  this  enamel 
does  not  exist  present  in  their  centre  a  yellowish  spot,  rather  small, 
which  is  the  dental  star.  In  the  superior  corners  the  central  enamel  is 
very  small.  The  two  incisive  arcades  are  much  narrower  from  side 
to  side,  and  less  convex  on  their  anterior  face.  The  tongue  projects 
beyond  the  bars  ;  the  inferior  border  of  the  maxillary  bone  is  becoming 
sharp  ;  the  cheeks  are  flattened  and  the  face  hollowed  upon  its  lateral 
surfaces.  The  incidence  of  the  incisive  arcade  has  augmented  in  incli- 
nation, especially  when  the  teeth  have  acquired  considerable  length. 
(Plate  XXY.) 

Thirteen  Years. — The  signs  of  the  preceding  age  are  more 
marked.  The  superior  corners  are  ordinarily  completely  levelled  or  at 
the  point  of  becoming  so ;  they  have  a  well-defined  notch  when  exam- 
ined in  profile.  The  central  enamel  is  absent  in  the  inferior  incisors  ; 
in  the  superior  pincers  it  has  a  rounded  form.  (Plate  XXVI.) 

Fourteen  Years. — The  pincers  tend  to  assume  the  triangular 
form.  The  incisive  arcade  appears  greatly  depressed  in  profile  and 
narrowed  transversely. 

Fifteen  Years. — Triangular  form  of  the  pincers ;  this  is  only 
beginning  in  the  intermediates.  The  dental  star  is  very  distinct  and 
round  in  all  the  lower  incisors.  The  central  enamel  on  the  superior 
pincers  is  much  smaller.  (Plate  XXVII.) 

Sixteen  Years. — The  characters  of  the  preceding  age  more 
marked.  Triangular  form  of  the  intermediates. 

Seventeen  Years. — All  the  inferior  incisors  are  triangular  ;  their 
dental  star  is  round ;  the  central  enamel  of  the  superior  pincers  has 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  659 

almost  disappeared ;  the  inferior  incisive  arcade  is  narrow  and  but 
slightly  convex ;  an  interspace  now  forms  between  these  teeth.  The 
tongue  overhangs  the  bars  more,  and  the  saliva  runs  from  the  mouth 
when  the  jaws  are  separated.  Viewed  in  profile,  the  latter  form  an 
ogive  more  or  less  acute.  The  obliquity  of  the  corners  is  more  marked 
than  that  of  the  intermediates.  Viewed  in  front,  the  teeth  of  each 
arcade  are  very  convergent  by  their  crown.  (Plate  XXVIII.)^ 

Eighteen  Years. — The  dental  tables  become  elongated  from 
before  to  behind.  The  central  enamel  of  the  superior  pincers  is  absent. 

Nineteen  Years. — The  tables  of  the  pincers  and  the  intermediates 
are  longer  from  before  to  behind  than  transversely, — biangular;  besides, 
these  tables,  by  their  lateral  borders,  converge  behind  and  diverge  in 
front.  Central  enamel  absent  in  the  superior  intermediates.  Viewing 
the  jaws  in  front,  the  convergence  of  the  corners  is  very  decided.  The 
teeth  are  more  horizontal,  often  too  long.  (Plate  XXIX.) 

Twenty-one  Years. — In  profile,  the  two  arcades  meet  each  other 
at  a  very  acute  incidence.  The  superior  teeth  are  convergent  in  front, 
and  conceal  the  greater  part  of  the  inferior.  The  inferior  incisive 
arcade  is,  so  to  speak,  no  longer  convex,  and  the  teeth  here  become  more 
separated  from  each  other ;  their  tables  are  becoming  flattened  from  side 
to  side ;  finally,  their  posterior  border  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  enamel 
which  gradually  becomes  thinner.  A  layer  of  radical  cement  often 
surrounds  the  base  of  the  teeth.  (Plate  XXX.) 

Thirty  Years. — Beyond  twenty  years  of  age  the  horse  is  con- 
sidered as  having  reached  the  limit  of  his  life.  The  characters  of  the 
mouth  are  then  those  of  extreme  old  age.  Sometimes  the  teeth  are  too 
long  and  too  horizontal ;  at  other  times,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  alto- 
gether too  short  and  worn  down  to  a  level  with  the  gums.  In  all  cases, 
only  a  small  portion  of  the  root  remains  in  the  alveolar  cavity. 
When  the  lips  are  separated,  the  maxillary  bones,  at  the  level  of  the 
palatine  arch  and  the  symphysis  of  the  inferior  jawbone,  are  very  thin. 
Viewed  in  profile,  the  dental  arcades  scarcely  show  more  than  the  cor- 
ners and  the  intermediates ;  the  pincers  remain  hidden  by  the  latter. 
Viewed  in  .front,  the  teeth  are  so  straight  and  prominent  that,  in 
order  to  see  the  inferior  incisors,  the  head  must  be  raised.  The  superior 
converge  towards  the  median  line  by  their  free  extremity,  whilst  they 
are  very  divergent  at  their  base ;  wide  triangular  interspaces,  into 
which  pointed  prolongations  of  the  mucous  membrane  as  well  as  brown- 
ish alimentary  matter  are  prolonged,  separate  the  pincers  from  the 
intermediates  and  the  latter  from  the  corners. 

The  tables  of  friction  become  more  and  more  flattened  upon  their 


660  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

lateral  surfaces ;  the  dental  star  shows  itself  here  by  a  white  spot,  or  in 
some  very  old  horses  by  a  small  cavity,  which  occupies  their  centre  ; 
the  incisive  arcades  are  almost  effaced,  rectilinear,  and  very  narrow  in 
the  transverse  sense. 

The  peripheral  enamel  is  incomplete  ;  it  is  often  wanting  behind ; 
at  other  times  no  traces  of  it  are  found  in  front.  When  it  has  totally 
disappeared,  the  radical  cementation  takes  its  place  (Fig.  286),  sur- 
rounds and  consolidates  the  incisive  stumps  into  their  cavities,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  increases  the  surface  of  the  dental  tables.  As  this 
layer  of  enamel  wears  off,  there  are  seen  through  its  thickness  the 
striae  of  the  subjacent  dentine,  provided  always  that  there  is  no 
superficial  cementous  formation. 

The  canines,  either  the  superior  or  the  inferior  alone,  or  both  simul- 
taneously, are  always  very  much  worn.  As  to  the  molars,  they  are 
ordinarily  very  irregular. 

Finally,  the  tongue  protrudes  beyond  the  bars ;  the  narrowness  of 
the  lingual  canal  causes  a  flow  of  saliva  when  the  jaws  are  separated  ; 
the  mucous  membrane  is  wrinkled,  less  vascular,  and  adherent  to  the 
bone ;  the  inferior  border  of  the  maxillary  bone  is  altogether  sharp 
and  the  lateral  sides  of  the  face  hollowed. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  horse  also  furnishes  other  signs :  the 
temples  and  the  supra-orbital  arches  are  gray ;  the  hairs  of  the  mane 
and  the  tail  have  fallen  out ;  the  head  and  the  body  are  emaciated ;  the 
axes  of  the  members  lose  their  regularity,  the  articulations  their  neat- 
ness and  their  mobility,  the  movements  their  ease ;  in  a  word,  the 
practised  observer  recognizes  quite  easily  upon  the  organism  which  he 
views  the  signs  of  degeneration,  fatigue,  and  wear.  It  is  by  an  intel- 
ligent deliberation  and  comparison  of  these  numerous  characters  that 
one  can  form  an  opinion  relatively  near  the  truth. 

The  fact  remains,  without  contradiction,  that  numerous  researches 
have  yet  to  be  made  upon  all  questions  which  pertain  to  a  more 
exact  determination  of  the  age  of  the  horse.  Those  of  our  profes- 
sional brethren  who  are  able  to  conduct  them  will  have  deserved  well 
of  science  if  they  are  willing  to  publish  their  results. 

Before  passing  on  to  the  study  of  the  irregularities  of  the  dental 
system,  we  will  request  the  reader  to  read  the  explanatory  legends  of 
the  plates  to  which  we  have  referred  him  in  this  chapter,  and  which, 
by  reason  of  their  dimensions,  we  have  not  been  able  to  insert  com- 
pletely into  the  text.  If  he  familiarizes  himself  thoroughly  with  the 
characters  which  he  should  recognize,  it  will  be  more  easy  afterwards 
for  him  to  apply  them  upon  the  living  animal. 


PLATES. 


661 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH. 


663 


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664 


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700 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH 


701 


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702 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  703 


704 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH. 


705 


706 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH. 


707 


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THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURBISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  709 


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THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  711 


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THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


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THE    CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH. 


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THE   EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  715 


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THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BV    THE    TEETH.  Ill 


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718 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


CHARACTERS    FURNISHED    BY    THE    TEETH.  719 


O     OS 


PART    III. 

IRREGULARITIES  OF  THE   DENTAL  APPARATUS. 

THE  irregularities  of  the  dental  apparatus  are  numerous  and  inter- 
esting. When  they  exist,  the  horse  is  said  to  be  falsely  marked,  or  to 
have  a  false  mouth.  While  many  of  them  are  without  importance, 
there  are  others  which  should  be  taken  into  serious  consideration,  as 
much  in  their  physiological  relations  as  in  the  determination  of  the  age. 
We  will  enumerate  the  more  remarkable  in  the  following  synoptical 
table: 


Irregularities. 


1st.  In  number 


2d.  In  the  form  of  the  incisors. 

3d.  Through  the  uniting  of  two  incisors. 

4th.  In  the  form  of  the  central  enamel .  . 

5th.  In  the  depth  of  the  infundibulum  and 
cavity 


Augmentation. 
Diminution. 


Fissure. 
Duplication. 


its 


j  Be-guite". 


6th.  Through  defective  length  or 

width  of  one  of  the  jaws 

7th.  Through  excess  or  lack  of  wear. 
8th.  Effects  of  wear  from  cribbing. 

9th.  Through  the  use  of  fraudulent  means 


False  bSguite". 
f  Prognathism. 

IBrachygnathism. 
Excess  of  width  of  the  su- 
perior incisive  arcade. , 


!  Extraction  of  the   milk   in- 
cisors. 
Bishoping. 
Rasping  of  the  corners. 


We  will  study  the  irregularities  of  the  dental  system  in  the  order 
given  in  this  table. 

i.   Irregularities  in  the  Number. 


a.    Augmentation. 

Incisors.— The  most  extraordinary  example  of  this  anomaly  is  that  which 
has  been  reported  for  the  first  time  by  Lafosse.1  "  There  are  some  horses,"  says 
he,  "which  have  a  double  row  of  incisors.  This  condition  cannot  exist  without 
obstructing  the  other  teeth,  disturbing  their  support  in  the  socket,  and  altering 
the  germ  of  the  tooth." 

1  Lafosse,  Cours  d'hippiatrique  ou  Traite"  complet  de  la  me"decine  des  chevaux,  Paris,  in-folio, 
1772,  p.  32. 

46  721 


722 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


We  have  made  a  similar  observation  upon  a  horse  brought  to  the  clinic  of 
the  Alfort  School  in  1842.1  His  mouth  presented  a  double  row  of  incisors  of  the 
second  dentition  in  each  jaw, — in  other  words,  he  had  twenty-four  in  all. 


..•6 


FIG.  308.— Two  supernumerary  pincers,  a,  a,  and 
one  intermediate,  of  the  second  dentition. 


FIG.  309.— Two  supernumerary  intermedi- 
ates, a  and  b,  of  the  second  dentition. 


Such  remarkable  examples  as  these  are  very  rare,  but  there  are  others  rela- 
tively more  frequent :  those  of  augmentation  of  number,  which  involve  the  teeth 
of  one  or  of  both  jaws,  or  consist  in  a  doubling  of  these  incisors.  We  have 
several  times  had  the  opportunity  of  witnessing  these  anomalies,  more  especially 
in  the  superior  jaw. 

Superior  Jaw. — We  have  handed  to  Dr.  Magitot 2  several  specimens,  which 
he  reproduced  in  his  beautiful  treatise  upon  the  "  Anomalies  du  Systeme  Den- 
taire."  We  will  limit  ourselves  here  to  a  few  examples. 

In  one  case  (Fig.  308)  there  existed  two  supernumerary  pincers,  a,  a,  and  one 
intermediate,  b. 

In  another  (Fig.  309)  the  supernumerary  teeth  were  two  intermediates,  a  and  b. 

In  a  third  horse  (Fig.  310)  the  anomaly  consisted  of  one  supernumerary  in- 
termediate, a,  lying  transversely  and  kept  in  position  against  the  incisive  arch 
by  a  small  bridge  of  bone. 

Finally,  in  a  fourth  (Fig.  311),  a  pincer,  a,  equally  displaced,  was  found. 

All  these  incisors  were  of  the  second  dentition.3 


1  Arm.  Goubaux,  Des  aberrations  dentaires  chez  les  animaux  domestiques,  in  Recueil  de 
m£decine  veterinaire,  annee  1854,  p.  70. 

2  Magitot,  Trait6  des  anomalies  du  systeme  dentaire  chez  l'homme  et  les  mammiferes,  in-4o, 
Paris,  1877. 

8  See,  also,  Ch.  Morot,  Incisive  suppl<§mentaire  caniniforme  a  la  machoire  sup£rieure  d'un 
cheval  hongre  de  douze  ans,  in  Recueil  (Bulletin  de  la  Society  centrale  de  medecine  veterinaire), 
Mars,  1888,  p.  138. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS. 


723 


Inferior  Jaw. — The  augmentation  in 
the  number  of  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw  appears  to  us,  all  things  considered, 
less  common  than  in  the  upper  jaw.  We 
will  cite,  nevertheless,  the  doubling  of  a 
left  permanent  intermediate,  which  we  have 
observed. 

The  supernumerary  teeth,  which,  to 
our  knowledge,  are  always  of  the  second 
dentition,  do  not  seriously  modify  the  char- 
acters of  the  age ;  they  are  more  or  less 
solidly  implanted  into  the  alveolus,  nearly 
always  displaced,  and  influence  in  a  variable 
manner  the  regularity  of  the  incisive  arcade. 

It  is  important  to  remark  that  they 
differ  from  irregular  teeth  or  from  stumps, 
vestiges  of  deciduous  milk-teeth  broken  by 
the  animal  or  during  a  surgical  operation. 

Canines. — Our  colleague,  M.  Ch.  Mo- 
rot,  reports l  having  seen  an  adult  horse 
with  seven  canines  ;  the  three  supernumerary 
(two  above  and  one  below)  were  situated  be- 
hind and  very  close  to  the  normal  canines. 


CL 


FIG.  310.— One  right  supernumerary  inter- 
mediate, a,  of  the  second  dentition. 


FIG.  311.— A  supernumerary  intermediate,  a,  of  the  second  dentition,  viewed  on  its  anterior  face, 
A,  and  on  its  dental  table,  B. 


1  Ch.  Morot,  Recueil  de  m6decine  veterinaire  (Bulletin  de  la  SocietS  centrale  de  m6decine 
v£t6rinaire),  1888,  p.  139. 


724  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Concerning  our  own  experience,  we  have  seen  only  one  example  in  the  ass 
(Fig.  312). 


FIG.  312.— Double  right  inferior  canine  in  the  ass. 

Molars. — Supernumerary  molars  in  the  horse  and  the  ass  have  been  ob- 
served for  a  long  time  by  Lafosse,1  Girard,2  M.  Thomas,3  M.  Chuchu,*  M.  Morot,5 
and  ourselves.6 

They  exist  nearly  always  in  the  superior  jaw,  either  in  the  axis  of  the  nor- 
mal arcade  or  on  the  external  side ;  in  the  latter  case,  they  may  produce  wounds 
of  the  cheeks,  a  fact  which  has  been  observed  by  M.  Chuchu. 

In  the  inferior  jaw  they  are  considered  very  exceptional.  M.  Morot  has, 
notwithstanding,  related  the  case  of  a  mare  which  presented  a  superior  right 
supplementary  molar,  and,  at  the  same  time,  two  inferior,  one  right  and  one  left. 

Until  the  present  time,  the  only  facts  known  relate  to  the  presence  of  a 
single  supernumerary  molar  in  each  jaw ;  this  tooth  is  most  often  situated  behind 
the  others,  next  to  the  sixth. 

[We  have  in  our  possession  a  skull  obtained  from  a  Clydesdale  mare,  which 
has  seven  molars  in  each  arcade.  The  first  molar  is  evidently  supernumerary, 
and  very  probably  the  first  one  of  the  seven  molars  in  each  arcade  of  the  skull 
of  the  hipparion, — a  reversion  of  an  ancestral  form ;  in  other  words,  it  is  an 
excessive  development  of  the  wolf-tooth."] 

It  is  not  within  our  domain  to  speak  of  the  irregularities  of  locality,  of  which 
science  has  collected  several  examples,  in  which  the  supernumerary  teeth  were 
situated  in  the  zygomatic  process,  or  at  the  base  of  the  ear,  projecting  sometimes 
into  the  interior  of  the  cranial  cavity.  These  are  heterotopic  facts  whose  study 
pertains  especially  to  teratology. 


1  Lafosse,  loc.  cit ,  p.  32. 

2  Girard,  TraitS  de  1'age  du  cheval,  3e  ed.,  p.  35. 

3  Thomas,  Journal  de  medecine  veterinaire  militaire,  t.  xiv.,  1876-1877,  p.  687. 

4  Chuchu,  Recueil  de  medecine  veterinaire,  annee  1877,  p.  637. 

6  Ch.  Morot,  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  centrale  de  medecine  veterinaire,  p.  434,  in  Recueil  de 
medecine  veterinaire,  1888. 

6  Arm.  Goubaux,  loc.  cit.,  p.  71. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS. 


725 


b.    Diminution. 

Irregularities  from  diminution  in  the  number  of  the  teeth  are  perhaps  less 
common  than  the  preceding ;  they  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  phenomena  of 
a  tardy  eruption,  with  those  of  arrest  of  development,  in  which  the  teeth  remain 
enclosed  in  their  alveoli  without  ever  piercing  the  gums,  or,  finally,  with  those 
of  fractures  and  of  extraction,  which  are  quite  often  met  in  old  horses.  __They  can 
only  result,  in  their  true  sense,  from  an  arrest  of  development  of  the  dental 
follicles;  they  entail  no  evil  consequences,  and 
may  exist  in  the  incisors,  the  canines,  and  the 
molars. 

1st.  Incisors. — Rudolphi1  has  noted  the 
absence  of  one  of  these  teeth  in  the  horse,  but 
gives  no  specific  description. 

M.  Megnin 2  has  observed  the  absence  of  a 
left  pincer  in  the  adult  horse. 

In  our  experience,  we  have  noted,  in  a 
horse  fifteen  years  of  age,  the  absence  of  the  left 
intermediate  and  corner. 

Absence  of  the  corners,  of  which  we  pos- 
sess some  specimens  (Fig.  313),  has  been  cited. 

In  June,  1887,  a  horse  was  presented  to  us 
in  which  the  four  corners  and  the  four  tusks 
were  wanting. 

Relative  to  the  diminution  of  the  number 
of  incisors  of  the  first  dentition,  M.  Bizard3 
has  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  jaws  of  a  colt 
twenty-eight  months  of  age,  in  which  the  infe- 
rior pincer  of  the  left  side  did  not  exist. 

More  recently  our  colleagues,  Messrs. 
Laine  and  Joly,4  have  mentioned  the  absence 
of  the  inferior  pincers  of  the  first  and  second 

dentition  in  a  subject  which  they  have  been  able  to  observe  during  a  sufficient 
length  of  time. 

M.  Ch.  Morot5  has  also  presented  to  the  Central  Society  of  Veterinary 
Medicine  two  analogous  cases,  but  involving  the  superior  corners.  Besides,  he 
has  demonstrated  that  this  numerical  reduction  of  the  teeth  is  in  obedience  to 
the  laws  of  heredity.  He  has  also  shown  that  the  non-existence  of  the  milk- 
teeth  means  a  suppression  of  the  corresponding  permanent  teeth ;  at  other  times, 
on  the  contrary,  the  eruption  of  the  latter  was  not  in  the  least  hindered. 

2d.  Canines. — The  absence  of  the  superior  canines,  either  on  one  side 
or  on  both,  is  more  frequent  than  that  of  the  inferior.  But  it  is  very  excep- 


FIG.  313.— Absence  of  the  inferior 
corners. 


1  Rudolphi,  cit6  par  Isidore  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  in  Histoire  g6n6rale  et  particuliere  des 
anomalies  de  1'organisation,  t.  i.  p.  658. 

2  Megnin,  cite  par  le  Dr.  Magitot,  loc.  cit,  p.  103,  et  suiv. 

3  Bizard,  note  communiquee. 

4  Lain6  et  Joly,  note  communiquee,  1887. 

5  Ch.  Morot,  in  Bulletin  de  la  Societ<§  centrale  de  medecine  veterinaire,  Seance  du  23 
Novembre,  1882. 


726 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


tional  to  find  these  teeth  altogether  absent,  as  in  the  horse  of  which  we  have 
spoken. 

3d.  Molars. — As  to  the  molars,  we  have  seen  only  two  examples  of  this 
anomaly  in  the  superior  jaw. 


2.    Irregularities  of   Form. 

"  In  certain  subjects,"  says  Girard,1  "  the  incisors  of  the  superior  jaw  pre- 
sent, at  the  age  of  six  years,  a  well-marked  triangular  form,  almost  the  same  as 
is  observed  at  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age."  This  premature  triangular  form, 
which  we  have  often  noticed,  even  at  five  years  of  age,  cannot  lead  us  into  error, 
on  account  of  the  presence  of  the  central  enamel  in  all  the  teeth  which  have  this 
form. 

3.    Irregularities  caused  by  the  Union  of  Two  Teeth. 

Isidore  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire 2  a  long  time  ago  mentioned  this  variety  of 
irregularities,  which  is  without  importance  in  determining  the  age,  but  which 

should  be  considered  as  very  rare,  and  re- 
sulting from  the  fusion  of  two  neighboring 
dental  follicles.  They  consist  in  an  inti- 
mate fusion  of  two  teeth,  sometimes  more  or 
less  distinct,  at  other  times  entirely  con- 
founded. 

We  possess  a  specimen  of  the  latter 
kind  (Fig.  314);  the  superior  intermediate 
was  double,  which  could  be  easily  recog- 
nized by  its  large  volume,  the  presence  of  a 
groove  corresponding  to  the  line  of  fusion, 
and  the  existence  of  two  perfectly-distinct 
external  dental  cavities. 

Messrs.  Chauveau  and  Arloing3  have 
observed,  in  the  clinic  of  the  Veterinary 
School  at  Lyons,  an  ass  in  which  the  pincers 
and  the  intermediates  were  soldered  together 
in  the  inferior  jaw.  The  incisor  teeth  were 
only  four  in  number  instead  of  six,  the 
irregularity  existing  on  both  the  right  and 
left  sides. 

M.  Ch.  Morot  *  has  reported  a  very  re- 
markable case  of  this  kind  in  a  gelding  six 
years   old.     The   double  tooth   was  super- 
numerary and  situated  in  the  inferior  jaw,  external  to  and  behind  the  corner, 
which  it  touched.     The  two  pieces  which  composed  it  were  seven  centimetres  in 
length  and  separated  for  the  greater  part  of  their  extent,  save  at  the  level  of  the 


FIG.  314.— Union,  at  a,  of  two  superior  in- 
cisors, one  of  which  is  supernumerary. 


1  Girard,  loc.  cit.,  p.  66. 

2  Isidore  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire,  loc.  cit,  t.  i.  p.  546. 

3  Chauveau  et  Arloing,  Anatomic  compared  des  animaux  domestiques,  4e  e"d.,  p.  413. 

*  Ch.  Morot,  Bulletin  de  la  Socie~t6  centrale  de  medecine  veterinaire,  p.  140,  in  Recueil  de 
me'decine  veterinaire,  an  ne'e  1888. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS. 


727 


roots,  which  were  united  at  their  points  for  a  distance  of  one  and  one-half 
centimetres.  The  nerves  and  blood-vessels  penetrated  through  the  roots  into  the 
two  pulp  cavities  by  means  of  a  single  orifice ;  the  alveolus  was  single. 

4.    Irregularities  in  the  Form  of  the  Central  Enamel. 

a.  Fissure. — We  know  that  the  central  enamel  circumscribes  the  parietes 
of  a  conical  cavity,  depressed  from  before  to  behind,  which  is  entirelyiHolated 


FIG.  315.— Fissure  of  the  infundibulum  of  the  inferior  intermediates  and  corners,  as  well  as  of 
the  left  superior  corner  (horse). 

from  the  peripheral  enamel  upon  the  surface  of  friction.  This  is  not  always 
so,  as  we  have  verified  by  observation  a  large  number  of  times,  but  more  often 
in  the  ass  and  mule  than  in  the  horse. 

It  happens,  in  fact,  that  the  posterior  border  of  the  incisor,  less  developed 
than  usual,  fails  to  close  the  external  dental  cavity  behind ;  whence  it  follows 
that  the  free  extremity  of  this  tooth,  beginning  at  its  anterior  border,  simulates  a 
hollow  surface,  oblique  downward  and  backward  (inferior  incisors),  which  can,  to 


728  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

a  certain  extent,  be  compared  to  the  lingual  surface  (avale)  of  the  tooth  of  a 
ruminant  animal  (Fig.  315). 

This  more  or  less  deep  variety  of  fissure  of  the  infundibulum,  which  causes 
a  total  or  partial  absence  of  a  true  external  dental  cavity,  is  more  common  in  the 
inferior  than  in  the  superior  incisors,  and  sometimes  renders  difficult  the  deter- 
mination of  the  animal's  age.  The  surface  of  friction,  as  soon,  as  it  is  formed, 
besides  being  very  irregular,  does  not  present  in  a  distinct  manner  the  two 
circles  known  under  the  names  peripheral  enamel  and  central  enamel.  The  latter 


FIG.  316. — A  superior  pincer  and  an  inferior  intermediate  provided  with  two  infundibula. 

is  cleft  behind,  in  a  proportion  which  varies  with  the  width  of  the  fissure,  and 
its  extremities  become  continuous  on  each  side  with  the  peripheral  enamel. 

It  is,  without  doubt,  this  type  of  tooth  which  Johann  Schlechter,  of  Vienna, 
has  taken  for  a  type  of  development  of  the  incisors  of  the  horse.1  It  is  only  a 
question  here  of  a  malformation  of  the  reflection  of  the  enamel,  otherwise  some- 
what rarely  observed  upon  the  whole  of  the  arcade,  but  more  common  on  the 


1  Johann  Schlechter,  Ueher  Bau  und  Form  der  Zahne  bei  dem  Pferde  und  seinen  Vorfahren, 
in  (Esterreichilche  Monatschrift  fur  Thierheilkunde,  etc.  (January,  February,  and  March 
numbers,  1831). 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  729 

corners  than  on  the  intermediates,  and  on  the  latter  than  on  the  pincers.  The 
teeth  which  are  normally  constructed  will  always  act  as  landmarks  in  determining 
the  wear. 

ft.  Duplication. — A  much  less  frequent  malformation  is  the  duplication  or 
doubling  of  the  infundibula  formed  by  the  central  enamel,  resulting,  consequently, 
in  the  presence  of  two  external  dental  cavities  upon  the  same  surface  of  friction 
(Fig.  316).  This  fact,  which  we  have  pointed  out  for  the  first  time,1  ancUof -which 
we  possess  some  examples,  has  no  importance  as  regards  the  determination  of 
the  age.  These  anomalies  must  not  be  confounded  with  those  of  fusion  or  solder- 
ing of  two  teeth,  of  which  we  have  spoken ;  for,  in  the  former  case,  the  teeth 
are  no  larger  than  when  in  a  normal  state,  and  show,  besides,  no  external  trace 
of  a  previous  fusion.  It  is  probable  that  this  anatomical  disposition  is  the  result 
of  the  bifurcation  of  the  external  papilla,  or  germ  of  enamel.  In  certain  sub- 
jects, one  of  these  two  cavities  is  cleft  behind  and  opens  upon  the  posterior  face 
of  the  tooth,  instead  of  being  entirely  isolated,  like  the  other  one,  upon  the  central 
part  of  the  dental  table. 

5.    Irregularities  in  the  Depth  of  the  Infundibulum  and  its 
External  Dental  Cavity. 

a.  Beguite. — When  the  external  dental  cavity  or  dental  cup  per- 
sists upon  the  dental  table  at  a  period  when  it  should  have  disappeared, 
the  animal  is  called  begu,  and  does  not  mark  his  teeth  properly,  which 
is  designated  beguile.  (Plate  XXXII.) 

We  know  already  that  the  bottom  of  the  infundibulum  is  filled  by 
a  deposit  of  cement  whose  thickness  can  modify  the  depth  of  the 
external  cavity  of  the  tooth.  Besides,  the  eruption  of  the  incisors 
having  taken  place  successively  in  pairs,  from  the  pincers  to  the  cor- 
ners, the  successive  disappearance  of  these  cavities  is  effected  first  upon 
the  teeth  which  complete  their  eruption  first,  and  which,  for  this 
reason,  have  been  used  the  longer.  It  is  this  which  constitutes  regular 
levelling. 

But  this  levelling  can  only  take  place  in  its  normal  succession,  and 
with  such  regularity,  on  condition  that  the  external  dental  cavity  has 
almost  the  same  depth  in  all  the  incisor  teeth  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
the  cementous  deposit  of  the  infundibulum  takes  place  in  a  layer  of 
uniform  thickness.  But  as  this  is  far  from  being  the  case  in  many 
instances,  since  in  certain  pincers  the  cementous  nucleus  is  two  centi- 
metres in  thickness,  while  in  others  it  scarcely  attains  a  few  milli- 
metres, it  can  be  very  easily  understood  that  an  infundibulum  almost 
void  of  cement  means  a  tardy  levelling,  and  that  an  infundibulum  filled 
with  cement  means  an  early  levelling. 

i  Goubaux  et  Barrier,  Archives  veterinaires,  annee  1881,  p.  133. 


730 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS. 


731 


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732  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

A  deep  external  dental  cavity  means  nothing  else  than  the  per- 
sistence of  the  cavity,  "  the  mark/7  at  a  period  when  it  should  exist  no 
longer,  and  its  principal  cause  resides  in  the  thinness  of  the  layer  of 
cement  which  fills  its  bottom. 

Besides,  the  hardness  of  the  dental  tissues,  the  nature  of  the  food, 
and  the  conditions  of  health  of  the  teeth,  are  also  so  many  causes 
capable  of  explaining  this  irregularity ;  but  the  differences  of  wear 
which  they  imply  are  not  well  recognized,  and  have  not  been,  so  far  as 
we  know,  determined  experimentally. 

It  is  known  that  the  dental  cups  should  not  be  present  after  the 
age  of  eight  years,  for  it  is  at  this  period  that  all  the  inferior  incisor 
teeth  are  levelled. 

The  observer,  however,  will  be  very  much  mistaken  if  he  accords 
an  absolute  value  to  this  assertion.  In  many  horses  the  external 
dental  cavity,  in  the  inferior  incisors,  has  not  disappeared  at  six  years 
in  the  pincers,  and  frequently  persists  in  the  intermediates  up  to  seven 
years.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  not  rare  to  witness  a  too  early  levelling 
of  the  former  or  of  the  latter. 

However  this  may  be,  beguile  is  not  known  to  have  the  least 
influence  upon  the  value  of  the  services  rendered  by  the  horse.  This 
reminds  us  of  an  acquaintance  of  ours  at  the  Paris  Tattersall,  who 
never  purchased  a  horse,  however  suitable  he  might  have  been  in  all 
other  respects,  if  he  was  begu. 

According  to  M.  de  Curnieu,  the  begut  horse  is  a  fable.  "  In  fact, 
if  the  *  marks7  on  the  dental  table  indicate  six  years,  the  length  and 
the  inclination  of  the  teeth  will  contradict  the  first  evidence,  and  should 
prevent  us  from  being  deceived.  In  these  horses,  the  wearing  away 
of  the  teeth  takes  place  more  slowly  than  in  the  generality  of  cases. 
Therefore  the  tooth  is  harder;  therefore  the  general  constitution  of 
the  animal  is  stronger;  therefore  the  animal  is  more  durable;  there- 
fore he  really  has  for  the  service  the  age  which  he  appears  to  have. 
For  the  age  of  a  horse  is  not  so  much  the  number  of  years  he  has 
lived  as  of  the  years  during  which  he  will  yet  be  able  to  live  and  to 
work." x 

Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Still  there  is  no  positive  proof: 
1st,  that  the  anomaly  in  question  is  due  to  the  hardness  of  the  dental 
tissues ;  2d,  that  the  resistance  of  one  organ  to  wear  and  tear  necessa- 
rily implies  that  of  the  organism  as  a  whole. 

There  are  some  mouths  in  which  the  dental  cups  are  more  hollow 

i  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  t.  iii.  p.  529. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  733 

than  in  others,  but  this  disposition  of  the  latter,  not  having  any  influ- 
ence upon  the  qualities  of  the  animal,  becomes  unimportant  as  to  its 
practical  application.  It  is  so  irregular  that  it  may  exist  in  one  or  in 
several  incisors,  on  one  side  only,  or  on  both  at  the  same  time  ;  it  is  so 
frequent  that  it  may  be  seen  in  almost  all  horses  at  some  period  or  other 
of  their  life. 

Hence  we  have  the  best  reason  for  saying  *  that  the  levelling  of  the 
incisors  has  much  less  value,  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  than  the 
form  of  the  central  enamel,  since  the  infundibulum  is  so  irregularly 
filled  with  cement,  according  to  the  subjects.  The  successive  con- 
figurations of  its  central  enamel,  as  the  tooth  wears  off,  enables  the 
practised  eye  to  determine  with  enough  precision  to  what  phase  of  wear 
it  belongs.  Its  absolute  depth  seems  to  us  more  constant  in  the  same 
teeth  than  is  generally  believed.  On  the  other  hand,  admitting  that 
its  length  may  become  excessive,  there  are  other  characteristics  drawn 
from  the  form  of  the  tooth,  its  direction,  and  its  coloration,  which 
indicate  more.  These,  in  themselves,  would  be  sufficient  in  nearly 
all  cases  to  justify  an  opinion,  but  there  is  another  one  which,  by  its 
presence,  should  remove  all  doubts :  it  is  the  dental  star,  a  yellowish, 
narrow,  transverse  line,  which  ordinarily  becomes  visible,  at  eight  years 
of  age,  upon  the  dental  table  between  the  anterior  border  of  the  tooth 
and  the  ring  of  central  enamel  surrounding  the  external  dental  cavity, 
or  its  cul-de-sac,  when  the  external  cavity  no  longer  exists. 

b.  False  Beguite. — The  persistence  of  the  cul-de-sac  of  the 
central  enamel  at  a  period  when  it  should  no  longer  exist  constitutes 
false  beguite,  and  causes  the  horse  to  be  designated  false  begu.  (Plate 
XXXIII.)  This  cul-de-sac,  it  is  known,  is  filled  with  cement,  and 
appears  on  the  table  as  a  circular  ring  of  enamel  standing  out  in 
relief. 

It  appears  thus  first  in  the  pincers,  then  in  the  intermediates,  and, 
finally,  in  the  corners,  as  soon  as  their  levelling  has  been  completed. 
If  the  wear  is  normal,  and  if  the  external  cavity  has  the  ordinary 
depth,  it  should  assume  this  disposition  at  eight  years  in  all  the  inferior 
incisors,  and  its  disappearance  takes  place  only  at  the  age  of  twelve  or 
thirteen  years. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  explain  this  tardy  disappearance  of  the 
central  enamel  or  the  false  beguite  by  admitting  an  excessive  length 
of  its  external  cavity,  all  things  being  equal  otherwise.  It  may  be 
surmised,  nevertheless,  that  this  anomaly  may  be  due  also  to  a  greater 


1  Goubaux  et  Barrier,  Archives  v£t6rinaires,  annee  1881,  p.  133. 


734 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  735 


736  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

hardness  of  the  dental  tissues,  to  the  nature  of  the  aliment,  or,  again, 
to  their  state  of  soundness ;  but  the  first  of  these  causes  is  by  far  the 
most  common. 

Like  the  beguile,  it  is  frequently  observed  and  in  a  very  irregular 
manner.  Sometimes  it  exists  only  upon  a  few  of  the  teeth,  at  other 
times  in  all,  on  one  side  of  the  incisive  arcade  only,  or  in  both  at  the 
same  time. 

Whatever  may  be  its  forms,  it  is  never  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  de- 
termination of  the  age.  While  its  presence,  at  first  sight,  would  indicate 
the  horse  to  be  younger,  an  attentive  examination  of  the  dental  table — 
its  particular  form,  the  configuration  and  the  situation  of  the  dental 
star,  the  state  of  the  superior  incisors,  the  direction  of  the  teeth,  their 
length,  their  coloration,  etc. — will  furnish  many  signs,  easily  appreciable, 
and  which  will  prevent  us  from  committing  a  grave  error. 


6.  Irregularities  through  Defect  of  Length  or  Excess  of  Width 
of  one  of  the  Jaws. 

A. — Defect  of  Length  of  one  of  the  Jaws. — We  have  seen  and  also 
possess  some  specimens  of  this  very  rare  anomaly.  Their  variable  degrees  per- 
mit us  to  establish  some  important  distinctions  as  respects  their  gravity. 

In  the  mildest  cases  there  is  found  a  slight  diminution  of  length  of  the  su- 
perior jaw,  which  occasions  a  prominence  of  the  inferior  incisors  and  simulates 
somewhat  the  prognathlsm  of  man,  in  which  the  inferior  jaw  appears  longer  than 
the  superior.  The  only  unfavorable  effect  of  this  form  of  jaw  is  an  abnormal 
wear,  rendering  the  "determination  of  the  age  more  difficult. 

In  all  the  more  serious  cases  (Figs.  317  and  318),  on  the  contrary,  it  depends 
upon  an  arrest  of  development  of  one  of  the  jaws,  to  which  can  be  applied  the 
name  brachygnathism l  (superior  and  inferior),  because,  in  fact,  the  jaw  which  is 
affected  is  shorter  than  the  other.2 

Such  a  disproportion  of  length  has  a  definite  importance  in  that  which 
concerns :  1st,  the  deformity  of  the  opposite  jaw,  which  is  curved  more  or  less 
forward  than  normal ;  2d,  great  difficulty  in  the  prehension  of  food,  especially 
in  horses  feeding  on  pasture ;  3d,  finally,  an  absolute  obstacle  to  the  determina- 
tion of  the  age. 

Brachygnathism  is  superior  (Fig.  317)  or  inferior  (Fig.  318) ;  the  former  is 
more  rare  than  the  latter.  The  incisors,  in  both  cases,  are  of  great  length.  As 
to  the  molar  arcades,  they  are  normal.  The  malformation,  therefore,  only  alters 
the  dimensions  of  the  superior  or  inferior  interdental  spaces. 

When  the  incisors  still  touch  each  other,  the  wear  due  to  the  friction  involves 
their  contiguous  faces,  and  produces  here,  ordinarily,  a  very  oblique  bevelling. 


1  From  /SpaxCs,  short,  and  yvaflos,  jaw. 

2  It  will  be  remarked  that  superior  brachygnathism,  for  example,  is  accompanied  by  inferior 
prognathism,  more  or  less  marked,  and  vice  versa. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  737 


FIG.  317.— Superior  brachygnathism. 


FIG.  318.— Inferior  brachygnathism. 
47 


738  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Let  us  add  that  the  teeth  of  the  shorter  jaw,  by  increasing  excessively  in 
length,  are  at  times  capable  of  injuring  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  opposite 
jaw,  the  region  of  the  barbs  or  the  hard  palate,  according  to  the  case. 

Our  colleagues,  Messrs.  Weber  and  Mitaut,1  have  each  observed  an  example 
of  inferior  brachygnathism  in  which  pressure  was  made  on  the  hard  palate 
almost  to  the  point  of  perforation. 

B.— Excess  of  Width  of  the  Superior  Incisive  Arcade. — An  excess 
of  width  of  the  superior  incisive  arcade  is  quite  frequently  met.  When  the  jaws 
are  closed,  the  latter  overlaps  the  inferior  arcade  in  front  and  upon  the  sides, 
over  its  whole  periphery.  This  is  probably  the  beginning  of  what  we  will  study 
a  little  farther  on  under  the  name  parrot  mouth. 


7.    Irregularities  through   Excess  or  from   Insufficient  Wear. 

§  1.  INCISOR  TEETH. 

In  general,  the  incisors  always  preserve  the  same  length  of  their 
free  part,  although  they  diminish  each  year  under  the  influence  of  the 
friction  which  takes  place  upon  their  table.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  teeth  are  being  constantly  pushed  out  of  their  alveoli ;  whence  it 
follows  that  what  is  at  first  a  portion  of  the  root  will,  in  time,  be 
pushed  out  so  as  to  constitute  a  part  of  the  crown.  Transverse  mark- 
ings, those  of  a  rasp,  for  example,  made  at  different  heights  on  the 
anterior  face  of  these  teeth,  will  ultimately  disappear  one  after  the 
other. 

By  experiments  of  this  nature,  Pessina 2  has  demonstrated  an 
annual  wearing  away  of  four  millimetres  of  the  tooth  in  common 
horses,  and  only  three  millimetres  in  those  that  are  well  bred.  H. 
Bouley  has  verified  the  accuracy  of  these  results  in  animals  which 
belonged  to  him. 

But  there  are  some  horses  in  which  the  teeth  are  too  long,  others 
in  which  they  are  too  short.  How  can  this  be  determined  ? 

Nothing  is  more  easy,  since  it  is  known,  from  the  observations  of 
Girard,  that  the  free  part  of  the  incisors,  from  the  gum  to  the  table, 
has  a  mean  length  of  fifteen  millimetres.  There  are  certain  subjects, 
nevertheless,  in  which  this  length  varies  according  to  the  teeth  ex- 
amined. The  same  author  has  recognized  that  it  is  about  eighteen 
millimetres  for  the  pincers,  fifteen  millimetres  for  the  intermediates, 
and  thirteen  millimetres  for  the  corners.  All  these  facts,  which  we 
must  remember,  we  will  use  presently. 

1  Weber  et  Mitaut,  Bulletin  de  la  Societ<§  centrale  de  me"decine  veterinaire,  in  Recueil  de 
m6decine  veterinaire,  ann6e  1876,  p.  768. 

2  Pessina,  Sul  modo  di  conoscere  dai  denti  1'eta  dei  cavelli.   Translated  from  the  German  by 
Luiggi  Ferreri  and  revised  by  Giuseppe  Antonio  Cross,  Milan,  1831,  p.  24  and  PI.  ix. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  739 

As  we  have  already  stated,  the  variations  of  length  are  of  two 
orders  :  the  excess  and  the  insufficiency.  We  will  first  study  the  former. 

a.    Excess  of  Length  of  the  Crown. 

This  anomaly  presents  the  following  variations : 

a.  Incisors  too  Long  in  both  Jaws. — In  specimens  deposited 
by  us  in  the  museum  of  the  Alfort  School,  we  have  found  an  excess  of 
length  of  nineteen  to  twenty-two  millimetres  for  the  superior  teeth 
and  fifteen  to  eighteen  millimetres  for  the  inferior. 

The  direction  of  such  teeth,  as  a  rule,  closely  approaches  the  hori- 
zontal, for,  were  it  otherwise,  the  superior  molar  arcade  could  no  longer 
be  brought  in  contact  with  the  inferior.  Their  free  extremities  are  a 
little  divergent,  and,  on  this  account,  the  arcades  are  somewhat  fan- 
shaped.  The  surface  of  friction  still  resembles  that  of  early  years ; 
flattened  from  before  to  behind,  it  tends  to  assume  an  oval  form ;  as 
to  the  central  enamel,  it  occupies  a  large  area  upon  the  dental  table, 
and  a  small  external  dental  cavity  on  the  inferior  corners  often  still 
exists. 

The  excessive  length  of  the  crown,  in  such  conditions,  is  not  in 
relation  with  that  of  the  root ;  the  teeth,  less  firmly  implanted,  are 
much  more  liable  to  break.  Besides,  they  do  not  mark  the  real  age, 
and  might  deceive  the  observer  who  only  makes  his  inferences  from  the 
dental  tables,  without  having  recourse  to  the  procedure  indicated  by 
Pessina  and  Girard. 

To  determine  the  correct  age  of  the  horse  it  suffices  to  shorten, 
in  imagination,  the  teeth  which  are  too  long.  This  means,  easy  of 
employment  if  the  successive  forms  of  the  dental  table  at  the  different 
periods  be  recalled,  enables  one  to  arrive  at  an  estimate,  if  not  exact, 
at  least  very  approximative. 

Sawing  or  rasping  off  the  incisors  which,  in  old  horses,  have  ac- 
quired an  excessive  length,  a  procedure  often  practised  by  horse- 
dealers,  with  a  view  of  making  them  appear  younger  than  they  really 
are,  does  not  deceive  the  expert.  An  attentive  purchaser  should 
not  thus  be  deceived,  since,  by  this  means,  he  is  spared  the  mental 
operation  of  shortening  the  teeth,  which  we  have  just  recommended. 
But  the  layman  may  be  influenced  by  this  trick,  for  he  is  imbued  with 
the  idea,  very  correct  otherwise,  that  the  exaggerated  length  of  the 
teeth  coincides,  to  a  certain  extent,  with  the  animal's  age. 

b.  Incisors  too  Long  in  the  Superior  Jaw  alone. — This 
anomaly  constitutes  what  is  vulgarly  called  parrot  mouth,  or  crow 
mouth,  bee  de  perroquet  (Fig.  319),  by  reason  of  the  resemblance  of , the 


740 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  741 

superior  jaw  to  the  corresponding  mandible  of  the  parrot  or  the 
crow. 

The  teeth,  in  this  case«  not  only  have  acquired  an  excessive  length, 
which  may  reach  ten  centimetres,  but  they  are  greatly  curved  forward 
and  downward,  while  their  posterior  face  is  cut  by  a  sharp  bevel  from 
the  friction  of  the  inferior  incisors. 

The  latter  are  generally  shorter  than  in  a  normal  state,  and  the 
"  parrot  beak"  is  formed  almost  regularly  by  the  pincers  and  the  inter- 
mediates on  both  sides  of  the  arcade,  the  corners  participating  much 
less  in  this  respect  than  their  neighbors.  Nevertheless,  it  may  happen, 
as  is  seen  in  the  jaw  represented  in  the  figure,  that  the  irregularity 
is  more  marked  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  In  this  case,  the  in- 
ferior teeth,  which  do  not  correspond  to  the  projection  formed  by  the 
superior,  are  longer  than  in  ordinary  conditions. 

In  certain  horses  five  years  of  age,  the  superior  jaw  overlaps,  for  a 
few  millimetres,  the  inferior,  while  behind  the  surfaces  of  friction  cor- 
respond at  their  whole  extent.  The  wear,  therefore,  spares  the  anterior 
border  of  all  the  superior  incisors,  especially  the  pincers  and  the  inter- 
mediates. We  think  that  there  results  from  this,  in  time,  first  a  more 
decided  prominence  of  this  border,  then  a  more  or  less  elongated  bevel, 
and,  finally,  a  true  parrot  mouth.  Those  who  have  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  observing  such  horses  during  a  number  of  years  could  easily 
throw  some  light  upon  this  interesting  point. 

However  this  may  be  as  to  its  varieties  of  form  and  its  genesis,  the 
parrot  mouth  is  observed  only  in  very  old  horses.  It  interferes  more 
or  less,  according  to  its  degree,  with  the  prehension  of  food,  especially 
that  of  the  grains,  for  its  prominence  considerably  hinders  the  action 
of  the  lips.  The  jaws  become  comparable,  in  a  manner,  to  a  pair  of 
pincers  or  tongs  whose  branches  overlap  each  other.  Besides,  their 
maximum  separation  has  no  longer  the  same  proportion.  While  the 
buccal  opening,  in  a  normal  state,  is  ten  to  eleven  centimetres,  we  have 
found  only  two  centimetres  between  the  pincers  of  the  two  arcades,  in 
the  jaws  represented  above. 

In  such  a  state  the  determination  of  the  age  is  almost  impossible. 
We  must  depend  mainly  upon  the  characters  relative  to  the  direction, 
the  color,  and  the  width  of  the  teeth,  or,  finally,  shorten  the  latter, 
in  imagination,  to  their  ordinary  length.  When  the  bee  de  perroquet 
is  too  long  and  too  inconvenient,  it  may  be  necessary  to  resort  to 
mechanical  means  to  shorten  the  superior  arcade.  This  operation, 
which  is  done  by  means  of  a  saw,  is  not  very  difficult  when  practised 
upon  the  living  subject.  Besides  the  immediate  advantage  which  it 


742 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


possesses  of  easing  the  animal,  it  also  makes  him  show  his  real  age, 
two  reasons  which  should  prevent  its  being  considered  as  a  fraudulent 
procedure. 

c.  Incisors  too  Long  in  the  Inferior  Jaw  alone. — The  infe- 
rior pincers  and  intermediates  are  equally  capable  of  lengthening  be- 
yond measure  and  curving  upward  and  backward  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  present,  in  the  inferior  jaw,  an  irregularity  analogous  to  the  preceding 
(Fig.  320).  We  have  proposed,  when  describing  the  first  specimen,  to 


FIG.  320.— Reversed  parrot  mouth. 

give  it,  for  this  reason,  the  name  reversed  parrot  mouth.1  It 
appears  to  be  rather  frequent  in  the  mules  in  the  department  of  the 
Gers,  where  our  colleague,  M.  Faulon2  has  recently  noticed  it,  and  where 
the  subjects  which  present  it  are  called  beffes.  M.  Brissot,3  veterinarian 
at  Suippes,  has  also  noticed  a  very  remarkable  example. 

Reversed  parrot  mouth  seems  to  be  due  to  a  slight  prognathism  of 
the  inferior  jaw,  or,  again,  to  the  absence  of  the  superior  pincers.    The 


1  G.  Barrier,  Sur  le  bee  de  perroquet  renverse\  in  Bulletin  de  la  Socie"t£  centrale  de  me'decine 
ve'te'rinaire,  p.  134;  Recueil  de  medecine  v£terinaire,  annee  1885. 

2  Faulon,  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  centrale  de  medecine  v6t6rinaire,  p.  471,  in  Recueil  de  mede- 
cine ve'te'rinaire,  ann6e  1888.    Rapport  de  M.  Chuchu. 

8  Brissot,  Recueil  de  medecine  v6t6rinaire,  1885  ;  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  centrale  de  medecine 
v6t6rinaire,  p.  192. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS. 


743 


characters  of  the  wear  are  the  opposite  of  those  of  an  ordinary  parrot 
mouth.  Here  it  is  the  posterior  face  of  the  lower  pincers  which 
becomes  bevelled  as  a  consequence  of  the  prolonged  friction  against  the 
upper  incisors.  The  difficulty  in  the  prehension  of  food  and  in  the 
determination  of  the  age  are  of  the  same  order  as  in  the  opposite 
anomaly ;  the  discrepancy,  in  this  case,  is  also  remedied  by  the  same 
operation. 

d.  Excess  of  Length  of  some  Teeth  alone  in  both  Jaws. 
— This  disposition  is,  so  to  speak,  only  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
preceding.  It  will  suffice  to  mention  it. 

In  certain  horses  the  inferior  pincers,  intermediates,  and  corners  on 
the  left  side,  for  example,  are  very  short,  while  the  corresponding  teeth 
of  the  superior  jaw  are  very  long.  In  the  right  half  of  the  incisive 
arcade  there  is  a  contrary  disposition.  Whatever  may  be  the  seat  and 
nature  of  this  anomaly,  the  wear  of  the  teeth  in  both  jaws  is  always 
inversely  proportional.  If  such  a  horse  be  examined  with  a  view 
of  determining  his  age,  it  is  found  that  one  side  evidently  appears 
older  than  the  other.  To  make  a  proper  estimate,  it  suffices  to  take 
the  mean  of  the  signs  furnished  by  each  side  separately. 


/?.  Insufficient  Length  of  the  Crown. 

The  irregularities  due  to  this  cause  also  involve  both  jaws ;  such 
examples,  somewhat  rare,  are  peculiar  exclusively  to  old  horses.  In 
such  deformities,  save  in  horses  that  are  cribbers,  the  teeth  of  the 
opposing  arcade  are  always  too  long. 

In  specimens  which  we  have  before  us  while  writing  these  lines, 
the  superior  pincers  measure  only  0.004  m.,  the  intermediates  0.005  m., 
and  the  corners  0.009  m.  from  their  anterior  border  to  the  gums  ;  while 
in  the  inferior  jaw  we  estimate  in  the  same  order  0.032  m.,  0.030  m., 
and  0.028  m. 

In  the  jaws  belonging  to  another  subject,  but  in  which  the  defect 
of  length  existed  in  the  teeth  of  the  inferior  jaw,  we  found  (Fig.  321) : 


Superior  Jaw  (Right) : 

Pincer 0.031  m. 

Intermediate 0.031  m. 

Corner  .   .  .  0.024  m. 


Inferior  Jaw  (Right)  : 

Pincer 0.001  m. 

Intermediate 0.007  m. 

Corner    .  .  0.001  m. 


Very  often  the  defect  in  the  length  of  the  free  part  coincides  with 
that  of  the  incased  part,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  figure.  However  this  may 
be,  the  state  of  the  dental  table — by  its  form  flattened  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  and  by  the  abundance  of  the  radical  cementation — always 


744 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


indicates  that  the  animal  has  reached  extreme  old  age.     One  should 
not  purchase  such  a  horse  with  the  expectation  that  his  service  will  still 


FIG.  321.— Incisors  of  the  inferior  jaw  too  short. 
A.  Dental  tables.        |        B.  Roots  exposed  in  their  alveoli. 

be  of  long  duration,  a  circumstance  which,  in  such  a  case,  removes  all 
special  interest  from  the  determination  of  the  age. 

§  2.  MOLAR  TEETH. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  incisors,  the  irregularities  of  the  molars  are 
due  to  an  excess  or  an  insufficiency  of  wear.  They  may  be  seen  only 
on  one  side,  or  on  both  sides  at  the  same  time ;  upon  all  the  teeth  of 
the  same  arcade,  or  only  upon  some  of  them. 

Their  recognition,  at  the  time  of  purchase,  is  of  extreme  importance, 
by  reason  of  the  disturbances  which  they  may  cause  in  mastication  and 
in  nutrition. 

a.  Defect  of  Length  of  the  Crown. 

We  have  often  found  instances  of  this  kind  in  subjects  in  the  dis- 
secting-room. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS. 

a.  Inferior  Jaw. — 
It  is  rare  that  the  ab- 
normal wear  affects  all 
the  molars  on  the  same 
side.  Sometimes  those 
of  the  middle  are  the 
shortest  (Fig.  322),  and 
then  the  arcade  de- 
scribes, as  a  whole,  a 
somewhat  regular  curve, 
concave  from  before  to 
behind,  in  which  are 
placed  the  superior  teeth. 
Sometimes,  on  the  con- 
trary, those  of  the  ex- 
tremities, the  anterior 
or  the  posterior  indiffer- 
ently, are  deformed,  and 
then  the  middle  part  of 
the  arcade  becomes  more 
or  less  convex,  according 
to  the  degree  of  the  anom- 
aly (Fig.  323).  Here, 
also,  the  length  of  the 
crown  in  the  two  jaws 
is  always  inversely  pro- 
portional. 

Another  peculiarity 
is  remarked,  which  con- 
sists in  the  separation  of 
the  roots  in  the  advanced 
degrees  of  wear.  They 
form  then  so  many  dis- 
tinct teeth,  and  it  almost 
seems  that  the  number 
of  molars  is  greater  than 
in  ordinary  conditions. 
In  the  specimen  pre- 
sented in  Fig.  322,  eight 
teeth  can,  apparently, 

^r  J  '       FIG.  322.— Inferior  molar  arcade  of  a  very  old  horse,  show- 

be    Counted  ;     in    that    of  ing  the  radical  cementation,  as  well  as  the  insufficient  length 

of  the  middle  teeth. 

A,  A,  vestiges  of  the  roots;  B,  B,  cement.    The  enamel  has 

disappeared. 


746 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  323.— Right  molar  arcades  of  a  very  old  horse. 
(The  inferior  jaw  is  to  the  left  of  the  figure.) 


Fig.  323  there  are  nine. 
Thus,  as  we  have  said  ct 
propos  of  their  structure, 
when  the  wear  has  reached 
this  point  there  is  formed 
around  the  dental  stumps 
a  thick  layer  of  cement, 
which,  by  consolidating 
them  into  the  alveoli  and 
augmenting  the  area  of  the 
dental  tables,  permits  them 
still  to  fulfil  their  func- 
tions. 

However,  we  would 
make  a  great  mistake 
were  we  to  believe  that 
these  functions  are  per- 
formed with  the  same 
perfection  as  when  the 
animal  is  young.  The 
surfaces  of  friction,  hav- 
ing lost  their  bands  of 
enamel,  are  smooth,  round, 
and  deprived  of  all  rough- 
nesses. Mastication  be- 
comes incomplete,  irregu- 
lar, and  the  alimentary 
substances  pass  through 
most  of  the  digestive  ap- 
paratus without  yielding 
anything  like  the  sum  total 
of  their  nutritive  princi- 
ples. Hence  nutrition  is 
impaired  ;  the  animal  be- 
comes languid,  emaciated, 
and,  little  by  little,  in- 
capable of  working. 

b.  Superior  Jaw. — 
What  we  have  just  now 
said  can,  in  all  respects,  be 
applied  to  the  teeth  of  the 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  747 

superior  jaw  when  an  excess  of  wear  has  made  them  too  short.  In- 
stances of  this  kind  are  more  rare.  We  present  one  in  Fig.  323. 
The  separation  of  the  roots  here  is  also  less  common,  and  the  bands 
of  enamel  persist  longer.  It  would  be  superfluous  to  go  into  fuller 
details. 

p.    Excess  of  Length  of  the  Crown. 

The  irregularities  from  excessive  length  of  the  molars  are  as  com- 
mon as  the  preceding.  As  they  may  exist  in  both  jaws,  and  as  they 
give  rise  to  the  same  considerations,  we  will  examine  them  in  a  general 
manner. 

a.  Sharp  Spiculse  of  the  External  and  Internal  Borders 
of  the  Molar  Arcades. — The  excess  of  length,  but  slightly  marked 
in  the  simpler  cases,  alters  only  the  external  or  the  internal  borders  of 
the  surfaces  of  friction.       It  is  then  manifested  by  asperities  in  the 
form  of  sharp  spiculce  or  points  appearing  upon  the  external  border 
of  the  tables  of  the  superior  molars,  and  the  internal  border,  on  the 
contrary,  of  those  of  the  inferior  molars.     These  roughnesses,  by  their 
prominence,  lacerate  the  internal  face  of  the  cheeks  and  cut  the  lateral 
surface  of  the  tongue ;  they  cause,  for  this  reason,  severe  pain,  which 
interferes  with  the  regular  mastication  and  necessitates  dressing  of  the 
teeth. 

The  presence  of  these  irregularities  may  prove  to  be  an  obstacle  to 
the  normal  lateral  movements  (diduction)  which  the  jaws  describe. 
This  impediment  is  nearly  always  due,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by 
H.  Bouley,1  to  the  gluttony  of  the  subjects  or  to  their  ravenous  appe- 
tite. Mastication  in  them  is  hasty,  and  is  accomplished  simply  by  an 
up-and-down  or  chopping  movement  of  the  jaws.  This  is  all  the  more 
decided  as  the  aliment  on  which  the  animal  feeds  is  less  difficult  of 
trituration.  The  superior  molar  tables,  which  are  wider,  and  normally 
overlap  the  inferior,  no  longer  rub  against  the  latter  at  their  whole 
extent,  and  become  covered  with  sharp  points  at  the  level  of  the  part 
not  worn, — their  external  border.  The  impediment  of  which  we  speak 
can  be  remedied,  in  most  instances,  by  the  tooth-rasp  or  a  few  cuts  of 
the  tooth-plane. 

b.  Bevelling  of  the  Molars. — Molaires  en  Oiseaux. — The 
molar  teeth  are  subject  to  irregularities  much  more  grave,  and  already 
pointed  out  by  Girard,2  by  H.  Bouley,3  and  by  us.4 


1  H.  Bouley,  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  de  mSdecine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  v6te>inaires,  t. 
iv.  p.  622,  Paris.  1858. 

2  Girard,  Traite  de  1'Age  du  cheval,  p.  49.  3  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit. 

4  G.  Barrier.  Sur  les  molaires  en  riseaux,  in  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  centrale  de  medecine 
veterinaire,  p.  82;  Kecueil  de  medecine  veterinaire,  ann£e  1887. 


748  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  tables  of  the  molars,  instead  of  meeting  each  other  on  an 
almost  horizontal  plane,  are  sometimes  worn  down  so  obliquely  that 
they  become  almost  parallel  to  the  median  plane  and  overlap  each 
other  like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  shears  (Fig.  324). 


FIG.  324.— Bevelled  molars  from  irregular  wear. 

This  obliquity  of  the  surfaces  of  friction  enables  the  external  side 
of  the  superior  molars  and  the  internal  of  the  inferior  to  frequently 
acquire  an  enormous  length,  even  to  the  extent  of  injuring  the  parts 
around  the  crowns,  either  the  hard  palate  above  (inferior  molars),  or, 
below,  the  bottom  of  the  pouch  of  the  cheek  (superior  molars). 

French  authors  designate  the  teeth  worn  in  this  manner  molaires 
en  ciseaux,  from  their  resemblance  to  a  pair  of  shears. 

Their  mode  of  formation  is  easy  to  comprehend  : 

If  a  horse  masticates  on  the  right  side,  for  example,  it  will  be 
understood  that  the  left  molar  arcades  no  longer  rub  against  each  other ; 
the  inferior  is  displaced  inward  from  the  superior,  and  it  is  only  by  its 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  749 

external  border  that  it  can  bruise  the  aliment  against  the  internal  border 
of  the  superior  arcade,  when  the  jaws  are  tightly  closed.  These  two 
regions  of  the  left  arcades  will  therefore  be  the  only  ones  exposed  to 
wear,  while  the  opposite  parts  of  these  same  arcades,  not  exposed  to 
friction,  will  continue  to  increase  in  length.  Suppose,  now,  any  perma- 
nent cause  whatsoever  (periostitis,  caries,  fistula,  lesions  of  the  cheek, 
the  tongue,  etc.)  prevents,  by  the  pain  which  accompanies  it,  mastica- 
tion on  the  left  side,  and  we  will  have  the  conditions  for  the  production 
of  the  irregularity  in  question.  The  tables,  being  no  longer  worn  out- 
wardly for  the  superior  molars  and  inwardly  for  the  inferior,  will 
acquire  an  excessive  length  at  these  points,  and  will  become  more  and 
more  obliquely  bevelled  outward  and  downward.  The  effect,  becoming 
a  cause  in  its  turn,  will  be  superadded  to  the  action  of  the  primitive 
lesion ;  the  tables  on  the  right  side  will  remain  normal,  while  those 
on  the  left  will  cross  each  other  like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  shears. 

The  gravity  of  these  bevelled  molars  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
difficulties  which  the  dental  irregularity  opposes  to  mastication,  and 
which  may  even  extend  to  lesions  of  the  hard  palate. 

They  may  pass  unperceived  at  the  time  of  purchasing  the  horse, 
if  the  buyer  neglects  to  examine  the  mouth.  The  state  of  the  in- 
cisors will,  nevertheless,  arouse  suspicions,  the  plane  of  meeting  of 
these  arcades  not  being  regular ;  in  fact,  these  teeth  always  appear 
short  on  one  side  and  long  on  the  other.  This  characteristic,  of  itself, 
is  sufficient  to  direct  attention  to  the  molar  arcades. 

c.  Irregularities  on  the  Surface  of  the  Molar  Dental 
Tables. — For  some  obscure  reasons,  probably  the  absence  of  the  nor- 
mal movements  of  propulsion  and  retropulsion  of  the  jaws,  the  molar 
arcades,  no  longer  gliding  against  each  other  in  the  longitudinal  di- 
rection, become  covered  with  prominences  more  or  less  extensive  and 
elevated,  which  are  lodged  in  corresponding  cavities  on  the  opposite 
molar  tables. 

These  irregularities  of  the  surfaces  of  friction  are  generally  attribu- 
table to  a  ravenous  appetite,  swallowing  the  food  without  mastication, 
and  the  slight  consistence  of  the  food.  Under  the  influences  of  all 
these  causes  mastication  is  very  rapid,  the  jaws  make  a  simple  up-and- 
down  movement,  and  the  tables  are  not  worn  smooth  by  the  action  of 
the  two  sets  of  teeth  gliding  against  each  other. 

The  softer  constituents  of  the  teeth  are  worn  away  and  become  hol- 
low, while  the  harder  parts  preserve  their  length  and  even  continue  to 
increase.  The  effect,  eventually  becoming  a  cause,  contributes  more  and 
more  to  augment  the  primitive  inequalities,  so  that  at  a  certain  period 


750 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


the  projections  on  the  dental  tables  will  penetrate  the  gum  of  the  oppo- 
site jaw,  and  finally  the  bone,  whence  an  intolerable  pain  which 
renders  mastication  very  difficult,  and  makes  it  almost  impossible  for 
the  animal  to  feed  himself. 

Ordinarily,  it  is  the  superior  molar  arcades  which  present  these 
prominences  at  the  level  of  their  middle  portion,  more  rarely  at  their 
extremities ;  conversely,  the  inferior  arcades  are  most  often  concave  in 
their  middle  and  elevated  at  their  extremities.  But  great  differences 
may  occur  in  the  wearing  out  of  these  teeth  which  cannot  be  comprised 
in  this  general  description. 

It  may  be  said,  in  this  connection,  that  whatever  shortening  or 
breaking,  partial  or  total,  exists  at  one  point  of  the  molar  arcade, 


FIG.  325.— Hypertrophy  of  the  fourth  right  superior  molar.    The  cavity  received  the  correspond- 
ing prominence  on  the  inferior  tooth. 

results  in  a  proportional  elongation  of  the  tooth  opposite  this  place. 
This  is  especially  observed  in  cases  of  fracture,  extraction,  caries,  etc., 
so  frequent,  even  in  animals  quite  young. 

We  present  (Fig.  325)  a  very  remarkable  example  of  an  irregu- 
larity of  this  kind.     The  fourth  superior  molar  shows  upon  its  table  a 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  751 

cavity  capable  of  lodging  a  hen's  egg,  and  in  which  is  received  a  very 
elevated  conical  eminence  on  the  fourth  inferior  molar.  It  will  be 
noticed  that,  in  this  case,  the  superior  tooth  is  almost  twice  its  normal 
size,  and  is  not  square.  This  hypertrophy  has  not  the  characters  of  an 
anomaly  through  fusion,  as  we  have  shown  in  the  case  of  the  incisors. 
It  is  more  probable  that  it  is  the  result  of  a  dental  cyst,  an  opinion 
which,  if  it  were  demonstrated,  would  also  at  the  same  time  account 
for  the  excessive  volume  of  the  tooth  and  the  slight  resistance  of  its 
tissues  to  wear. 

aTo  recapitulate,"  says  H.  Bouley,1  "an  important  fact  follows 
from  the  preceding  statements  :  when,  from  one  cause  or  another,  the 
grinders  of  herbivora  do  not  rub  against  each  other  regularly,  on  each 
side,  and  over  the  whole  extent  of  length  and  width  of  the  surface  of 
the  dental  tables,  the  unequal  wear,  as  a  necessary  and  inevitable  conse- 
quence, causes,  first,  the  deformity  of  the  molars,  and,  later  on,  the  irreg- 
ularity, the  imperfection,  and,  finally,  the  insufficiency  of  their  func- 
tion. This  result  is  explained  by  the  continual  pushing  out  of  the 
teeth  :  in  order  that  the  latter  phenomenon  (poussee)  may  remain  a  phys- 
iological fact  it  must  be  counterbalanced  by  a  proportional  wear ;  then 
will  the  dental  organs  be  preserved  in  their  proper  conditions  of  form 
and  length,  in  order  that  mastication  may  be  performed  regularly. 

"  But  if  this  wear  is  unequal  or  less  than  what  it  should  be,  at 
one  point  or  another,  either  at  the  level  of  an  isolated  tooth,  upon  the 
borders  of  the  dental  row,  or  upon  the  whole  extent  of  the  grinding 
surface  of  this  row,  then  the  continued  growth  of  the  dental  organs,  or 
of  that  part  of  them  which  is  not  worn  off,  will  inevitably  cause  an 
excess  of  their  length.  This  being  once  accomplished,  it  cannot  fail 
to  be  exaggerated  progressively,  because  mastication  becoming  so  much 
the  more  difficult  as  the  masticatory  apparatus  is  more  imperfect,  the 
friction  of  the  grinders  against  each  other  diminishes  proportionally 
to  the  degree  of  this  abnormality. 

"  Thus  the  tooth  which  is  abnormally  lengthened  because  a  primary 
cause  prevented  its  regular  wear,  finding  the  condition  of  a  new  ab- 
normal increase  in  the  same  excess  of  length  which  hinders  the  regular 
action  of  the  molars,  one  against  the  other,  the  effect  produced  becomes  a 
cause  in  its  turn,  and  continues  to  produce  similar  effects ;  whence  these 
deformities,  often  excessive,  of  the  apparatus  of  mastication  of  which 
we  have  just  given  a  description.7' 

All  this  shows  us  that  an  examination  of  the  molar  teeth  should 

1  H.  Bouley,  loc.  cit.,  t.  iv.  p.  625. 


752  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

never  be  neglected  at  the  time  of  purchasing  a  horse  ;  In  this  respect 
it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  relation  to  the  exterior. 

8.    Irregularities  of  Wear  resulting  from  Cribbing. 

If  the  incisors  of  a  horse  be  examined,  we  sometimes  find  irregu- 
larities of  their  borders,  their  faces,  or  their  tables.  They  are  due  to 
diverse  causes,  concerning  which  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  important 
differentiation. 

Many  irritable  and  nervous  horses  have,  in  fact,  the  bad  habit  of 
biting  their  fastenings  or  some  surrounding  object  when  they  are  ap- 
proached, when  they  are  caressed,  or  when  they  are  groomed  by  the 
attendant.  There  results  from  this,  in  time,  a  sort  of  breaking  off 
of  the  free  border  of  their  teeth,  which  makes  them  irregular,  and 
which  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  abnormal  wear  produced  by 
cribbing.  [In  such  a  case  the  border  is  generally  roughened  and 
broken  off  in  small  particles ;  in  cribbing,  as  we  shall  see  farther  on, 
the  dental  border  is  perfectly  smooth.]  Although  these  modifications 
of  the  dental  apparatus  may  already  be  of  a  nature  to  complicate  the 
determination  of  the  age,  they  nevertheless  do  not  alter  the  form  of 
the  incisors  so  profoundly  that  the  observer  cannot,  without  difficulty, 
deduce  sufficient  signs  to  this  effect,  should  he  be  called  upon  to  pass 
his  opinion  upon  the  animal  submitted  to  him  for  examination. 

The  incisors  likewise  do  not  show  any  wear  in  that  variety  of 
cribbing  which  consists  most  ordinarily  in  swallowing  air  without 
fixing  the  teeth  on  a  foreign  body,  and  which,  for  this  reason,  we 
proposed,  in  1866,  to  designate  aeropinic,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
other  varieties.1  The  French  law  of  May  20,  1838,  included  cribbing 
in  the  number  of  redhibitory  vices,  but  on  condition  that  it  did  not 
imply  the  marking  of  the  teeth. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  numerous  cases  of  litigation  which  arose  from 
the  defective  wording  of  this  law,  the  legislature  in  1884  judiciously 
substituted  for  the  words  cribbing  without  marking  of  the  teeth  those 
of  cribbing  properly  so  called,  with  or  without  marking  of  the  teeth. 
Henceforth  experts  will  no  longer  have  to  discuss  the  nature  of  the 
vicious  habit  in  question  or  the  characters  of  the  wear  of  the  tooth ;  it 
will  suffice  for  them  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  cribbing  properly  so 
called,  as  to  the  signs  of  which  all  are  agreed  ;  this  alone  is  of  a  nature 
to  lead  to  a  nullification  of  the  sale,  according  to  the  terms  of  Article 
II.  of  the  French  law  of  August  2,  1884. 

*  Arm.  Goubaux,  Journal  de  m6decine  v6t6rinaire  publiS  a  1'Ecole  de  Lyon ;  ann6e  1866r 
p.  349. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  753 

The  horse  does  not  always  place  himself  in  the  same  conditions  in 
order  to  crib  :  he  takes  or  does  not  take  a  point  of  contact.  In  the  latter 
case,  it  is  said  that  he  cribs  in  the  air,  or  that  he  is  a  wind-sucker.  We 
will  not  occupy  ourselves  with  this  here.  (See  Viciom  Habits.) 

When  the  horse  cribs  by  taking  a  point  of  contact  with  his  teeth,  it 
is  evident  that  the  latter  should  present  abnormal  characters  which 
vary  in  a  very  great  degree,  according  to  the  mode  of  cribbing  and 
the  nature  and  form  of  the  bodies  which  are  seized  between  the 
jaws. 

Sometimes,  in  fact,  the  animal  chooses  the  bottom  of  the  trough, 
the  free  border  of  the  manger,  the  internal  edge  of  this  border,  the 
lower  cross-piece  of  the  hay-rick,  the  strap  or  rope  to  which  he  is 
fastened ;  at  other  times  it  is  the  window-sill,  the  border  of  the  stall, 
if  he  be  loose  in  the  stable ;  the  end  of  the  shafts,  that  o£  the  pole  of 
the  wagon,  the  harness  of  a  neighboring  horse,  or  any  other  body  in 
his  reach,  if  he  be  harnessed  to  a  wagon. 

More  rarely,  he  cribs  upon  himself,  upon  one  of  his  members,  for 
example  ;  or,  again,  he  cribs  by  contact  and  in  the  air  alternately ; 
finally,  sometimes,  the  point  of  contact  is  simply  taken  by  the  lips  or 
by  the  tuft  of  the  chin ;  in  this  case  the  teeth  will,  of  course,  not  show 
any  abnormal  wear. 

But,  whatever  may  be  the  mode  of  contact,  or  the  incisors  upon 
which  it  is  effected,  this  wear  is  constant  in  all  cases  in  which  the  jaws 
are  in  contact  with  bodies  of  wood,  leather,  metals,  stone,  etc.,  capable 
of  cutting  them  in  consequence  of  the  repeated  frictions. 

After  having  fixed  the  jaws,  the  animal  makes  a  guttural  "clucking" 
sound  more  or  less  strong,  which  many  persons  liken  .to  that  caused  by 
belching,  but  which  to  us  appears  to  be  exclusively  a  grunt  or  sound 
occasioned  by  effort :  immediately  after  this  the  air  descends  towards  the 
stomach.  Our  researches  upon  this  point,  as  well  as  the  analyses  of  the 
gas  in  the  digestive  apparatus,  induce  us  to  believe  that,  in  the  generality 
of  cases,  the  subjects  actually  swallow  the  air.  Many  persons,  on  the 
contrary,  think  that  there  is  an  eructation  of  gas  through  the  mouth, 
consequently  true  belching.  We  have  not  been  able  to  verify  this 
latter  fact,  although  we  have  spent  entire  days  with  cribbing  horses. 

However  this  may  be,  it  follows  from  our  special  observations  of 
cribbing,1  that  the  varieties  of  wear  which  result  from  it  can  be  classed 
in  one  of  the  five  following  categories : 

1  Goubaux  et  Barrier,  Des  irregularity's  dentaires  resultant  de  1'usure  produite  par  le  tic ;  in 
Bulletin  de  la  Socie'te'  centrale  de  me'decine  v6terinaire,  seance  du  10  Novembre,  1881,  et  Archives 
v6terinaires,  1882,  p  13. 

48 


754  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

1st.  The  abnormal  wear  only  involves  the  anterior  face  of  the 
incisors. 

2d.  It  bears  upon  their  posterior  face. 

3d.  It  exists  upon  their  anterior  and  posterior  faces  at  the  same 
time. 

4th.  It  affects  the  dental  tables. 

5th.  It  takes  place  upon  the  lateral  surfaces. 

In  four  of  these  cases,  a  bevel  is  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  faces ; 
in  the  fifth,  there  is  a  simple  shortening  of  the  tooth,  which  leaves  the 
form  of  the  dental  tables  absolutely  intact. 

1st.  The  Abnormal  "Wear  only  involves  the  Anterior  Face  of  the 
Incisors  (Fig.  326 :  A,  B,  C,  D). — The  pincers  and  the  intermediates  are,  as  a 
rule,  worn  at  the  same  time ;  more  rarely  only  the  corners  are  affected.  The  wear  is 
ordinarily  more  pronounced  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  arcades,  and  often  more 
extensive  from  one  side  to  the  other.  The  bevel  which  results  from  it  may  be- 
come two  centimetres  in  length,  and  may  even  go  so  far  as  to  open  the  external 
dental  cavity ;  this-  always  diminishes  to  a  great  extent  the  surface  of  the  dental 
table. 

We  have  observed  in  this  category  the  four  following  varieties : 

a.  The  bevel  exists  only  upon  the  superior  jaw  (A). 

b.  It  is  observed  only  on  the  inferior  (It). 

c.  It  is  seen  in  both  jaws  (C). 

In  the  first  two  cases,  the  contact  takes  place  by  the  anterior  part  of  the 
dental  table  upon  the  foreign  body ;  in  the  third  case,  the  horse  seizes  a  round 
border  or  a  sharp  edge,  each  jaw  setting  itself  or  cutting  against  one  of  the 
adjacent  faces  of  the  foreign  body. 

d.  The  two  bevels  are  upon  the  same  plane  instead  of  being  convergent 
towards  the  interior  of  the  mouth,  D.    This  form  results  when  the  animal  cribs 
on  a  wide,  flat  surface,  as  the  bottom  of  the  manger,  for  example,  by  making  to- 
and-fro  movements  .with  the  jaws  alternately  from  before  to  behind  or  from  one 
side  to  the  other. 

2d.  The  Abnormal  Wear  only  interests  the  Posterior  Face  of  the 
Incisors  (Fig.  327,  A,  £,  C). — This  category  is  one  of  the  most  singular.  If 
the  observer  confines  himself  to  a  simple  separation  of  the  lips  for  the  purpose 
of  examining  the  anterior  face  of  the  teeth,  it  is  evident  that  nothing  abnormal 
can  be  seen ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  he  opens  the  mouth,  it  may  happen  that  he  still 
may  not  recognize  the  accidental  use,  or  that,  even  if  recognized,  it  may  not  be 
attributed  to  cribbing,  but  be  considered  simply  as  a  dental  anomaly. 

This  wear  is  manifested  in  this  variety  by  a  bevel  converging  towards  the 
side  of  the  lips,  whose  obliquity  is  directed  in  the  same  sense  as  the  curve  of  the 
posterior  face  of  the  incisors,  while  in  the  preceding  cases  the  bevel  was  directed 
in  an  inverse  sense,  which  rendered  it  much  more  apparent.  Nevertheless,  the 
observer  who  has  been  forewarned  will  never  fail  to  perceive  very  easily  the  pos- 
terior bevel  of  which  we  speak,  but  he  will  not  forget  that  it  is  always  less 
apparent  below  than  above,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  curvature  of  the  supe- 
rior incisors. 

It  may  be  added  that  this  sort  of  wear  is  more  commonly  observed  in 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  755 

A 


FIG.  326.— Abnormal  wear  produced  by  cribbing. 


756 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


FIG.  327.— Abnormal  wear  produced  by  cribbing. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  757 


B 


FIG.  328.— Abnormal  wear  produced  by  cribbing. 


758  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

oblique  teeth  that  have  a  tendency  to  become  horizontal ;  they  are  all  the  more 
liable  to  this,  as  the  subjects  which  present  it  are  in  the  habit  of  cribbing  most 
often  upon  a  manger  whose  free  border  has  its  two  edges  very  rounded. 

a.  The  posterior  bevel  only  exists  above  (A). 

b.  It  only  exists  below  (£). 

c.  It  exists  in  both  jaws  (C). 

Whatever  may  be  its  seat,  it  makes  the  teeth  of  the  horse  to  a  certain  extent 
analogous  with  those  of  cattle ;  they  are  no  longer  in  apposition,  excepting  by 
the  more  or  less  small  portion  of  the  anterior  part  of  their  tables. 

3d.  The  Abnormal  Wear  exists  at  the  same  time  upon  the  Ante- 
rior Pace  of  the  Incisors  of  one  Jaw  and  upon  the  Posterior  Face 
of  those  of  the  other  (Fig,  327,  D,  and  Fig.  328,  A).— The  varieties  which 
are  met  in  this  category  interfere  more  particularly  with  the  proper  determination 
of  the  age,  for  they  show  themselves,  both  above  and  below,  by  a  diminution  in 
extent  of  the  tables,  and  on  opposite  sides.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  replace, 
in  imagination,  the  portion  removed  by  the  wear,  first  in  one  jaw  and  then 
in  the  other,  which  doubles  its  difficulties  ;  while  in  the  preceding  categories 
the  portions  to  be  replaced  were  of  the  same  nature  in  each  arcade.  There  are, 
therefore,  and  in  the  same  subject,  a  combination  of  two  forms  which  we  will 
pass  in  review. 

Two  varieties  may  be  observed : 

a.  The  Anterior  Bevel  above  and  the  Posterior  below  (Fig.  327, 
Z)).— This  variety  is  seen;  for  example,  in  horses  which  crib  upon  a  manger  whose 
free  border  presents  upon  its  external  edge  a  sort  of  round  iron  moulding  projecting 
from  the  sides,  and  turned  outward  and  downward.     The  surface  of  this  mould- 
ing gives  the  point  of  contact  to  the  upper  teeth,  whilst  the  lower  glide  along  its 
edge  by  a  retropulsive  movement  of  the  inferior  jaw  at  the  moment  of  the  per- 
formance of  the  act.     There  are  also  circumstances  in  which  cribbing  is  accom- 
plished by  the  previous  contact  of  the  superior  jaw.     It  is  then  only  (when  it 
has  been  once  executed)  that  the  animal,  incited  by  a  singular  mania,  rubs  his 
inferior  incisors  across  the  edge  in  question,  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and 
repeats  the  act  several  times  during  a  few  moments. 

b.  The  Anterior  Bevel  below  and  the  Posterior  above  (Fig.  328,  A). 
— It  is  seen  that,  in  this  case,  the  marking  is  completely  the  reverse  of  the  pre- 
ceding.    It  is  produced  by  seizing  a  round  body  with  the  jaws,  as  the  border  of  a 
window,  the  extremity  of  the  shafts,  for  example.     This  variety,  however,  is  less 
common,  because  it  necessitates  a  position  of  the  head  more  uncomfortable  for 
the  animal.     The  latter,  in  fact,  should  approach  the  vertical  direction,  in  order 
to  allow  the  superior  teeth  to  cut  with  their  posterior  face,  an  attitude  which  the 
subjects  do  not  always  find  it  possible  to  assume. 

4th.  The  Abnormal  Wear  only  affects  the  Dental  Tables  (Fig.  328, 
B,  C,  D). — This  variety  of  wear  is  the  most  singular,  for  its  only  abnormal  con- 
dition consists  in  a  simple  shortening  of  the  teeth.  But,  as  all  horses  which 
have  the  incisors  too  short  are  riot  necessarily  cribbers,  and  as,  besides,  in  all 
cribbers  they  are  not  invariably  shorter  than  is  necessary,  it  follows  that  the 
unprejudiced  observer  cannot  well  recognize  the  character  of  this  particular 
shortening  of  which  we>now  speak.  In  1842,  M.  Mignon  remarked  l  that  it 


Mignon,  Nouveau  trait£  des  vices  redhibitoires,  1842,  p.  361. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS. 


759 


would  be  interesting  and  useful  to  prove  by  observation  whether  horses  which, 
without  being  very  aged,  have  the  incisor  teeth  very  short  may  not  have  aban- 
doned the  habit  of  cribbing.  M.  Zundel l  has  related  some  facts  confirming  the 
opinion ;  we  ourselves  also  know  of  several  examples  of  this  nature. 

Horses  which  crib  in  this  manner  seize  the  foreign  body  with  the  whole 
extent  of  their  dental  table,  most  ordinarily  the  plane  surfaces,  external  or 
internal,  of  a  manger  whose  free  border  is  too  thick  to  be  lodged  betweerFthe  two 
arcades  at  the  moment  of  the  effort.  There  is  then  a  regular  but  excessive  wear 
over  the  whole  surface  of  friction  of  the  teeth  which  bear  against  the  foreign 
body. 

The  pincers  and  intermediates  are  nearly  always  the  seat  of  the  diminution 
of  length.  This  fact  is  quite  evident  when  the  jaws  are  closed,  for  there  exists 
a  more  or  less  wide  interval  between  these  incisors,  the  corners  having  preserved 
their  normal  length  and  contact. 

At  other  times,  the  shortening  may  affect  all  the  teeth  of  the  same  arcade, 
and  then  it  may,  even  if  perceived,  at  least  fail  to  be  attributed  to  cribbing,  if 
we  are  ignorant  of  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect  which  connect  this  variety 
of  wear  with  the  vicious  habit  as  to  the  character  of  which  we  may  be  consulted. 

The  following  are  the  three  possible  cases  which  we  have  noticed: 

a.  The  shortening  affects  only  the  teeth  of  the  superior  jaw  (B), 

b.  It  affects  only  those  of  the  inferior  jaw  (C). 

c.  Finally,  it  is  seen  on  both  jaws  simultaneously  (D). 

In  the  last  example  the  free  border  of  the  manger  is  narrow  enough  for  the 
animal  to  be  able  to  grasp  it  easily  between  the  teeth. 

5th.  The  Abnormal  "Wear  takes  Place  on  the  Lateral  or  Adjoin- 
ing Faces  of  the  Incisors  (Fig.  329). — The  varieties  of  this  category  are  very 
numerous  and  remarkably  complicate  the  determination  of  the  age.  All  are, 


FIG.  329.— Abnormal  wear  produced  by  cribbing. 

however,  characterized  by  the  formation  of  a  double  bevel  at  the  expense  of  the 
lateral  or  contiguous  faces  of  the  teeth,  converging  towards  the  centre  of  the 
mouth.  There  results  from  this  upon  the  anterior  face  of  the  incisive  arcades, 
and  when  the  jaws  are  closed,  a  series  of  vertical  gutters  or  grooves  whose  bot- 
tom occupies  the  interstice  comprised  between  two  adjacent  teeth.  The  tables 
at  these  places  are  deeply  notched  upon  their  anterior  and  lateral  borders,  by 
reason  of  the  situation  and  the  mode  of  convergence  of  the  bevels. 


1  Zundel,  Dictionnaire  de  medecine,  de  chirurgie  et  d'hygiene  ve'terinaires,  t.  iii.  p.  585. 


760  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Here  the  abnormal  wear  is  produced  by  the  contact  and  friction  of  the 
dental  arcades  upon  the  halter-strap  by  which  the  animal  is  fastened.  The 
latter  stands  back  in  the  stall  to  stretch  the  halter-strap  to  its  full  length,  cribs 
upon  the  latter,  and  afterwards  rubs  his  teeth  over  it  alternately  from  above  to 
below  and  from  before  to  behind.  The  convex  form  of  the  incisive  arcades  ren- 
ders these  movements  at  first  difficult  and  uncertain ;  but  soon  the  strap  strikes 
more  particularly  the  interstice  of  two  teeth  and  enlarges  it  by  reason  of  the 
repeated  friction.  The  vertical  gutter,  becoming  more  and  more  hollowed,  ex- 
tends to  the  posterior  face.  The  result  is  that  the  gum  becomes  irritated,  and 
then,  in  order  to  avoid  the  pain  which  results,  he  cribs  on  the  other  side.  Anal- 
ogous phenomena  taking  place,  he  will  then  crib  at  another  point  of  the  arcade, 
where  a  new  gutter  will  soon  be  worn  out,  and  so  on. 

This  abnormal  wear  usually  takes  place  on  both  jaws,  although  it  may  some- 
times affect  only  one,  the  superior  or  the  inferior.  In  all  cases,  and  although 
the  number  of  gutters  may  not  be  multiple,  the  dental  tables  scarcely  furnish 
any  index  of  a  nature  to  assist  in  the  recognition  of  the  age.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  depend  upon  the  length,  the  direction,  and  the  freshness  of  the 
incisors,  the  characters  of  the  tushes,  those  of  the  molars,  and,  finally,  upon  all 
the  external  signs,  which  we  will  study  presently. 

Such  are  the  varieties  of  wear,  as  numerous  as  remarkable,  wit- 
nessed on  the  teeth  of  cribbing  horses. 

A  number  of  them  may  often  be  combined ;  the  teeth  may  be 
bevelled  off  at  the  anterior  border  of  their  tables  and  at  the  same 
time  be  very  much  shortened ;  it  is  the  same  as  regards  the  posterior 
bevels. 

But  what  we  have  not  observed  yet  is  an  abnormal  wear  of  the 
anterior  and  posterior  borders  upon  the  teeth  of  the  same  arcade, 
either  in  the  upper  or  lower  jaw.  In  order  that  such  wear  may  be 
produced,  the  subject  should  be  capable  of  changing  his  manner  of 
cribbing, — that  is  to  say,  of  correcting  himself  spontaneously  of  a  bad 
habit  while  he  still  has  the  power  to  indulge  in  it  (which  is  almost 
illusory) ;  or,  again,  the  animal  should  be  in  some  manner  forced  into 
this  change  by  reason  of  his  master  altering  the  position  of  the  sur- 
rounding objects  on  which  he  previously  practised  this  habit.  But,  in 
such  cases,  it  is  more  common  to  see  cribbing  cease  altogether  for  a 
variable  period  of  time,  only  to  reappear  as  soon  as  circumstances  are 
again  favorable,  rather  than  to  observe  a  change  in  the  horse's  manner 
of  cribbing.  The  subject  does  his  best  to  find  other  objects  and  to 
overcome  the  restraint  which  is  placed  upon  him,  and  he  frequently 
succeeds  in  this,  but  he  will  always  crib  in  the  same  manner.  Never- 
theless, it  is  well  known  that  the  cribbing  horse,  prevented  from 
touching  an  external  object,  will,  for  this  reason,  not  lose  the  habit, 
because  he  will  learn  to  crib  in  the  air,  become  a  wind-sucker. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  761 

The  seller  may,  in  certain  cases,  find  it  to  his  interest  to  manipulate 
the  teeth  of  a  horse  so  that  they  show  an  artificial  wear,  capable  of 
simulating  that  of  cribbing  properly  so  called. 

How  can  we  recognize  the  employment  of  this  fraudulent  practice  f 

This  is  ordinarily  very  easy. 

If  the  abnormal  wear  has  been  produced  by  a  file,  the  marks  of  the 
latter  can  be  seen  on  the  teeth.  If,  after  having  made  a  surface  of 
friction  artificially,  the  latter  be  polished  to  remove  these  marks,  the 
fraud  can  be  detected  by  the  fact  that  the  enamel  is  perfectly  on  a  level 
with  the  dentine,  and  not  (as  when  the  wear  is  natural)  in  relief  upon 
it,  as  we  have  already  mentioned.1 

Besides,  those  who  perform  these  tricks  do  not  always  take  the 
precaution  or  have  not  the  ability  to  make  upon  the  incisors  a  surface 
of  wear  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  object  on  which  it  was 
produced.  Hence  it  seems  to  us  insufficient  that  the  prosecutor  should 
place  in  evidence  only  the  reality  of  this  wear ;  it  is,  moreover,  necessary 
that  he  should  furnish  the  proof  that  it  is  certainly  due  to  cribbing. 
This  is  what  the  expert  should  not  forget. 

The  determination  of  the  age  is  particularly  difficult  in  cribbing  horses, 
because  the  dental  tables  are  in  most  cases  partly  destroyed  by  the  fric- 
tion which  they  have  sustained.  But  in  many  instances  the  experienced 
observer  gets  over  the  difficulty  by  reconstituting,  in  imagination,  the 
normal  length  and  the  normal  form  of  the  incisors.  By  considering 
the  portions  still  present,  it  is  possible  to  reconstruct  the  teeth  such  as 
they  would  have  been  if  all  the  conditions  had  remained  normal.  It 
is  this  sort  of  dental  restoration  which  we  have  endeavored  to  repre- 
sent in  the  drawings  that  accompany  our  description ;  it  is  a  great  aid 
to  those  who  are  but  little  experienced. 

Other  indirect  methods  also  lead  to  a  recognition  of  the  age  of  crib- 
bers:  we  refer  to  the  careful  examination  of  the  teeth  least  affected 
by  the  habit,  especially  the  corners,  which  are  less  frequently  abnor- 
mally worn  by  reason  of  their  situation  upon  the  lateral  parts  of  the 
arcades ;  the  superior  incisors,  the  molars,  and  the  buccal  mucous 
membrane ;  the  characters  to  be  drawn  from  the  direction,  the  length, 
the  width,  and  the  coloration  of  the  teeth ;  the  general  aspect  of  the 
subject,  the  form  of  his  bead,  the  thickness  of  his  jaws,  the  state  of  his 
temples,  of  his  supra-orbits,  etc.  ;  in  a  word,  all  the  characters,  how- 
ever weak  they  may  be,  capable  of  elucidating  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  animal  is  young  or  old. 

»  Arm.  Goubaux,  Bulletin  de  la  Soci<§t6  v<§t<§rinaire,  ann<5e  1849,  p.  131. 


762  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

g.  Irregularities  from  the  Employment  of  Fraudulent  Means. 

All  salesmen  endeavor  to  present  their  goods  in  such  a  condition 
as  will  enable  them  to  dispose  of  them  to  the  greatest  advantage,  and 
breeders  and  horse-dealers  are  not  wanting  in  this  respect.  Concern- 
ing the  age,  they  strive  to  give  to  the  mouth  the  characters  of  that 
period  of  life  in  which  the  animals  have  their  greatest  value,  endeavor- 
ing to  make  the  young  appear  old  and  those  that  are  too  old  young 
(at  least  in  appearance).  Two  particular  cases  should  be  studied  under 
this  heading. 

§  1.  EXTRACTING  THE  INCISORS  TO  MAKE  THE  HORSES  APPEAR 

OLDER. 

"  In  breeding  districts,"  says  Girard,  "  especially  in  Normandy, 
breeders  rather  frequently  extract  the  milk  intermediates,  particularly 
in  horses  which  are  retarded  in  their  development.  This  causes  the 
eruption  of  the  permanent  teeth  several  months  earlier  than  usual. 
Those  who  gain  possession  of  these  same  horses  very  soon  practise  a 
similar  operation  upon  the  milk  corners.  In  this  manner,  a  horse 
which  is  not  yet  four  and  one-half  years  old  is  already  provided  with 
all  the  permanent  incisors.  .  .  . 

"  Certain  subjects  whose  dentition  has  been  hastened  by  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  milk-teeth  will  mark  the  age  of  five  years,  whilst  they  have 
really  only  attained  four  years. 

"  In  order  to  recognize  such  a  fraud,  we  must  make  every  com- 
parison capable  of  furnishing  positive  inductions  and  leading  to  the 
truth.  The  absence  or  the  freshness  of  the  tushes  is  no  criterion  by 
which  to  form  an  opinion,  since  these  teeth,  which  come  out  most  ordi- 
narily at  four  years,  may  be  advanced  or  retarded  a  year,  and  even 
appear  only  at  six  years.  If  we  examine  with  care  the  state  of  the 
dental  arcade,  it  can  be  verified  that,  though  one  has  discovered  a  means 
of  hastening  the  eruption  of  the  incisors,  he  is  still  unable  to  make  these 
teeth  assume  the  position  in  the  jaw  which  they  should  have  and  give 
to  the  dental  arcade  which  they  form  the  disposition  that  is  proper  to 
it.  When  the  permanent  teeth  make  their  eruption  naturally  after 
having  atrophied  and  expelled  the  milk-teeth,  they  arrange  themselves 
symmetrically  in  the  same  order  alongside  of  each  other,  and  constitute 
at  the  age  of  five  years  a  regular  arcade.  In  the  contrary  case,  when 
their  eruption  has  been  hastened  by  the  extraction  of  the  milk  incisors, 
they  are  placed  somewhat  crosswise  and  render  the  arcade  irregular. 
The  gums  and  the  alveolar  border,  at  this  period  more  or  less  red 


IRREGULARITIES'   OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  763 

and  swollen,  seem  to  push  the  dental  row  backward ;  these  parts  are 
so  much  the  more  sensitive  as  the  extraction  has  taken  place  more 
recently.  Sometimes  particles  of  the  teeth,  incompletely  extracted 
and  still  remaining  in  the  maxillary  bone,  show  themselves  in  front 
of  the  adult  teeth ;  nevertheless,  the  incisive  arcade  presents  an  un- 
usual aspect  which  the  experienced  eye  can  easily  recognize.  __  When 
the  foetal  teeth  have  been  extracted  recently,  the  places  which  they 
occupied  are  inflamed,  contused,  and  excoriated ;  for  this  reason  it  is 
always  more  easy  to  recognize  fraudulent  means  from  the  beginning. 

"  Often  the  teeth  of  the  inferior  jaw  alone  are  extracted  ;  this  is 
the  true  cause  why,  in  a  large  number  of  horses,  their  eruption  pre- 
cedes that  of  the  superior  incisors ;  and  this  case  is  too  simple  not  to 
be  properly  recognized/7 1 

Many  authors  have  spoken  in  the  same  strain.  Seon  Rochas,2 
who  has  fully  described  the  mode  of  procedure  in  the  extraction  of  the 
deciduous  incisors,  says  that  a  horse  three  years  of  age,  at  the  time 
of  the  operation,  would  appear  three  months  later  as  a  four-year-old, 
because  the  intermediates  of  the  second  dentition  are  commencing  to 
appear. 

All  this,  at  first  sight,  seems  very  clear,  but  does  the  pulling  of  the 
milk-teeth  really  result  in  an  earlier  eruption  of  the  permanent  teeth  ? 
The  question  is  worthy  of  a  careful  examination. 

Everybody  is  not  of  the  same  opinion  in  this  respect.  De  Curnieu, 
for  example,  expresses  himself  unmistakably  against  the  success  of  the 
practice.3 

"  First,"  says  he,  "  I  do  not  believe  in  colts  being  advanced  by 
the  premature  extraction  of  the  milk-teeth. 

"  One  day  I  bought  a  draught  filly  at  the  market  of  Chauny,  with- 
out horse-teeth  (without  adult  teeth)  in  the  superior  jaw  and  with  four 
milk-teeth  in  the  inferior. 

"  The  place  of  the  pincers  was  unoccupied,  the  gums  healthy,  clean, 
and  without  any  appearance  of  a  wound  or  cicatrix. 

"  When  the  superior  pincers  came  out,  the  lower  pincers  were  just 
ready  to  penetrate  the  gums.  Evidently,  some  one  intended  to  advance 
the  dentition  of  the  mare.  Was  it  advanced  ?  No ;  the  teeth  were 
extracted  and  that  was  all.4 

1  Girard,  loc.  cit.,  p.  84,  et  suiv. 

2  Seon  Rochas,  Histoire  d'un  cheval  de  troupe,  Paris,  1839,  p.  26. 
s  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  t.  iii.  p.  527. 

*  It  is  only  proper  to  remark  that  De  Curnieu  has  not  proved  that  the  pincers  had  been 
pulled.  It  is  a  simple  presumption  on  his  part,  which  adds  nothing  to  the  proof  of  his  con- 
clusion. 


764  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

"  If,  in  extracting  the  milk-tooth,  we  do  not  wait  until  the  perma- 
nent tooth  has  atrophied  its  root  and  prepared  it  to  fall  out,  the  gum 
will  contract,  and  it  will  then  be  more  difficult  for  its  successor  to 
penetrate  naturally." 

Mayhew,1  on  the  other  hand,  has  devoted  a  long  chapter  to  the  diverse 
fraudulent  means  which  are  employed  in  England  to  hasten  the  eruption 
of  the  permanent  incisors.  He  speaks  of  cauterization  of  the  gums 
with  the  hot  iron,  of  scarifications  of  the  gums,  and,  finally,  of  the 
extraction  of  the  milk-teeth.  But  he  considers  all  these  means  bar- 
barous, and  claims  that  the  extraction  of  the  milk  incisors  at  times 
hinders  the  eruption  of  the  adult  incisors. 

In  the  face  of  such  contradictory  opinions,  we  have  applied  directly 
to  several  of  our  honorable  colleagues  living  in  districts  where  extrac- 
tion of  the  deciduous  teeth  is  practised.  Here  are  the  answers  given 
to  our  questions : 

1st.  Who  are  the  persons  that  practise  extraction  of  the  incisors  of 
the  first  dentition  f 

They  are  breeders,  empirics,  and  dealers  in  horses.  Veterinarians 
consider  it,  with  good  reason,  as  a  fraudulent  procedure  with  which 
they  are  unwilling  to  be  associated. 

2d.  Method  of  the  operation. — Immediate  results. 

The  animal  is  held  in  a  standing  position,  with  a  twitch  placed  on 
his  upper  lip. 

Special  instruments  are  employed  :  pliers,  forceps,  or  even  the  key 
of  Garengeot.  It  appears  that  the  latter  instrument  is  preferable, 
because  it  permits  the  extraction  of  a  single  tooth  without  disturbing 
or  breaking  the  adjacent  ones. 

The  difficulty  of  the  operation  augments  in  proportion  as  the  time 
is  more  in  advance  of  the  period  when  the  tooth  should  have  fallen  out 
of  itself.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is  very  simple.  It  is  necessary,  never- 
theless, to  operate  with  caution,  because  the  incisor  may  happen  to 
break  immediately  below  its  neck. 

The  pain  which  is  a  consequence  of  the  operation  is  often  rather 
severe,  and  sometimes  hinders  the  animal  from  continuing  to  feed  in 
pasture.  It  is  then  advisable  to  feed  him  in  the  stable,  at  least  during 
a  certain  length  of  time,  on  a  particular  diet,  such  as  oats,  rye,  or 
barley  which  have  been  previously  boiled. 

The  animal  sometimes,  as  a  consequence,  becomes  vicious  or  difficult 
to  bridle. 

4  Edward  Mayhew,  The  Horse's  Mouth,  showing  the  Age  by  the  Teeth,  3d  ed.,  London,  p.  123. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  765 

3d.  At  what  age  is  the  operation  practised  f  How  many  teeth  are 
extracted  at  one  time  ? 

This  varies.  Sometimes  the  pincers  alone  are  extracted  towards 
the  end  of  the  second  year ;  sometimes  at  a  later  period  only  the  in- 
termediates are  extracted  ;  or,  finally,  at  a  still  later  period  the  corners 
alone  may  be  removed.  But  there  are  some  horses  in  which  thejpincers, 
the  intermediates,  and  the  corners  are  removed  at  successive  periods. 
It  appears  that  the  operation  is  sometimes  performed  only  upon  the 
teeth  of  the  upper  jaw. 

In  this  respect  there  are  no  fixed  procedures.  The  principle  of  the 
stock-breeder  who  has  colts  to  raise  is  to  dispose  of  them  at  the  earliest 
possible  moment  to  avoid  the  expense  of  feeding,  the  chances  of  loss 
or  of  deterioration,  or,  finally,  to  realize  in  the  shortest  time  the  amount 
which  their  sale  will  produce. 

This  trick  is  practised  at  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  years  of 
age,  if  it  be  desired  to  sell  the  horse  as  a  four-year-old,  and  from  four 
.to  four  and  one-half  if  he  is  to  be  represented  as  a  five-year-old  past. 
It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  in  the  first  case  the  four  intermediates 
are  extracted ;  in  the  latter  case  the  four  corners. 

4th.  Does  the  extraction  of  the  deciduous  incisors  hasten  the  eruption 
of  the  adult  teeth  ? 

Nearly  all  our  colleagues  have  given  an  affirmative  answer  to  this 
question ;  one  alone  claims  that  not  only  does  it  not  hasten,  but  that 
it  even  retards  the  eruption  of  the  permanent  teeth,  according  as  it  has 
been  practised  six,  eight,  or  ten  months  before  the  natural  period  of 
their  replacement.  The  others  declare  that  the  eruption  is  quick- 
ened, if  the  operation  has  been  properly  performed ;  that  is  to  say,  if 
the  whole  of  the  milk-tooth  has  been  removed. 

.  M.  Yvon1  has,  in  this  respect,  communicated  to  us  some  interesting 
observations. 

"  This  operation/7  says  he,  "  hastens  the  evolution  of  the  tooth 
but  little.  In  the  vicinity  of  Bayeux,  and  especially  in  the  district  of 
Caen,  where  extraction  of  the  incisors  of  horses  is  frequently  performed 
to  make  the  animals  apparently  older  and  to  dispose  of  them  more 
promptly,  it  is  practised  only,  at  furthest,  six  months  before  the  period 
when  the  teeth  would  naturally  fall  out.  More  often,  however,  it  is 
done  two  months  and  even  only  one  month  before  this  period,  in  order 
to  dispose  of  them  more  easily  to  the  remounts  or  sell  them  to  dealers. 
In  the  first  case  the  eruption  of  the  permanent  teeth  is  hastened  two 

1  Yvon,  note  communique. 


766  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

months  at  the  most,  and  sometimes  not  at  all ;  in  the  second  case,  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  days. 

"  It  would  be  a  grave  error  to  believe  that  by  pulling  the  interme- 
diates at  the  time  of  the  natural  shedding  of  the  pincers  the  former 
would,  at  the  end  of  some  days,  be  pushed  out  on  a  level  with  the  lat- 
ter. The  wound  resulting  from  the  operation  on  these  teeth  would,  on 
the  contrary,  cicatrize  very  promptly,  and  form,  at  these  places,  a  strong 
and  quite  persistent  pad. 

"  As  I  have  said  above,"  adds  M.  Yvon,  "  I  think  that  the  extraction 
of  the  teeth  advances  the  dental  evolution  but  little.  On  the  posterior 
face  of  each  milk-tooth  which  is  shed  it  is  easy  to  notice  a  deep  con- 
cavity, a  veritable  imprint  made  by  the  permanent  tooth,  which  incrusts 
itself  here  by  pushing  the  former  out  of  its  alveolus.  It  is  evident 
that  it  is  not  the  milk-tooth,  which  must  fall  out,  that  prevents  the 
eruption  of  the  permanent  one,  but  rather  this  latter  which  pushes  out 
the  other  one  in  proportion  as  it  is  developed. 

"Our  Norman  colts,  with  a  few  exceptions, are  born  from  the  15th 
of  February  to  the  15th  of  June.  There  is  therefore  a  difference  of 
four  months  between  these  two  extreme  periods.  In  the  month  of 
January,  five  years  after  their  birth,  the  colts  born  in  February  may 
have  all  their  incisors,  while  in  the  others  the  evolution  of  the  corners 
will  not  have  taken  place  until  the  month  of  May.  Nevertheless,  all 
these  colts  will  be  considered  as  five  years  old,  although  those  born  in 
May  or  in  June  may  not  have  all  their  teeth.  To  do  away  with  the 
dental  differences  from  this  variation  in  time,  breeders  very  often  ex- 
tract at  four  and  a  half  years  the  corners  of  colts  born  in  June,  in 
order  to  make  them  mark  five  years,  like  those  of  February  of  the 
same  year. 

"  Under  other  conditions,  breeders  extract  at  four  and  one-half 
years  the  corners  of  horses  foaled  at  the  commencement  of  the  year,  and 
their  permanent  corners  having  gradually  acquired  their  normal  length 
in  January  and  February  after  their  fifth  year,  they  may  pass  them  on 
ignorant  persons  for  horses  six  years  old." 

The  removal  of  the  milk  incisors  has  no  influence  upon  the  general 
development  of  the  animal  on  which  the  operation  is  performed. 

Finally,  it  must  be  concluded,  after  all  the  information  given,  that 
the  extraction  of  these  teeth  quickens  in  a  certain  proportion  the  erup- 
tion of  the  permanent  ones,  and  apparently  makes  the  animal  older, 
especially  if  the  operation  has  been  done  a  short  time  before  the  natural 
fall  of  the  milk-teeth.  In  this  case  a  horse  which  marks  five  years 
has,  therefore,  really  not  acquired  this  age. 


IRREGULARITIP1S    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  767 

§  2.    BlSHOPING,    COUNTERMARKING. 

The  fraudulent  trick  known  under  the  names  bishoping,  coun- 
termarking,  is  performed  to  make  the  horse  appear  younger  ^han 
he  in  reality  is;  it,  however,  can  only  deceive  ignorant  and  careless 
observers,  as  we  will  demonstrate  immediately.  . 

We  know  that  in  young  horses  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  free 
extremity  of  the  tooth  is  greater  than  the  antero-posterior  diameter. 
We  know  also  that  the  dental  table  becomes  modified  and  acquires  a 
form  successively  oval,  round,  triangular,  etc.  We  have  seen,  finally, 
that  the  external  dental  cavity  occupies  at  first  the  whole  of  the  sur- 
face of  friction ;  that  it  gradually  diminishes  in  depth,  draws  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  posterior  border  of  the  table,  disappears,  and  is 
then  replaced  by  the  central  cement,  circumscribed  by  the  circle  of 
central  enamel,  whose  extremity,  in  its  turn,  finally  completely  dis- 
appears. 

The  jobber  (for  an  honest  horse-dealer  would  not  indulge  in  such 
methods),  in  order  to  the  better  gain  his  end,  will  choose  in  pref- 
erence a  horse  rather  vigorous,  still  well  preserved,  and  having  good 
members.  Let  us  take  a  subject  twelve  years  of  age,  for  example  :  the 
inferior  incisors,  at  this  period  of  life,  are  round,  and  the  central  enamel 
has  disappeared,  or  almost  so,  from  their  tables.  Suppose,  also,  now, 
that  we  desire  to  give  to  these  teeth  the  characters  of  seven  years. 

Certain  men  in  Paris  have  the  reputation  of  practising  this  fraud  very 
artistically,  and  we  have  had  them  perform  it  on  two  horses  expressly 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  it  afterwards  to  our  students.  We  have 
observed  numerous  specimens  of  this  kind  in  horses  recently  purchased. 

The  following  is  the  modus  opemndi :  a  strong  halter  is  placed  on 
the  horse's  head ;  the  halter-strap  is  fastened  close  to  the  ground,  so 
that  the  head  is  conveniently  placed  within  the  reach  of  the  operator. 
Then  a  thick  block  of  wood  is  placed  in  the  mouth,  to  keep  it  open, 
so  that  the  inferior  incisive  arcade  may  be  altogether  free. 

Some  operators,  before  commencing  the  ivork,  level  the  dental  tables 
in  both  jaws  with  the  rasp ;  then,  with  a  narrow  gouge,  a  small  trans- 
verse cavity  is  scooped  out  upon  the  intermediates  and  the  corners. 
This  operation  is  somewhat  difficult  on  account  of  the  hardness  of 
the  central  enamel.  These  cavities  are  never  made  in  the  superior 
incisors,  because  there  they  still  exist.  At  other  times,  also,  the  tushes 
are  rasped  off,  especially  on  their  inner  side,  to  refreshen  their  free 
extremity  by  rendering  it  a  little  more  pointed.  The  latter  precaution 
is,  however,  not  practised  upon  all  bishoped  mouths. 


768 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


IRREGULARITIES    OF    THE    DENTAL    APPARATUS.  769 


770  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  artificial  cavity  is  then  generally  colored  black  by  the  applica- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver,  so  as  to  give  to  it  the  appearance  of  what  in 
the  adult  tooth  is  called  the  bean,  the  mark. 

But  if  we  take  the  precaution  to  wipe  the  abundant  saliva  from  the 
dental  tables  when  the  horse  is  offered  for  sale,  it  will  be  easy  to  detect 
this  imitation.  The  following  are  its  characteristics  (Plate  XXXIV.) : 

1st,  If,  after  having  separated  one  lip  from  the  other,  it  is  seen 
that  the  incisors  of  the  two  jaws  do  not  exactly  correspond,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  their  surface  of  friction  has  been  rasped  without  shortening 
the  molars  in  the  same  proportion. 

2d.  If,  after  having  seized  the  tongue  in  order  to  separate  the  in- 
ferior jaw  from  the  superior,  cavities  are  observed  upon  the  dental 
tables,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  if  their  presence  is  in  relation  with 
the  form  of  the  table ;  finally,  it  must  be  determined  whether  they  are 
natural  or  artificial.  We  must  be  certain  as  to  the  latter  point. 

a.  When  the  cavity  is  natural,  it  is  surrounded  by  a  border  of 
enamel  which  is  in  relief  above  the  dental  table.  This  relief  results 
from  the  fact  that  the  two  substances  which  essentially  compose  the 
tooth  (the  enamel  and  the  dentine)  do  not  offer  the  same  resistance  to 
wear. 

6.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  cavity  is  artificial,  its  periphery  is  not 
surrounded  by  enamel,  and  the  line  which  surrounds  its  opening  or 
entrance  is  not  in  relief  upon  the  table.  Thus  it  can  be  very  easily 
recognized  by  sight  as  well  as  by  touch. 

§  3.  RASPING  OF  THE  CORNER  OF  THE  SUPERIOR  JAW. 

We  know  that  often  at  the  age  of  six  years  the  superior  corners 
present  a  well-defined  notch  on  their  table,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  whole 
of  their  table  is  not  worn  against  that  of  the  inferior.  Many  persons 
recognize  the  notch,  and  horse-dealers  especially  are  well  aware  that  if 
this  notch  be  removed  while  the  teeth  are  still  fresh,  the  horse  will 
seem  younger  than  he  really  is.  They  remove  it  with  the  rasp.  This 
trick,  which  is  not  very  often  practised,  and  of  which  we  have  seen 
some  examples,  is  of  no  great  importance ;  such  manipulation  may  be 
easily  discovered  by  finding  the  marks  of  the  rasp  upon  the  tables  of 
the  superior  corners. 


SECTION    SIXTH. 

CONSIDERATIONS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  DESCRIPTION  AND 
IDENTIFICATION   OF   THE   HORSE. 


WE  propose  to  treat  in  this  section  on  the  ideas  which  the  reader 
should  possess  in  order  to  be  able  to  describe  a  particular  horse, — that 
is  to  say,  to  distinguish  him  from  other  horses.  Among  these  items 
of  knowledge  there  are  some  of  which  we  have  already  treated  and 
which  we  shall  now  only  have  to  apply.  The  others  we  will  study  in 
detail ;  they  have  reference  to  the  coats  and  their  peculiarities,  the  height, 
and  the  formulation  of  that  document  called  a  description,  which  can 
also  be  employed  as  a  model  for  a  certificate  of  soundness. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE   COATS. 


i.   Coats  properly  so  called. 

IN  the  exterior,  the  word  coat  is  synonymous  with  robe,  and  refers 
especially  to  the  color  of  the  hairs.  It  denotes  the  whole  of  the  hairs 
which  cover  the  surface  of  the  body. 

These  hairs,  produced  by  particular  organs  of  secretion  annexed  to 
the  skin  (hair-bulbs),  present  a  remarkable  variety  of  colors.  This  is 
especially  true  of  animals  which  live  in  a  state  of  domestication.  In 
wild  animals,  such  as  the  tiger,  leopard,  deer,  etc.,  the  color  of  the  hairs 
is  uniform. 

The  colors  of  the  hairs  of  the  horse  are  the  black,  the  white,  the 
red,  the  russet  or  reddish  brown,  the  gray,  and  the  yellow.  Their  nu- 

771 


772  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

merous  shades  and  diverse  intermixing  render  the  study  of  the  coat 
somewhat  complicated. 

Nearly  all  writers  on  the  horse  have  described  these  latter  after  clas- 
sifications of  their  own,  which  they  have  considered  simpler,  more 
explicit,  and  more  complete  than  those  of  their  predecessors. 

The  history  of  these  classifications  and  the  examination  of  the 
principles  upon  which  they  are  based  would  be  irksome  and  would 
lead  us  too  far  away.  It  may  be  said  to  their  credit  that  they  are  all 
tolerably  satisfactory  in  relation  to  the  facts  mentioned,  but  not  one  of 
them  is  free  from  serious  objections.  The  reason  of  this  fact  is  the 
extreme  complexity  of  the  details  of  the  subject.  While  most  of  the 
varieties  can  be  identified  and  easily  arranged  into  one  of  the  divisions 
adopted,  there  are  a  certain  number  of  them  which  defy  all  such  at- 
tempts, and  to  describe  which  our  language  should  extend  its  vocabu- 
lary. In  our  opinion,  the  invention  of  new  terms  would  add  fresh 
complications  instead  of  casting  a  new  light  on  these  already  confused 
descriptions.  In  practice  it  is  wisest  to  make  special  mention  of  the 
exceptions — rare  exceptions  they  are,  in  truth — which  we  are  liable  to 
meet. 

Basing  our  argument  upon  the  fact  that  ordinarily  foals  are  never 
born  either  white  or  having  pure  white  in  their  coat,  and  that  this  coat 
only  appears  more  or  less  late,1  we  will  at  once  establish,  after  the 
example  of  our  noted  colleague,  Professor  G.  Neumann,  three  great 
categories  :  the  primitive  coats,  the  derived  coats,  and  the  conjugate  coats. 

By  primitive  coats,  we  understand  those  which  the  foal  has  at 
birth. 

By  derived  coats,  those  which  appear  some  time  after  birth,  and 
are  due  to  the  introduction  of  white  into  a  primitive  coat. 

By  conjugate  coats,  those  which  are  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence, upon  the  same  animal,  of  two  primitive  or  two  derived  coats. 

We  will  begin  with  the  study  of  the  first. 


1  We  should,  nevertheless,  mention  the  following  passage  from  De  Curnieu  relative  to  white 
foals  :  "  Often,"  says  he,  "  the  white  coat  characterizes  a  race.  Mention  is  made  of  the  small 
white  horses  of  the  Duke  of  Montrose,  in  England,  derived  from  Spanish  or  Barb  horses.  ...  In 
Hanover  and  Denmark  white  horses  somewhat  similar  to  the  latter  have  been  preserved  for  a 
long  time.  They  still  exist  there,  and  are  called  wcissgcboren  (while-born).  (In  De  Curnieu,  Lecons 
de  science  hippique  generate,  Ire  partie,  p.  174,  Paris,  1855.) 


THE    COATS.  773 

§  1.  PRIMITIVE  COATS. 

We  will  divide  these  coats  into  three  groups : 

a.  The  simple  coats,  formed  by  hairs  of  a  single  color. 
Examples :  black,  sorrel. 

b.  The  composite  coats,   formed  by  hairs  of  two  colors  ;   the 
one,  black,  for  the  mane,  tail,  and  extremities ;  the  others,  yellow,  red, 
or  gray,  for  the  body. 

Examples  :  Isabella,  bay,  mouse-color. 

c.  The  mixed  coats,  formed  in  great  part  by  dark  hairs,  upon 
each  of  which  are  found  two  different  colors,  the  yellow  more  or  less 
light  at  the  base,  and  the  black  at  the  summit. 

Example  :  fox-color. 

A. — Simple  Coats. 

We  will  class  among  the  simple  coats  all  those  which  are  con- 
stituted by  hairs  of  the  same  color.  They  comprise  the  black  and  the 
sorrel.  If  we  do  not  include  the  white  here,  as  nearly  all  authors  have 
done,  it  is  because  this  color  does  not  belong  to  the  primitive  coats. 
Besides,  the  true  white,  that  which,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  pre- 
sents no  dark-colored  hairs,  is  so  rare  that  many  doubt  its  existence. 
The  horses  which  are  described  white  are,  in  reality,  only  very  light 
grays,  upon  which  some  dark  hairs  of  the  coat  are  discovered  in  the 
mane  or  tail,  if  they  are  carefully  examined.  Moreover,  we  apprise 
the  reader  of  a  different  opinion,  according  to  which  it  will  be  easy  for 
him  to  classify  this  coat  in  the  various  groups  of  which  we  will  speak 
presently. 

1st.  The  black  coat  needs  no  definition.  It  is  the  darkest  of  all 
the  coats.  Its  varieties  are  two  in  number,  as  follows : 

a.  The  true  or  ordinary  black,  dark,  dull,  uniform,  and  with- 
out any  reflection. 

b.  The  rusty  black,  dull,  reddish  in  the  sun,  with  a  gradation 
of  tints,  less  dark,  and  sometimes  almost  washed,  at  the  elbows,  the 
axillae,  the  flanks,  the  abdomen,  the  thighs,  and  the  buttocks.     It  is 
often  difficult  to  distinguish  it  from  the  brown,  especially  in  summer ; 
we  will,  nevertheless,   show   how  to   differentiate   between    them    in 
speaking  of  the  latter  coat. 

The  black  may  possess  a  brilliant  reflection  which  is  proper  to  it. 
This  is  designated  by  the  names  coal  black,  jet  black,  extremely  black, 
on  account  of  its  brilliant  aspect  analogous  to  that  of  sparkling 


774  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

jewels.    It  will  be  described  more  in  detail  in  discussing  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  coat. 

2d.  The  sorrel  coat  consists  of  golden,  fawn,  and  reddish-brown 
hairs,  and  recalls,  more  or  less,  the  color  of  cinnamon  bark. 

We  will  add  to  this  type  that  which  most  authors  call  coffee-and- 
milk  or  cream-color,  for  it  appears  to  us  to  be  only  one  of  the  varieties. 

This  sorrel  coat  comprises  : 

a.  The  coffee-and-milk  sorrel  is  of  a  tint  resembling  that  of  a 
mixture  of  coffee  and  milk.     According  to  its  shade  it  is  called  light, 
ordinary,  and   dark.     When  very  light  it  is  more  especially  called 
cream-color. 

b.  The  light  or  fawn  sorrel  has  a  yellowish  tint  which  is  similar 
to  the  coat  of  the  deer.     The  ordinary  sorrel  will  sometimes  assume  this 
aspect  if  the  horse  runs  at  liberty  for  a  month  or  six  weeks. 

c.  The  ordinary  sorrel  recalls  the  color  of  cinnamon,  not  only 
for  the  body,  but  also  for  the  mane,  the  tail,  and  the  extremities. 

d.  The  bovine  or  washed  sorrel  has  a  degraded  fawn  tint,  but 
the  mane,  the  tail,  and  the  extremities  are  pale,  washed,  or  almost  white. 

e.  The  dark  or  dull  sorrel  is  of  a  cinnamon  color,  bordering 
upon  brown. 

/.  The  cherry  sorrel  has  the  reddish  tint  of  a  cherry. 

g.  The  chestnut  sorrel  is  of  a  clear,  reddish-brown,  and  uniform 
color,  like  that  of  a  ripe  chestnut. 

h.  The  maroon  sorrel  has  the  same  general  tint  as  the  preceding, 
but  shows,  here  and  there,  darker  spots,  analogous  to  the  veins  of  the 
maroon  of  the  West  Indies. 

i.  The  burnt  sorrel  has  exactly  the  same  shade  of  color  as  that 
of  roasted  coffee.  It  is  not  rare  to  see  this  tint  with  mane  and  tail 
almost  entirely  white.  It  should  then  be  described  with  white  mane 
and  tail. 

Several  of  these  varieties  are  accompanied  by  peculiar  reflections. 
Thus  the  light  or  fawn  sorrel  may  be  golden;  the  ordinary  and  the 
cherry  sorrel  copper-colored;  the  chestnut  and  the  maroon  bronzed, 
according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  reflect  the  light. 

We  will  add  that  the  white  markings  of  the  head  and  members, 
as  well  as  the  leprous  spots  around  the  lips  and  nostrils,  are  extremely 
common  in  sorrel  horses. 

Finally,  with  De  Curnieu,1  we  will  say  that  we  have  observed  sev- 
eral subjects  of  this  color  absolutely  deprived  of  white  hairs. 

1  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  Ire  partie,  p.  179. 


THE    COATS.  775 

B. — Composite  Coats. 

We  will  call  composite  coats  all  those  which  are  formed  by  two 
distinct  kinds  of  hair,  the  one  yellow,  red,  or  gray,  for  the  body,  the 
other  always  black,  for  the  mane,  tail,  and  extremities. 

They  comprise  the  Isabella,  the  bay,  and  the  mouse-color. 

1st.  The  Isabella  or  Isabella  coat  is  characterized  by  hairs 
of  two  distinct  colors :  those  of  the  body  are  yellow  or  yellowish ; 
those  of  the  extremities,  from  the  knee  and  the  hock  down,  as  well  as 
the  mane  and  tail,  are  black.  This  color  of  the  horse  is  also  called 
the  dun. 

According  to  its  shade,  it  is  light,  ordinary,  and  dark. 

It  is  common,  but  not  invariable,  to  find  a  narrow,  longitudinal 
black  stripe  (mule  stripe)  upon  the  median  line  of  the  back,  the 
loins,  and  the  croup  of  Isabella  horses,  as  well  as  blackish  stripes 
across  their  forearms  and  legs  (zebra  stripes) ;  their  ears  are  also  often 
bordered  by  a  band  of  dark  hairs.  Although  these  peculiarities 
undoubtedly  modify  the  aspect  of  the  coat,  they  do  not  change  its 
nature.  The  essential  characteristics  necessary  to  identify  this  coat  are 
the  yellow  hairs  and  black  mane  and  tail  or  black  extremities.  When 
the  mule  stripe,  the  zebra  stripes,  or  the  auricular  border  exist,  we 
simply  mention  their  presence,  for  these  markings  may  at  times  be 
found  upon  bay,  sorrel,  and  mouse-colored  horses. 

This  distinction,  already  accepted  by  several  veterinary  writers,  has 
the  advantage  of  clearly  distinguishing  the  Isabella  from  the  cream- 
color,  whose  hairs  are  often  very  analogous  in  color  to  the  pre- 
ceding. Hence  the  variety  of  Isabella  with  black  mane  and  tail  is  no 
longer  preserved  as  a  definition  ;  as  to  that  which  was  formerly  desig- 
nated Isabella  with  white  mane  and  tail,  we  could  not  admit  it  either. 
When  the  extremities  are  of  the  same  color  as  the  body,  the  animal 
should  be  considered  as  being  a  cream-colored  sorrel.  It  will  be 
remarked  that  here  we  consider  the  white  or  washed  mane  and  tail  as 
a  peculiarity  and  not  as  a  variety. 

It  would  perhaps  have  been  more  simple,  more  natural,  and  more 
logical  to  classify  the  Isabella  among  the  bays,  to  some  of  which  it 
often  bears  a  striking  resemblance,  and  to  make  it  a  bay  Isabella,  in 
accordance  with  the  principle  which  has  guided  us  for  the  cream-color 
in  relation  to  the  sorrel.  Nevertheless,  with  all  due  respect  to  tradi- 
tions and  technical  language,  we  have  preferred  to  allow  our  idea  to  be 
matured  by  time  before  proposing  its  absolute  introduction  into  practice. 


776  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

A  humorous  legend  concerning  the  origin  of  the  name  Isabella 
relates  that  the  Archduchess  Isabella  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  and  wife  of  the  Governor  of  the  Netherlands,  made  a 
vow  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Ostend  not  to  change  her  linen 
before  the  surrender  of  the  place.  The  siege  having  continued  for 
three  years  (1601  to  1604),  the  chemise  of  the  princess  had  acquired  a 
peculiar  fawn  shade,  to  which  has  since  been  given  the  name  Isabella.1 

2d.  The  bay  or  bay  coat  differs  from  the  Isabella  only  in  so  far 
that  the  yellow  hairs  are  replaced  by  red  hairs.  The  latter  are  of  an 
ill-defined  tint,  similar  to  mahogany,  ripe  cherry,  fractured  red  cin- 
chona, etc.,  but  varying  from  light  to  dark,  from  fawn  yellow  to 
maroon  and  brown. 

The  bay  could  not  be  confounded  with  the  sorrel,  first,  because  the 
mane,  tail,  and  lower  part  of  the  members  are  black  in  nearly  every 
case ;  secondly,  on  account  of  its  deeper  color,  its  brighter  shade,  and 
its  more  brilliant  reflection. 

We,  nevertheless,  meet  horses  of  this  color  in  which  the  mem- 
bers, over  their  whole  extent,  are  of  the  same  color  as  the  main  shade  of 
the  coat ;  upon  others,  only  the  coronets  are  black ;  finally,  there  are 
some  in  which  black  hairs  exist  only  along  the  course  of  the  tendons 
and  upon  the  phalanges. 

The  varieties  of  the  bay  are  as  fallows : 

a.  The  light  bay,  whose  red  color  is  very  light,  bordering  some- 
what upon  yellow.     It  often  resembles  the  dark  Isabella,  and,  like  the 
latter,  sometimes  has  the  mule  and  zebra  stripes,  which  lead  us,  in 
such  cases,  to  classify  it  without  hesitation  with  the  latter  type,  in 
which  these  peculiarities  are  so  common. 

b.  The  ordinary  bay  is  of  a  distinctly  red  color. 

c.  The  cherry  bay,  blood  bay,  and  mahogany  bay  are  a 
little  darker  and  almost  identical.      The  names  by  which  they  are 
designated  suffice  to  point  out  the  differences  as  well  as  their  par- 
ticular shades. 

d.  The  chestnut  bay,  of  a  uniform  light  brown,  is  similar  to 
that  of  a  ripened  chestnut. 

e.  The  maroon  bay  reproduces  quite  accurately  the  color  of  the 
maroon  of  the  West  Indies,  with  deeper  and  fresher  shades  upon  the 
upper  part  of  the  body. 

/.  The  dark  bay  is  of  a  dark  color  bordering  upon  brown. 

1  Bouillet,  Dictionnaire  d'histoire  et  de  geographic  £d.  de  1860;  Littr£,  Dictionnaire  de  la 
langue  trangaise. 


THE    COATS.  777 

g.  The  brown  bay,  finally,  is  almost  black.  It  might  even  be 
mistaken  for  the  rusty  black,  especially  in  winter,  were  it  not  for  the 
reddish  colorations  around  the  nostrils,  the  axilla?,  the  elbows,  the 
abdomen,  the  flanks,  or  the  buttocks,  which  always  distinguish  the 
former  from  the  latter. 

Bay  horses,  like  the  sorrel,  often  show  white  markings  upon  the 
head ;  nevertheless,  such  marks  are  less  common  in  them.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  their  reflections.  In  the  vigorous  and  well-groomed 
subjects,  and  in  a  bright  light,  the  light  colors  frequently  appear  golden, 
the  red  copper-colored,  and  the  brown  bronzed. 

3d.  The  mouse  or  mouse-colored  coat  is  also  formed  by  an 
assemblage  of  two  distinct  colors  :  the  body  is  covered  with  hairs  of  an 
ashy  gray  analogous  to  those  of  the  mouse ;  as  to  the  members,  they  are 
black  from  the  knee  and  hock  down,  as  in  the  Isabella  and  the  bay. 

According  to  the  case,  the  mouse-color  is  light,  ordinary,  or  dark. 
Sometimes  the  head  is  a  little  darker,  and  the  mule  stripe  upon  the 
back  and  the  zebra  stripes  upon  the  arm  and  forearm  are  present ;  at 
other  times,  the  members  are  of  the  same  color  as  the  body.  The 
existence  of  these  peculiarities  should  be  mentioned. 

C.— Mixed   Coats. 

In  the  preceding  groups,  we  have  seen  that  the  coat  is  formed  by 
hairs  of  but  one  or  two  colors,  but  the  body,  in  all  cases,  is  provided 
with  hairs  of  the  same  shade ;  the  extremities  alone  have  a  different 
color.  In  the  mixed  coat,  the  elements  are  of  a  diverse  nature  and 
ordinarily  intimately  mixed ;  besides,  this  mixing  takes  place  in  the 
individual  hairs  themselves :  the  latter  show  two  distinct,  localized 
shades,  the  one  at  their  base  and  the  other  at  their  extremity. 

For  the  reason  that  these  coats,  as  a  whole  and  in  detail,  show 
more  or  less  of  a  combination  of  the  characters  of  the  other  groups, 
we  have  named  them  mixed. 

Only  one  variety  of  this  coat  has  been,  until  the  present  time, 
recognized  upon  the  horse:  the  fox-color ;  but  there  are  others  in  cer- 
tain domestic  or  wild  animals,  such  as  the  collie  dog,  the  cat,  the 
badger,  the  wolf,  the  roe,  the  deer,  the  hare,  the  rabbit,  etc.  Each  of 
them  has  some  part  of  the  integument,  notably  the  superior  face  of  the 
body,  covered  by  hairs  of  two  or  three  colors,  associated  in  very  dif- 
ferent manners  and  combined  in  very  variable  proportions.  To  describe 
them  would  be  outside  the  scope  of  this  book. 


778  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  fox-color,  or  fox-colored  coat,  called  in  French  louvet, 
resembles,  as  its  English  name  indicates,  the  color  of  the  fox  ;  formerly, 
it  was  called  color  of  the  deer,  for  similar  reasons. 

Vallon,1  whose  observations  we  have  carefully  analyzed,  has,  in  our 
opinion,  given  the  most  accurate  definition  of  this  coat.  "  The  fox- 
color  (louvet)"  says  he,  "  is  formed  of  two  shades,  the  black  and  the 
yellow,  sometimes  separated  upon  different  hairs,  but  most  often  united 
upon  the  same  hair,  whose  base  is  yellow  and  the  extremity  black."  We 
will  add  that  the  mane  and  tail  are  ordinarily  dark  like  those  of  the 
burnt  sorrel ;  it  is  the  same  with  the  extremities ;  in  such  cases  the 
latter  peculiarity  should  always  be  mentioned. 

According  to  the  predominance  of  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
colors  this  coat  presents  the  following  varieties  : 

It  is  called  light,  when  the  yellow,  more  or  less  washed,  predomi- 
nates ;  ordinary,  when  the  yellow  and  black  are  distributed  almost 
in  equal  proportions ;  dark,  finally,  when  the  black  is  in  excess  over 
the  yellow,  itself  quite  intense.  Horses  of  this  color  are  rare.  It  is 
to  be  remarked  that  after  moulting  they  become  lighter,  approaching 
the  Isabella,  the  cream-color,  and  are  at  times  almost  white.  Our 
colleague,  M.  Saint- Yves  Menard,  has  shown  us  one  of  them,  belonging 
to  the  Japanese  variety  of  horses,  which  could  scarcely  be  recognized 
after  having  been  clipped,  because  the  base  of  the  hairs  was  almost 
white. 

The  usual  reflections  of  this  color  are  the  golden  and  the  bronze. 

§  2.   DERIVED  COATS. 

We  have  defined  these  coats :  those  which  appear  after  birth  and 
result  from  the  introduction  of  white  hairs  into  a  primitive  coat. 

They  are  four  in  number  :  the  gray,  the  white,  the  flea-bitten,  and 
the  roan. 

1st.  The  gray  is,  in  our  estimation,  much  less  easily  distinguished 
than  is  generally  supposed.  Classically,  it  is  regarded  as  a  mixture  of 
white  and  black  hairs.  Practically,  this  is  far  from  being  the  case. 
All  that  is  needed  in  order  to  convince  one's  self  that  this  definition 
is  insufficient  is  to  select  at  hap-hazard  ten  gray  horses.  The  dark 
hairs,  first  of  all,  are  not  always  black  ;  far  from  it.  The  latter  are  often 
replaced  by  brown,  maroon,  chestnut,  bay,  sorrel,  and,  more  rarely, 
yellow  hairs.  As  to  the  white  hairs,  they  are  at  times  only  the  yellow 

i  Vallon,  Cours  d'hippologie,  t.  i.  p.  578,  Paris,  1863. 


THE    COATS.  779 

very  thoroughly  washed.  This  is  why  the  grays  are  so  difficult  to 
specify.  If  they  are,  in  fact,  only  a  mixture  of  black  and  white, 
whence,  then,  come  the  bluish,  the  purplish,  the  reddish,  or  the  yel- 
lowish shades  which  are  found  in  the  slate-colored,  the  wine-colored, 
the  reddish,  the  roan,  the  Isabella,  the  dirty,  and  the  flea-bitten  gray  ? 
To  reply  that  these  shades  are  not  so  many  varieties,  but  only- peculi- 
arities, does  not  solve  the  difficulty,  for  a  peculiarity  is  a  detail  which 
changes  the  aspect  of  one  region  alone ;  it  is  not  disseminated  every- 
where, and  for  the  same  reason  does  not  modify  the  general  color  of  the 
coat. 

It  appears  to  us  more  logical  and  exact  to  say  that  the  gray  is 
sometimes  a  mixture  of  black  and  white,  sometimes  of  white  hairs 
and  those  of  a  darker  color,  the  latter  consisting  of  the  lighter  colors, 
such  as  the  bay,  the  sorrel,  or  the  Isabella,  The  extremities,  the 
mane,  and  the  tail  are  always  of  the  same  nature  as  the  coat  of  the 
body. 

Brivet  was  quite  conscious  of  the  want  of  conformity  of  the  varie- 
ties contained  in  the  classical  definition  of  this  coat  when  he  wrote, 
"  The  gray  coat  is  excessively  varied  in  its  degrees ;  it  is  a  sort  of 
chaos,  so  many  different  shades  of  hairs  are  there ;  it  is  composed  of 
all  varieties :  we  mean  to  say  that  it  borrows  a  little  from  all  the 
colors."  l 

To  recapitulate,  two  constant  elements  intimately  mixed  especially 
characterize  the  gray :  white  hairs  and  hairs  of  a  dark  color.  It  will 
be  remarked  that  we  intentionally  use  the  word  dark  in  order  to  in- 
dicate that  this  shade  may  vary  from  the  true  black  to  the  brown. 

To  these  elements  are  often  added  others,  such  as  the  bay,  the  sor- 
rel, and  the  Isabella,  which  variegate  the  coat,  but  without  taking  away 
the  characteristics  and  the  aspect  which  are  proper  to  it. 

From  the  preceding  statements,  the  gray  coat  is  therefore  the  black, 
the  bay,  the  Isabella,  or  the  sorrel,  mixed  with  the  white  to  a  degree 
more  or  less  marked  according  to  the  case.  This,  consequently,  justifies 
the  place  which  we  have  given  it  among  the  derived  coats. 

In  relation  to  its  degree — that  is  to  say,  its  darkness  and  bril- 
liancy— we  will  recognize  the  following  principal  varieties : 

a.  The  very  light  gray,  which  greatly  resembles  the  white,  and 
shows  very  few  black  or  dark  hairs. 

6.  The  light  gray,  not  so  white  as  the  preceding  and  with  more 
black  or  dark  hairs. 

1  Brivet,  Nouveau  traite  des  robes,  p.  47,  Paris,  1844. 


780  THE    EXTERIOR    OF   THE    HORSE. 

• 

c.  The  ordinary  gray,  which  presents  an  almost  equal  mixture 
of  white  and  dark  or  black  hairs. 

d.  The  dark  gray,  characterized  by  the  predominance  of  dark  or 
black  hairs. 

Relative  to  its  particular  tint  or  color,  the  gray  is  also  called : 

e.  Iron  gray,  when  it  has  the  bluish  shade  of  a  piece  of  iron 
recently  broken.     This  horse  is  vulgarly  called  blue  or  grayish-blue. 

/.  Slate-colored  gray,  when  it  resembles  the  dull  blue  of  slate. 
It  is  a  shade  darker  than  the  preceding,  and  varies  from  light  to  dark, 
according  to  circumstances. 

g.  Clayey  gray,  when  it  has  a  very  light  yellowish  tint.  It 
much  resembles  the  clayey  white. 

h.  Isabella  gray,  when  it  is  constituted  by  a  mixture  of  white, 
yellow,  and  dark  hairs.  According  to  the  intensity  of  the  yellow  and 
the  relative  abundance  of  the  dark  and  the  black,  it  becomes  light  or 
dark  ;  but  its  general  tint  always  recalls  that  of  the  Isabella. 

i.  Roan  gray  when  it  is  constituted  by  an  intimate  mixture  of 
white,  dark,  red,  or  reddish  hairs,  the  latter  ordinarily  less  abundant. 
It  may  be  light  or  dark.  When  the  red  or  reddish  hairs  predominate 
over  the  others,  and  particularly  over  the  dark,  it  acquires  a  more 
marked  red  tint ;  it  is  then  called  wine  gray. 

k.  Gray,  called  "  thrush  gray,"  when  it  has  the  aspect  of  a  light 
roan  gray,  upon  which  are  disseminated  small  patches  of  whitish  or 
yellowish  hairs  (Brivet). 

I.  Flea-bitten  gray,  when  it  is  constituted  by  a  dark  roan  gray 
intermixed  with  small  patches  of  whitish  hairs  (Brivet). 

The  last  two  varieties  are  very  rare. 

Gray  horses  have  darker  extremities,  and  become  more  and  more 
light  as  they  advance  in  age.  They  even  change  from  year  to  year, 
which  necessitates  a  frequent  modification  in  their  description.  Finally, 
they  are  subject  to  numerous  and  special  peculiarities,  which  we  will 
study  farther  on. 

2d.  The  white  or  white  coat,  being  a  color  so  universally  recog- 
nized, needs  no  definition. 

This  coat  exists,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  only  at  a  more  or  less 
advanced  period  of  life.  Hence  we  will  consider  it,  essentially,  as 
being  derived  from  the  gray,  or  again  as  a  primitive  color,  such  as  the 
black,  the  sorrel,  the  Isabella,  or  the  bay,  in  which  the  primary  black, 
blond,  yellow,  or  red  hairs  have  almost  totally  disappeared.  But 
in  examining  such  horses,  we  find,  in  most  instances,  some  of  these 


THE    COATS.  781 

colored  hairs  upon  the  body,  the  mane,  and  the  tail,  or  upon  the  ex- 
tremities. The  knowledge  of  this  fact  has  led  certain  authors  to  say 
that  white  horses  do  not  exist.  Lecoq l  has  condemned  this  opinion 
as  being  too  absolute.  The  determination  of  the  coat  is  not  arrived 
at  with  one  eye  alone.  The  whole,  and  not  the  detail,  rules  the  diag- 
nosis. The  varieties  of  the  color  are  as  follows : 

a.  The  dull,  milk,  or  pigeon  white  is  without  reflection,  opaque, 
of  a  milky  aspect,  and  resembles  somewhat  that  of  a  white  pigeon. 

b.  The  porcelain  white  has  the  tint  of  porcelain  china,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  black  coloration  of  the  skin  which  is  visible  under  the 
hairs. 

c.  The  dirty  white  is  of  a  slightly  yellowish  tint.     It  is  derived 
sometimes  from  coifee-and-milk,  cream-colored,  or  even    from  very 
light  washed  hairs.     More  frequently  it  results  from  uncleanliness. 

d.  The  rosy  white  presents  in  some  places  more  or  less  large  rosy 
spots,  which  are  due  to  the  absence  of  the  cutaneous  pigment  and  to 
the  thinness  of  the  hairs,  leaving  the  discolored  parts  of  the   skin 
visible. 

The  reflection  of  the  white  is  the  silver,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
coal  or  jet  is  that  of  the  black. 

3d.  The  flea-bitten  coat  is  formed  upon  the  body  by  red  and 
white  hairs  mixed,  while  the  mane,  tail,  and  extremities  are  of  the 
same  color  as  the  coat  proper,  and  often  lighter. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  flea-bitten  is  nothing  more  than 
the  sorrel  more  or  less  freely  intermingled  with  the  white. 

It  is  differentiated  from  the  gray  with  a  rosy  or  reddish  shade  in 
that  it  never  presents  very  dark  hairs, — that  is  to  say,  black,  blackish,  or 
brown ;  but  as  it  becomes  more  and  more  white  with  age,  it  will  event- 
ually terminate  in  a  clear  wine  gray. 

According  to  the  abundance  and  intensity  of  the  red,  this  coat  is 
designated  light,  ordinary,  or  dark. 

When  the  mixing  of  the  two  kinds  of  hairs  is  not  uniform,  it 
receives  particular  designations. 

Thus  the  flea-bitten  is  called  all-flower,  when  the  white  hairs  are 
collected  in  small  patches  and  disseminated  over  the  groundwork  of 
the  coat. 

It  is  called  peach-blossom,  when  composed  of  patches  of  red  or 
rosy  hairs  which  are  strewn  over  the  lighter  groundwork  of  the  coat. 

1  Lecoq,  Traite  de  l'ext£rieur  du  cheval,  5e  6d.,  p.  468. 


782  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

4th.  The  roan  or  roan  coat  is  composed  of  three  kinds  of  hairs : 
red,  white,  and  black.  The  red  and  white  hairs  are  mixed  upon  the 
body,  the  black  form  the  mane,  the  tail,  and  are  also  found  on  the 
extremities. 

This  coat  is  therefore  only  a  bay,  modified  more  or  less  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  white. 

According  to  the  relative  abundance  and  intensity  of  the  red,  this 
coat  is  called — 

Light,  when  the  white  predominates. 

Ordinary,  when  the  red  and  white  exist  in  almost  equal  abun- 
dance. 

Wine,  blood,  or  strawberry,  when  the  red  predominates. 

Dark,  finally,  when  the  brownish  red  predominates. 

In  roan  horses  the  members  are  not  always  black.  In  this  respect 
the  same  remarks  are  true  as  in  the  case  of  bay  horses. 

With  old  age  these  horses  become  more  white,  and  are  then  only 
roan  grays. 

§  3.  CONJUGATE  COATS. 

We  designate  by  this  name  the  coats  which  are  characterized  by  the 
presence,  upon  the  same  animal,  of  two  primitive  or  distinct  derived 
coats,  and,  more  rarely,  of  two  varieties  of  the  same  coat. 

Until  the  present  time  only  two  types  have  been  described. 

1st.  The  piebald  or  pied  coat  is  nothing  more  than  a  union, 
and  not  an  intermixture,  of  the  white  coat  with  one  or  other  of  those 
which  we  have  described.  As  a  result  the  animal  presents  a  singular 
appearance  :  he  is  covered  with  large  white  patches,  irregular,  unequal 
in  extent,  and  variously  situated,  which  are  associated  and  conjugate, 
so  to  speak,  but  do  not  blend  with  the  colored  areas,  giving  him  a  fan- 
tastic appearance. 

In  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  the  true  piebald  should  consist  only 
of  the  white  and  the  black,  like  the  plumage  of  the  bird  from  which 
it  borrows  its  name.  Nevertheless,  custom  has  decreed  that  the  black 
color  may  be  replaced  by  any  one  of  the  others.  Hence  to  designate 
the  coats  of  this  type  we  employ  a  compound  expression,  in  which  the 
word  pied  always  refers  to  the  white,  while  the  other  term  indicates  the 
color  with  which  the  latter  is  associated. 

Examples  :  pied  black,  pied  bay,  pied  roan,  pied  sorrel,  etc. 

Besides,  in  order  to  make  the  description  more  exact,  it  is  prefera- 
ble to  arrange  the  two  terms  of  this  expression  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
prefix  the  name  of  the  color  which  covers  the  largest  area  of  surface. 


THE    COATS.  783 

Thus  we  call  it  bay  pied,  gray  pied,  roan  pied,  etc.,  when  the  bay,  the 
gray,  or  the  roan  covers  a  larger  area  than  the  white  ;  and  pied  bay, 
pied  gray,  pied  roan  in  the  contrary  disposition. 

Finally,  in  order  to  be  more  precise,  even  the  variety  of  the  white 
or  colored  coat  can  be  mentioned,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
examples  :  rusty  black  pied,  dark  fox-color  pied,  flea-bitten  rosy^  pied, 
burnt  sorrel  porcelain  pied,  etc.  Ordinarily,  however,  the  varieties  of 
the  white  color  are  not  mentioned. 

AYhen  the  four  extremities  of  a  piebald  horse  are  white,  they  are 
designated  as  having  stockings,  or  as  being  white-footed. 

When  the  mane,  tail,  and  extremities  of  the  pied  bay,  pied  Isabella, 
and  pied  roan  are  white  instead  of  black,  one  may  be  easily  deceived, 
and  confound  these  coats  with  the  pied  sorrel,  cream-color,  and  flea- 
bitten.  In  such  a  case,  there  remain  no  other  points  to  guide  us  except- 
ing the  shade  of  the  hairs ;  but  there  are  found  at  times  in  the  forelock, 
the  mane,  the  tail,  or  upon  the  extremities  some  dark,  black,  or  colored 
hairs,  which  enable  us  to  avoid  this  error.  However  this  may  be,  if 
the  exact  determination  of  the  colored  hairs  be  impossible,  it  is  well  to 
indicate,  for  want  of  a  more  accurate  expression,  that  the  subject  has  a 
white  mane,  tail,  and  extremities. 

The  varieties  of  the  piebald  are  as  numerous  as  there  are  types  of 
coats,  excepting  the  white.  We  will  consequently  recognize — 

The  pied  black,  the  pied  cream-color,  the  pied  bay,  the  pied  mouse, 
the  pied  fox-color,  the  pied  gray,  the  pied  flea-bitten,  and  the  pied  roan. 

2d.  The  conjugate  gray  and  Isabella  is  an  extremely  rare  coat,  of  which 
one  of  us 1  has  observed  but  two  examples.  We  have  added  to  it  the  epithet 
conjugate,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  ordinary  Isabella  gray  (which  is  mixed),  and 
to  fully  establish  its  relation  and  its  analogy  with  the  piebalds. 

In  the  case  under  consideration  there  existed,  upon  the  body  of  the  horse, 
two  distinct  coats :  one  was  the  gray,  and  the  other  the  Isabella. 

We  are  not  aware  that  instances  of  this  kind,  identical  and  analogous,  have 
been  observed  previously.  In  any  case  they  might  be  very  logically  classified 
along  with  the  latter  and  be  designated  according  to  the  same  principle. 

We  will  also  mention  here  another  observation  which  we  had  the  opportunity 
to  make  during  the  month  of  July,  1883,  and  which  we  brought  under  the  notice 
of  our  pupils,  as  well  as  of  H.  Bouley  and  some  others  of  our  colleagues. 

It  concerned  a  mare  in  the  army,  used  for  the  saddle,  whose  coat  was  cherry 
bay,  and  presented  large,  irregular  patches  of  dark  maroon  bay.  The  latter  were 
almost  blended  upon  the  left  side  of  the  body  and  members ;  upon  the  right 
side,  disseminated  and  well  delineated. 

The  officer  who  described  this  animal  had  entered  her  as  a  cherry  bay 

1  Arm.  Goubaux. 


784 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


and  maroon  bay,  "  en  forme  de  pie."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  two  varieties  of 
the  bay  were  as  well  marked  and  distinct  as  the  two  coats  of  the  piebald.  If  we 
had  to  give  the  description  at  present,  we  would  say.  "  Coat  conjugate  cherry  bay 
and  maroon  bay  color,"  etc.  This  qualification  would  recall  at  the  same  time  the 
disposition  of  the  two  sorts  of  hairs,  as  well  as  the  affinities  of  this  singular 
coat  with  those  of  which  we  have  just  spoken. 

De  Curnieu1  classifies  in  a  special  category  the  coats  which,  upon  a 
base  of  white  or  trout-color,  present  unequal  spots  of  an  almost  round 
form  and  disseminated  over  nearly  the  entire  surface  of  the  body. 
These  spots,  ordinarily  dark  or  red,  are  more  especially  found  upon 
white,  gray,  bay,  and  sorrel  coats.  When  they  are  localized  in  one 
region  they  simply  constitute  a  peculiarity,  but  when  they  are  general- 
ized they  altogether  change  the  color  and  aspect  of  the  coat,  and  render 
it  more  or  less  fantastic. 

Horses  of  this  color  are  vulgarly  called  spotted  or  marbled  horses. 
According  to  De  Curnieu,  these  animals  are  most  frequently  found  in 
Denmark,  Hanover,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  Danube.  Formerly 
they  were  very  much  sought  after  and  sold  at  high  prices.  To-day  they 
are  scarcely  used  except  in  the  circus  ring  or  for  advertising  wagons. 

SYNOPTICAL  TABLE   OF  THE   COATS. 


PRIMITIVE  COATS. 

(Already  formed  a  short  time  after  birth.) 

CATEGORIES. 

COLOR  OF  THE 
HAIRS. 

PRIMITIVE 
TYPES. 

CORRESPONDING  VARIETIES. 

A. 

Simple  coats. 
Hairs  of  a  single  color. 

Black. 
Bed  or  red- 
dish. 

Black. 
Sorrel. 

Ordinary,  rusty. 
Cream-color,     light,      ordi- 
nary, washed,  dark,  cherry, 
chestnut,  maroon,  burnt. 

B. 

Composite  coats. 

Hairs    of   two    varieties  : 
some  black,  for  the  mane, 
the    tail,    and    the    ex- 
tremities ;  others  yellow, 
red,    or   gray,    for    the 
body. 

Yellow. 
Red  or  red- 
dish. 

Gray. 

Isabella. 
Bay. 

Mouse. 

Light,  ordinary,  dark. 
Light,     ordinary,      cherry, 
blood,  mahogany,  chestnut, 
maroon,  dark,  brown. 

Light,  ordinary,  dark. 

C. 

Mixed  coats. 

Several   colors   upon  the 
same  hair. 

Yellow      at 
the     base, 
black      at 
the  point. 

Lonvet. 

(Fox-color.) 

Light,  ordinary,  dark. 

1  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  p.  190. 


THE    COATS. 


785 


SYNOPTICAL  TABLE   OF   THE   COATS — Continued. 


DERIVED  COATS. 

(Appearing  at  a  remote  period  of  life,  and  due  to  the  introduction  of  white  into  the  primitive 
coat.) 

PRIMITIVE  COATS—  ELEMENTS. 

COLOR  OF  THE 
HAIRS    ASSO- 
CIATED WITH 
THE  WHITE. 

DERIVED 
TYPES. 

CORRESPONDING  VARIETIES. 

Black,   sorrel,   bay,    Isa- 
bella. 

Black, 
brown, 
blood-red, 
red,  or  yel- 
low. 

Gray, 

Very  light,  light,  ordinary, 
dark,  iron,  slaty,  clayey, 
Isabella,  roan,  wine,  tour- 
dille  (dirty),  flea-bitten. 

Those    which    form    the 
gray. 

White. 

White. 

Dull,  porcelain,  clayey,  rosy. 

Sorrel. 

Eeddish. 

Flea-bitten. 

Light,  ordinary,  dark,  all- 
flower,  peach-  blossom. 

Bay. 

Bed. 

Roan. 

Light,  ordinary,  wine,  dark. 

CONJUGATE  COATS. 

(Union  of  two  primitive  or  distinct  derived  coats,  and,  more  rarely,  of  two  varieties  of  the  same 
coat. 

COATS  OR  VARIETIES—  ELE- 
MENTS. 

CORRESPONDING  CONJUGATE 
TYPES. 

CORRESPONDING  VARIETIES. 

The  white  coat  and  one 
other. 

Pied. 

Black,  sorrel,  Isabella,  bay, 
mouse,  fox-color,  gray,  flea- 
bitten,  roan. 

The   gray  coat    and    the 
Isabella  coat. 

Conjugate  gray  and  Isa- 
bella. 

Varieties  :  cherry  bay  and 
maroon  bay. 

Conjugate  cherry  bay  and 
maroon  bay. 

2.  Peculiarities  of  the  Coats. 

Aside  from  the  kind  of  coat  and  its  variety,  it  is  necessary  to 
indicate,  in  a  certificate  of  description,  certain  details  or  marked  pecu- 
liarities, which  are  due  to  brilliant  reflections,  to  the  presence  of  hairs 
different  from  the  others,  either  in  color  or  in  direction,  or,  finally,  to  a 
discoloration  of  the  skin  as  well  as  of  the  hairs  themselves.  These 

50 


786  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

diverse  markings,  very  variable  in  their  situation,  their  form,  their 
extent,  and  their  nature,  have  received  the  general  name  peculiarities 
of  the  coat  or  the  markings.  They  are  of  great  importance  for  dis- 
tinguishing subjects  often  identical  as  regards  the  color  of  the  hairs 
and  their  special  tint  or  shade. 

We  will  divide  them  into  four  principal  groups : 

1st.  General  peculiarities,  found  indiscriminately  upon  the  different 
parts  of  the  animal. 

2d.  Peculiarities  special  to  the  head. 

3d.  Peculiarities  special  to  the  body. 

4th.  Peculiarities  special  to  the  members. 

As  to  the  peculiarities  independent  of  the  coat,  we  will  make  men- 
tion of  them  a  propos  of  the  certificate  of  description. 

A. — General  Peculiarities. 

These  markings,  without  any  fixed  location,  are  arranged  under  the 
following  seven  principal  headings,  according  to  their  manner  of  forma- 
tion : 

1st,  the  brilliant  reflections ;  2d,  the  shade  of  the  hairs ;  3d,  the 
white  hairs ;  4th,  the  black  hairs  ;  5th,  the  red  hairs ;  6th,  the  different 
directions  of  the  hairs ;  7th,  finally,  the  discolorations  of  the  skin  and 
of  the  hairs. 

i.     Brilliant  Reflections. 

They  comprise  the  jet  black,  the  silver,  the  golden,  the  copper,  the 
bronze,  and  the  wavy  (moire). 

Jet  Black. — This  is  the  reflection  proper  to  the  black.  It  is 
identical  with  that  of  jet  jewelry. 

Silver. — By  this  term  is  designated  the  reflection  of  the  white,  the 
very  light  gray,  and  the  very  pale  cream-color. 

Examples  :  silvery  porcelain  white  ;  silvery  light  gray  ;  silvery  cream- 
color. 

Golden. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  sorrels,  the  bays,  the  Isa- 
bellas, and  the  cream-colors,  whose  shade  is  yellowish  with  a  reflection 
recalling  that  of  metallic  gold. 

Examples:  golden  fawn-colored  sorrel;  golden  light  bay;  golden 
ordinary  Isabella  ;  golden  dark  cream-color. 

Copper. — This  reflection  resembles  the  preceding,  but  is  brighter 
and  of  a  reddish  tint,  like  that  of  copper  utensils.  It  is  found  on  the 
sorrel  and  the  bay. 

Examples  :  copper  cherry  bay  ;  copper  mahogany  bay. 


THE    COATS.  787 

Bronze. — The  bronze  is  more  brown  than  the  copper.  It  is  seen 
more  especially  upon  the  burnt  sorrel,  the  maroon  bay,  the  dark  bay, 
the  dark  Isabella,  and  the  louvet. 

W^avy. — This  is  a  bright,  changeable  lustre,  of  an  undulating  as- 
pect, which  the  preceding  reflections  acquire  upon  different  parts  of  the 
body,  when  the  hairs,  instead  of  being  smooth,  present  in  places  slight 
undulations,  giving  to  the  coat  the  appearance  of  wavy  cloth  or  gal- 
vanized tin  plate. 

Examples  :  silvery  white,  wavy  upon  the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  jet  black, 
wavy  upon  the  croup  and  flanks  ;  dark  sorrel,  bronzed  and  wavy  upon 
the  thighs  and  forearms ;  copper  chestnut  bay,  wavy  upon  the  cheeks 
and  thighs  ;  golden  Isabella,  wavy  upon  the  ribs  and  shoulders,  etc. 

2.     Shaded  Hairs. 

The  peculiarities  due  to  shaded  hairs  comprise,  upon  the  base  of 
the  coat,  round  spots,  sometimes  lighter,  sometimes  darker,  resulting 
from  a  more  or  less  intense  tint  of  the  general  color. 

It  includes  the  peculiarity  which  is  ordinarily  called  dapple. 

A  dapple  coat  is  one  which  presents  spots  of  the  form  and  di- 
ameter of  a  five-franc  piece,  lighter  or  darker  than  the  base  of  the 
coat,  but  of  the  same  general  color.  They  are  observed  upon  bay, 
sorrel,  Isabella,  mouse-  and  fox-colored  horses. 

It  is  well  to  mention  their  presence,  their  abundance,  and  their  seat. 

When  they  exist  on  the  coat  of  gray  horses,  French  authors  designate 
this  peculiarity  by  the  term  pommele. 

When  they  are  generalized,  the  coat  is  simply  called  dappled, 
without  any  other  mention. 

Examples :  dark  Isabella,  slightly  dappled ;  burnt  sorrel,  greatly 
dappled  upon  the  croup  and  thighs  ;  mahogany  bay,  dappled  upon  the 
cheeks,  neck,  and  sides ;  ordinary  gray,  greatly  dappled  upon  the  back 
and  loins  ;  dark  dapple  gray. 

3.  White  Hairs. 

The  peculiarities  due  to  the  absence  or  variable  abundance  of 
white  hairs  upon  different  parts  of  the  body  are  whole-  or  solid-colored, 
rubican,  snow-flake,  flea-bitten,  growing  gray,  and  bordered.  We  will 
add  to  these  the  accidental  white  markings. 

Solid  Color. — We  call  by  the  terms  zain  or  solid-colored  the  bay, 
black,  sorrel,  dark  Isabella,  and  mouse-colored  horse,  whose  coat  has  no 
white  hairs. 

Example  :  solid  jet  black. 


788  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Rubican. — This  expression  is  applied  to  horses  of  a  bay,  black, 
sorrel,  mouse,  Isabella,  and  dark  fox-color,  which  present,  disseminated 
here  and  there  in  variable  quantity,  isolated  white  hairs,  but  never 
sufficiently  numerous  to  change  the  nature  of  the  groundwork  of  the 
coat. 

It  is  important  to  mention  their  abundance  and  their  seat. 

Examples:  rubican  chestnut  sorrel;  ordinary  black,  very  rubican; 
cherry  bay,  slightly  rubican  upon  the  cheeks,  neck,  and  sides;  dark 
Isabella,  very  rubican  upon  the  head  and  flanks. 

Snow-flaky  (Neige). — The  snow-flakes,  or  neigeures,  are  small 
white  spots  strewn  over  a  dark  or  colored  coat,  ordinarily  the  black, 
the  sorrel,  and  the  bay,  and  resembling  snow-flakes  which  have  fallen 
upon  the  body  of  the  animal. 

The  terms  light  or  heavy  are  used  to  designate  these  spots,  according 
to  the  area  of  the  base  of  the  coat  which  is  visible  between  them.1 
We  have  in  one  case  seen  a  large  number  upon  a  sorrel  horse  which 
had  been  previously  affected  with  herpes  tonsurans. 

The  neigeures,  instead  of  being  isolated,  are  at  times  confluent;  in 
such  cases  they  form  patches  or  spots,  which  we  propose  to  name  snow- 
balls or  snow-spots. 

Examples  :  jet  black,  slightly  snow-flaky  upon  the  croup;  brown  bay, 
very  snow-flaky  upon  the  back  and  loins  ;  cherry  sorrel,  with  light  snow- 
flakes  upon  the  shoulders  and  sides ;  maroon  bay,  with  large  snowballs 
upon  the  loins  and  flanks. 

'  Flea-bitten. — This  is  found  upon  the  sorrel  and  the  bay,  whose 
red  parts  are  invaded  by  white  hairs,  which  are  mixed  with  the  red 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  constitute  flea-bitten  areas  upon  the  body  or 
the  head. 

Examples :  cherry  bay,  flea-bitten  upon  the  left  cheek ;  chestnut 
sorrel,  flea-bitten  at  the  tail  from  birth. 

Grisonne,  or  Grayish. — These  terms  are  often  employed  synony- 
mously with  the  preceding,  although  in  reality  they  have  an  entirely 
different  signification.  They  indicate,  in  fact,  the  presence  of  white 
hairs  mixed  at  one  point  or  another  with  the  black  coat  or  the  black 
parts  of  the  body,  such  as  the  extremities,  the  mane,  and  the  tail  of  the 
bay,  the  Isabella,  and  the  mouse-color. 

The  grayish  and  the  flea-bitten  differ  from  the  rubican,  in  that  the 
white  hairs  which  form  these  markings  are  sufficiently  numerous  to 
change,  locally,  the  nature  of  the  base  of  the  coat. 

1  We  need  only  mention  the  light  snow-flake  ;  the  heavy  is  the  snow-flake  properly  so  called. 


THE    COATS.  789 

Examples :  black,  grayish  upon  the  temples ;  brown  bay,  grayish 
upon  the  right  haunch;  light  Isabella,  grayish  upon  the  anterior  face  of 
the  left  canon. 

Bordered. — This  word  is  applied  to  a  mixture  of  white  and  col- 
ored hairs  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  border  around  any  white  margin 
whatever,  but  always  well  outlined. 

Examples :  bordered  blaze,  bordered  stocking,  bordered  leprous 
spot,  etc. 

Accidental  White  Markings. — We  designate  by  this  term  the 
white  markings  which  are  the  consequence  of  wounds  produced  by  the 
harness,  the  hobbles,  falling  upon  the  knees,  injuries,  etc.  Their  num- 
ber, their  extent,  and  their  location  should  be  indicated  in  a  certificate 
of  description  or  of  soundness. 

Examples  :  dapple  light  bay,  accidental  white  marking  on  the  withers 
and  on  the  point  of  the  right  hock ;  rusty  black,  two  small  accidental 
white  marks  upon  the  face  and  a  larger  one  at  the  base  of  the  tail. 


4.     Black  Hairs. 

The  peculiarities  formed  by  the  black  hairs  are  called  speckled, 
trout-spotted,  ermined,  leopard-spotted,  spurious  brand-iron  mark,  char- 
bonne,  louvete. 

Speckled. — This  condition,  designated  by  French  authors  mou- 
chete,  is  caused  by  small  black  spots,  similar  to  those  produced  by 
flies  thickly  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  body.  These  spots  are 
common  upon  horses  of  a  white  or  gray  coat. 

Examples :  dull  white,  much  speckled;  light  gray,  slightly  speckled 
upon  the  croup  ;  iron  gray,  speckled. 

When  the  dark-colored  spots  are  not  entirely  composed  of  black 
hairs,  but  contain  some  that  are  brown,  maroon,  or  red,  the  coat  is  said 
to  be  mouchete-truite. 

Same  examples  as  the  preceding. 

Ermined. — The  ermine  spots  (herminures)  are  black  markings  larger 
and  more  elongated  than  the  preceding  two.  They  always  imply  a 
white  or  very  light  gray  base,  and  are  arranged  so  as  to  simulate  the 
spots  on  the  fur  of  the  ermine. 

Examples :  burnt  sorrel,  blaze  on  head,  neck  ermined ;  mahog- 
any bay,  with  large  snow-flake  spots,  ermined  upon  the  left  side  of  the 
croup. 

Leopard-spotted. — The  leopard  spots  (tigrures)  are  black  or 
very  dark  patches  whose  disposition  recalls  that  which  is  observed  upon 


790  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  panther  and  the  leopard.  They  are  generally  spread  over  the  whole 
extent  of  the  coat,  while  the  preceding  are  usually  smaller  and  localized 
upon  an  isolated  white  mark,  such  as  a  snow-flake  patch,  a  blaze,  a 
white  face,  white  foot,  or  again,  upon  the  white  areas  of  the  piebald  coat. 

Example :  pied  chestnut  bay,  leopard-spotted  upon  the  loins  and 
right  flank. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  when  the  herminures  are  very  abundant,  they 
no  longer  preserve  the  character  of  a  peculiarity ;  the  aspect  of  the 
coat  is  then  so  modified  that  the  latter  is  classified  among  those  which, 
with  De  Curnieu,  we  have  designated  under  the  names  spotted,  leopard, 
or  marbled  coats. 

The  herminure  is  always  a  black  marking  upon  a  white  base ;  the 
tigrure,  or  tiger-marking,  is  of  the  same  character,  but  always  larger, 
more  round,  and  may  be  indiscriminately  located  upon  a  white  or  a 
colored  base. 

When  these  markings  are  formed  by  colored  hairs,  such  as  the  bay, 
the  sorrel,  the  Isabella,  or  the  mouse,  upon  a  white  or  very  light  gray 
base,  the  coat  is  called  marbled.  Nowadays  the  marbled  and  the  leopard- 
spotted  coats  are  considered  identical. 

Spurious  Brand-iron  Mark. — This  is  an  irregular  elongated 
black  marking,  appearing  as  if  made  by  a  stroke  of  the  branding-iron 
or  fire-poker  upon  a  gray,  sorrel,  bay,  Isabella,  mouse,  roan,  or  flea- 
bitten  coat. 

Examples  :  iron  gray,  spurious  brand-iron  mark  upon  the  left  cheek  ; 
dark  bay,  spurious  brand-iron  mark  upon  the  croup. 

There  is  still  another  black  marking,  the  charbonnure,  which  is 
wider  and  more  clearly  outlined  than  the  preceding.  Otherwise,  most 
authors  consider  these  two  as.  identical. 

Louveture. — We  propose  to  designate  under  the  name  louveture 
mixed,  blackish  spots,  poorly  outlined  and  of  variable  extent  and  con- 
figuration, proper  to  the  light  or  fawn  varieties  of  the  Isabella,  the 
bay,  and  the  sorrel.  They  are  formed  by  black  hairs  mixed  with 
the  red  or  yellow  of  the  coat,  giving  to  the  latter,  in  these  places,  an 
appearance  resembling  that  of  the  wolf.  It  looks  as  if  soot  had 
been  sprinkled  over  the  regions  which  present  this  peculiarity.  We 
have  seen  it  upon  the  head,  the  sides  of  the  neck,  the  shoulders,  the 
back,  the  ribs,  the  thighs,  the  stifles,  the  elbows,  the  arms,  the  fore- 
arms, the  legs,  etc. 

Examples  :  louveture  Isabella  ;  light  bay,  louveture  in  front  of  and 
behind  the  shoulders;  fawn  sorrel,  deep  louveture  on  the  cheeks,  neck, 
elbows,  and  forearms. 


THE    COATS.  791 

5.     Red  Hairs. 

We  will  mention  in  this  group  trout-spotted,  truite-mouchete,  marbled, 
wine-eolored,  and  rusty. 

Truite,  or  Trout-spotted. — The  truitures,  so  named  on  account 
of  their  resemblance  to  the  spots  which  are  found  on  the  trout,  are 
small  red  or  reddish  patches,  formed  of  bay  and  sorrel  hairs  upon  a 
base  of  white  or  gray.  They  differ  from  those  of  the  ordinary 
speckled  surface  only  by  their  color. 

Examples :  silver  white,  slightly  trout-spotted ;  light  gray,  very 
much  trout-spotted  upon  the  head,  the  sides,  and  the  croup. 

Truite-mouchete.— This  is  only  the  trout-spotted  peculiarity  in 
which  a  certain  number  of  truitures,  or  spots,  are  composed  of  hairs  of 
a  reddish-brown  or  almost  black  color,  whiclj  causes  them  to  resemble 
the  mouchetures,  or  fly-marks. 

Same  examples. 

Marbled. — From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have  called 
marble  spots  those  analogous  with  the  leopard  spots,  excepting  that 
they  are  composed  of  colored  hairs  (bay,  sorrel,  Isabella,  or  mouse) 
upon  a  white  or  light-gray  base. 

Examples  :  dirty  gray,  marbled  upon  the  croup  ;  light  silver  gray, 
marbled  upon  the  loins;  pied  rusty  black,  marbled  upon  the  left  shoulder 
and  the  right  side  of  the  neck. 

Wine-colored. — The  wine-color  is  characterized  by  the  presence 
of  red  hairs  mixed  with  those  of  a  gray  or  white  coat,  upon  any  part 
of  the  body.  Upon  the  white,  the  wine-colored  points  form  spots  ordi- 
narily well  circumscribed,  well  denned,  and  more  or  less  extensive ; 
upon  the  gray,  these  points  are  less  clearly  outlined,  their  color  not 
contrasting  so  well  with  the  gray.  When  the  wine-tint  is  generalized 
over  the  body  the  horse  is  designated  wine  gray. 

Examples  :  very  light  gray,  with  large  wine-colored  spot  over  the  back, 
sides,  and  abdomen  ;  ordinary  gray,  wine-colored  over  the  thighs. 

Rusty. — We  thus  designate  the  bright-red  or  yellowish-red  color- 
ation which  the  hairs  of  certain  regions  take,  such  as  around  the  ejes, 
the  alse  of  the  nose,  the  axilla,  the  breast,  the  elbows,  the  stifles,  and 
the  flanks,  in  bay  and  sorrel  horses  of  a  dark  tint. 

Examples  :  maroon  bay,  rusty  around  the  nostrils  and  eyes  ;  burnt 
sorrel,  rusty  at  the  elbows  and  stifles. 

6.     Hairs  of  Different  Directions. 

The  hairs  of  a  certain  region  do  not  always  have  the  same  direc- 
tion ;  at  times  there  are  some  which  take  a  direction  inverse  to  the 


792  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

others,  which  causes,  on  their  meeting  with  the  former,  a  turning  back 
or  a  more  or  less  circular  direction,  to  which  has  been  given  the  names 
epi,  cowlick,  and  tuft. 

Tufts,  or  cowlicks,  may  be  distinguished  as  concentric  and  eccentric, 
or,  again,  as  converging  and  diverging,  according  as  the  hairs  com- 
posing them  curl  up  and  converge  towards  a  centre,  or,  on  the  contrary, 
radiate  and  diverge  from  a  centre. 

Some  are  constant  and,  consequently,  exist  upon  all  horses ;  these 
are  met  with  on  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  on  the  breast,  the  axilla, 
and  the  superior  and  inferior  parts  of  the  flank ;  it  is  useless  to  men- 
tion their  presence. 

The  others  exist  only  on  some  animals,  and  constitute  peculiarities 
which  are  ordinarily  specified  in  a  complete  certificate  of  description  as 
to  their  form,  their  extent,  and  their  seat.  We  will  cite  as  examples 
the  epi  which  exists  upon  the  lateral  faces  of  the  neck  (Roman  sword), 
that  which  is  found  along  its  inferior  border,  that  which  is  between 
the  two  ears,  those  of  the  cheeks,  of  the  withers,  of  the  sternal  region, 
the  internal  face  of  the  thigh,  the  point  of  the  buttock,  etc. 

One  of  our  collaborators,  M.  Ledoyen,1  has  endeavored  to  give  the 
physiological  reason  of  the  constant  tufts. 

According  to  him,  they  are  designed  to  collect  the  perspiration 
upon  special  parts  of  the  body  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  drops, 
which  then  fall  directly  to  the  ground  instead  of  accumulating  in 
certain  places  exposed  to  friction,  and  where  the  skin  soon  becomes 
irritated  and  inflamed.  We  can  only  cite  this  interpretation,  for  any 
proof,  experimental  or  otherwise,  inclines  us  rather  to  admit  the  theory, 
not  to  deny  it. 

In  France,  and  indeed  throughout  Europe,  no  importance  is  attached 
to  the  presence  or  absence  of  cowlicks,  but  it  is  quite  different  with 
the  people  of  the  Orient,  who  attribute  to  them  great  influence,  aa 
being  so  many  good  or  bad  omens.  It  would  be  childish  to  dwell 
longer  on  this  point.  For  more  details  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  book 
of  General  Daumas,2  or  to  that  which  has  been  published  by  one  of 
our  collaborators,  Minot,  of  Lisy-sur-Ourcq.3 

Ourliness  or  Frizzles. — We  will  classify  with  the  tufts  a  pecu- 
liarity as  to  the  nature  of  which  our  colleague,  M.  Blanc,  the  Paris 
veterinarian,  has  had  the  kindness  to  direct  our  attention.  It  is  found 


1  Ledoyen,  Demonstration  de  la  valeur  des  6pis  et  des  causes  de  cette  valeur  chez  les  her- 
bivores, in  Memoires  de  la  Soci£t6  veterinaire  du  Calvados  et  de  la  Manche,  1851-1852,  p.  193. 

2  General  Daumas,  Les  chevaux  du  Sahara  et  les  mceurs  du  desert,  p.  143,  Paris,  1858. 

3  Minot,  Appreciation  du  cheval  et  des  qualit£s  intrinseques  de  cet  animal  pour  le  travail  et 
la  reproduction,  p.  232,  Paris,  1853. 


THE    COATS.  793 

in  certain  horses  whose  hairs  have  the  curly  aspect  of  astracan.  The 
Hackney  Cab  Company  has  had  several  such  horses  in  their  service. 
They  were  of  Danish  origin. 

This  peculiarity  can  be  indicated  by  the  expression  curly  or  friz- 
zled. 

Example  :  with  chestnut  sorrel  hair,  frizzled. 

7.  Discoloration  of  the  Hairs  or  of  the  Skin. 

The  hairs  and  the  integument  itself  are  in  certain  cases  the  seat  of 
discolorations  which  it  is  important  to  note.  They  include  the  washed 
hairs  and  the  leprous  spots. 

Washed  Hairs. — This  expression  signifies  a  general  or  partial 
discoloration  of  the  coat,  as  if  the  hairs  had  been  subjected  to  the  action 
of  water  in  order  to  make  its  primitive  color  disappear. 

Examples  :  dappled  burnt  sorrel,  washed  at  the  elbows  and  the  stifles  ; 
brown  bay,  washed  at  the  axilla,  the  flank,  and  the  buttocks  ;  light  sorrel, 
washed. 

Leprous  Spots  (Ladre).— These  terms,  used  to  describe  the  in- 
tegumentary .lesions  in  lepers,  are  applied,  in  the  exterior,  to  the  parts 
of  the  integument  which  are  destitute  of  their  normal  coloration  in 
consequence  of  the  absence  of  the  cutaneous  pigment  in  these  places. 
The  skin  in  these  locations  is  of  a  pale  or  rosy  color,  which  greatly 
contrasts  with  the  surrounding  black  surface.  Irregular  spots,  ordi- 
narily denuded,  thus  result,  which  can  be  compared  to  the  surface,  at 
times  variously  colored,  of  the  leprous  skin. 

The  discolorations  are  most  often  met  around  and  in  the  interior  of 
the  natural  openings  (mouth,  nostrils,  eyes,  sheath,  anus,  vulva),  or 
upon  the  testicles,  the  mamma},  the  internal  face  of  the  thighs,  the 
perineum,  and  the  trunk  of  the  tail ;  at  times  they  are  disseminated 
over  the  body  in  the  different  regions,  and  then  the  presence  of  the 
hairs  renders  them  less  visible.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  they 
are  capable  of  increasing  both  in  extent  and  in  number,  as  well  as  of 
disappearing,  although  the  causes  of  these  singular  phenomena  cannot 
be  explained. 

Leprous  spots  are  named — 

Mixed,  when  the  skin,  which  is  their  seat,  is  still  provided  with 
hairs. 

Bordered,  when,  hairless  in  its  centre,  it  is  prolonged  under  the  pe- 
ripheral hairs  and  forms  with  them  a  sort  of  border  around  the  given  spot. 

Marbled,  when  it  presents  here  and  there  black  spots  or  very  dark 
points,  at  the  level  of  which  the  skin  is  not  discolored. 


794  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Absence  of  Hairs. — All  horses  are  not  born  with  the  same 
quantity  of  hairs ;  in  certain  foals  their  diminution  may  even  amount 
to  a  complete  absence,  called  alopecia.  These  circumstances  are  ex- 
tremely rare,  and  science  mentions  but  a  very  small  number  of  them. 
I.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire  only  mentions  this  anomaly ; l  De  Curnieti 
reports  several  examples,2  and  one  of  us  has  also  had  a  case  of  this 
kind,  in  1832,  in  a  menagerie. 

B. — Peculiarities  of  the  Head. 

The  peculiarities  proper  to  the  head  are  the  following :  white  mark 
of  the  he  ad,  fox-nosed,  moustaches,  Moor-headed,  Moor-faced,  wall- eye, 
and  fawn-eye. 

White  Mark  of  the  Head. — We  term  by  this  expression  the 
whole  of  the  white  coloration  located  upon  the  forehead  or  upon  the 
face.  It  should  be  examined  in  relation  to  its  extent,  its  form,  its 
situation,  its  direction,  its  composition,  and  its  termination.  Let  us 
review  the  expressions  which  characterize  its  diverse  conditions : 

1st.  When  the  mark  is  located  upon  the  forehead  we  say  : 

a.  Relative  to  its  extent : 

Some  hairs  on  the  head,  when  the  horse  has  here  very  few 
white  hairs. 

Scattered,  if  it  presents  a  large  number. 

Medium,  Avhen  there  exists  a  spot  of  ordinary  dimensions. 

Prolonged,  in  cases  where  the  mark  is  prolonged  upon  the  face. 

Interrupted,  when  it  is  intersected  by  a  place  deprived  of  white 
hairs. 

Large,  in  cases  where  the  mark  is  extensive. 

b.  Relative  to  its  form,  it  is  also  designated — 
Irregular,  when  the  white  has  no  recognized  form. 
Blaze,  if  the  mark  is  round. 

Star,  when  it  presents  prolongations  analogous  to  the  rays  of  a  star. 

List,  whenever  it  is  elongated  towards  the  nostrils. 

Crescent,  when  it  simulates  the  arc  of  a  circle.  We  then  indi- 
cate whether  the  concavity  or  opening  of  this  crescent  is  in  relation  to 
the  right,  the  left,  above  or  below. 

Flame,  when  it  has  the  form  of  the  flame  of  a  candle. 

Heart,  if  it  has  the  form  of  the  heart  on  a  playing-card. 

1 1.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Histoire  gene"rale  et  particuliere  des  anomalies  de  1'organisation, 
t.  i.  p.  702,  Paris,  1832. 

2  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  Ire  partie,  p.  196. 


THE    COATS.  795 

Bifurcated,  when  it  presents  two  prolongations  separating  at  an 
acute  angle. 

Pointed,  when  it  terminates  in  a  point  above,  below,  to  the  right, 
or  to  the  left. 

c.  Relative  to  its  situation  : 

High,  when  it  is  situated  high  up  on  the  forehead. 
Low,  in  the  opposite  case. 
To  the  left,  when  it  approaches  the  left  eyelid. 
To  the  right,  \vhen  it  is  nearer  to  the  right. 

d.  Relative  to  its  direction  : 
Oblique,  if  it  is  elongated  obliquely. 
Transverse,  if  it  extends  transversely. 

e.  Relative  to  its  composition,  this  mark  is  said  to  be — 
Mixed,  when  the  base  of  the  coat  appears  to  be  mixed  with  the 

white  hairs  which  compose  it. 

Bordered,  when  it  is  circumscribed  by  a  mixed  border. 
Trout-spotted,  when  it  is  interspersed  by  red  points. 
Speckled,  when  it  is  mixed  with  black  points. 
Ermined,  in  cases  where  it  is  provided  with  larger  black  points. 

2d.  When  the  mark  is  located  upon  the  face  it  is  a  list,  and  is 
designated  : 

a.  In  relation  to  its  width : 

Small  list,  when  it  is  narrow. 

List,  if  it  has  a  mean  width. 

Wide  list,  when  it  occupies  the  whole  width  of  the  middle  part 
of  the  face. 

Semi- white-faced,  when  it  also  extends  upon  one  of  the  lateral 
surfaces. 

White-faced,  when  it  extends  upon  the  two  lateral  surfaces  of 
the  face. 

6.  In  relation  to  its  length,  the  list  is — 

Complete,  if  it  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  face. 

Incomplete,  when  it  is  not  prolonged,  below,  to  the  extremity  of 
the  nose,  or  when  it  does  not  extend,  above,  to  the  forehead.  It  should 
then  be  mentioned  on  which  side  it  is  incomplete. 

Interrupted,  if  it  is  intersected  by  hairs  of  the  same  color  as  the 
base  of  the  coat. 

When  it  is  prolonged  to  the  upper  or  the  lower  lip,  involving  them 
wholly  or  in  part,  it  deserves  particular  mention. 

c.  In  relation  to  its  termination,  the  list  is — 


796  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Pointed,  when  it  converges  towards  the  extremity  of  the  nasal 
spine  by  forming  a  point  analogous  to  the  latter. 

Dentated,  when  it  terminates  by  indentations  or  teeth. 

Terminated  in  leprous  spots,  when  it  is  mixed  inferiorly  with 
some  leprous  spots. 

d.  In  relation  to  its  direction,  it  is — 

Deviated  to  the  right,  when  it  passes  upon  the  right  lateral 
surface. 

Deviated  to  the  left,  in  the  contrary  case. 

e.  Finally,  in  relation  to  its  composition,  it  may  be — 
Mixed,  bordered,  trout-spotted,  spotted,  and  ermined, 

identical  with  the  white  mark  on  the  forehead. 

Fox-nosed. — We  designate  by  this  expression  the  rusty  colora- 
tion,— that  is  to  say,  the  red  or  yellow  hairs  which  horses  of  a  dark 
color  (brown  bays,  burnt  sorrels)  have  upon  the  alee  of  the  nostrils 
and  around  the  lips. 

Moustaches. — The  moustaches  are  tufts  of  long  hairs,  white  or 
colored,  which  the  superior  lip  presents  on  each  side.  This  peculiarity 
is  rarely  (though  incorrectly)  noted. 

Moor-headed. — The  horse  is  Moor-headed,  cap  de  Maure,  when 
the  head  is  black  or  much  darker  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  as  is  seen 
in  the  iron  gray,  the  mouse,  the  roan,  the  Isabella,  and  the  fox-color. 

Moor-faced. — The  animal  is  Moor-faced  \vhen  the  inferior  part 
of  the  head  or  the  face  is  of  a  black  or  very  dark  color. 

Wall-eye. — The  eye  whose  iris  is  of  an  ashy  or  bluish  color, 
instead  of  being  brown,  is  called  wall-eye  ;  the  horse  is  also  said  to  be 
'  silver-eyed.  This  discoloration  often  exists  in  a  single  eye  as  well  as  in 
both  ;  more  rarely  it  is  seen  only  in  a  portion  of  one  or  other  of  these 
organs.  It  is  said  that  horses  which  are  thus  marked  have  less  clear 
vision  in  darkness  (Brivet).1 

Fawn-eye. — "  The  color  of  the  iris  sometimes  takes  a  fawn  or 
lees-of-wine  tint;  to  this  eye  we  preferably  give  the  name  fawn, 
because  this  tint  is  most  usual.  We  should  mention  this  peculiarity, 
although  it  has  not  yet  been  described  by  authors''  (Brivet2). 

C.— Peculiarities  of  the  Body. 

The  peculiarities  whose  exclusive  seat  is  upon  the  body  are  the 
mule  ray,  the  cross  upon  the  withers,  the  roebuck  abdomen,  the  white  or 
washed  mane  and  tail,  and  the  mixed  mane  and  tail. 

1  Brivet,  loc.  cit.,  p.  191.  2  ibid.,  loc.  cit .  p.  192. 


THE    COATS.  797 

Mule  Ray. — The  mule  ray  or  stripe  is  a  dark  or  black  stripe, 
formed  of  black  or  red  hairs,  of  a  maroon  or  brown  tint,  which 
extends,  upon  the  median  line,  from  the  withers  to  the  base  of  the  tail. 

It  is  observed  upon  Isabella,  bay,  sorrel,  mouse-colored,  gray,  and 
fawn-colored  horses,  but  not  in  all,  which  constitutes  it  an  occasional 
peculiarity  of  these  coats. 

Cross  upon  the  Withers. — This  expression  is  used  to  designate 
a  dark  stripe  which  passes  transversely  across  the  withers  upon  the 
sides  of  the  shoulders.  It  is  found  upon  the  same  coats  as  the  pre- 
ceding marking,  although  more  rarely. 

Sometimes  it  extends  upon  one  shoulder  only,  which  should  always 
be  mentioned. 

Examples  :  light  Isabella,  mule  ray  and  cross ;  ordinary  mouse, 
mule  ray  and  cross  to  the  right;  fawn  sorrel,  cross;  chestnut  bay, 
mule  ray. 

Roebuck  Abdomen. — This  is  only  a  yellowish  washed  colora- 
tion of  the  inferior  face  of  the  abdomen,  which  often  extends  to  the 
hairs  of  the  sheath,  the  testicles,  the  mammae,  the  internal  face  of  the 
thigh,  and  the  perineum.  It  is  especially  marked  in  the  Isabella,  the 
bay,  the  sorrel,  and  the  fox  coats. 

This  expression,  because  of  its  inaccuracy,  is  no  longer  used.  It 
is  simpler  and  more  exact,  in  fact,  to  specify  the  parts  which  are  the 
seat  of  this  peculiar  color. 

White  or  Washed  Mane  and  Tail.— When  the  mane  and 
tail  are  white  in  black,  bay,  Isabella,  sorrel,  mouse,  and  fawn  horses, 
instead  of  being  black  or  dark,  we  designate  them  white  or  washed; 
also  if  they  are  completely  or  only  partially  so. 

Examples  :  burnt  sorrel,  white  mane  and  tail ;  dark  bay,  washed 
mane  and  tail ;  ordinary  black,  base  of  tail  white  ;  dark  Isabella,  middle 
portion  of  mane  washed. 

Mixed  Mane  and  Tail. — The  mane  and  tail  are  called  mixed 
when  they  contain  some  white  hairs  which  do  not  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  coat  considered,  such  as  the  black,  the  sorrel,  the  bay,  the 
Isabella,  the  mouse,  and  the  fox.  Ordinarily  the  mixing  is  only  partial. 

Examples  :  mahogany  bay,  tail  mixed ;  rusty  black,  base  of  mane 
mixed  ;  Isabella,  mane  and  tail  mixed. 

D.— Peculiarities  of  the  Members. 

The  peculiarities  which  concern  the  members  are  the  white-foot,  the 
zebra  stripes,  and  the  arborizations.  To  these  should  be  added  the 
diverse  colorations  of  the  horn  of  the  hoof. 


798  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

White-feet. — White-feet  consist  of  white  marks  on  the  inferior 
part  of  the  members.  They  are  very  common  and  are  seen  in  nearly 
all  the  coats,  even  the  gray,  where  they  are,  however,  less  striking. 

They  must  be  examined  in  relation  to  their  number,  their  extent, 
their  form,  and  their  composition. 

a.  In  relation  to  their  number,  the  horse  may  have — 

One  white-foot,  and  then  the  member  which  is  involved  should 
be  mentioned. 

Example  :  white-foot,  anterior  left. 

Two  white-feet,  in  which  case  they  are  necessarily  anterior,  pos- 
terior, lateral,  or  diagonal. 

Examples  :  white- feet  right  lateral  biped,  left  diagonal  biped,  etc. 

Three  white-feet. — Here  it  will  suffice  to  specify  the  one  which 
is  isolated.  Example :  three  white-feet,  posterior  left.  This  signifies 
that  the  right  posterior  alone  is  not  white. 

Four  white-feet. — This  needs  no  further  explanation.  It  suffices 
to  mention  the  character  of  these  markings. 

Old  veterinarians  named  arzel  the  subject  whose  posterior  right 
foot  alone  was  white.  The  legend  narrates  that  such  a  marking  was 
considered  as  a  very  bad  omen.  In  support  of  this,  it  is  related  *  that 
the  mount  of  a  certain  Sejanus,  a  Roman  consul  and  favorite  of  Tibe- 
rius, was  thus  marked,  and  as  this  horse  killed  in  succession  each  of 
its  five  owners,  it  became  the  fashion  to  say  of  a  man  who  seemed 
threatened  with  an  unfortunate  end,  "  He  has  the  horse  of  Sejanus."  2 

Let  us  add  that  horse-dealers  also  call  magpie  the  bay  horse  with 
four  white  feet.  They  also  give  the  same  name  to  pied  horses. 

b.  In  relation  to  its  extent,  the  white-foot  is  designated — 
Incomplete,  if  it  does  not  completely  circumscribe  the  member. 
Interrupted,  if  its  course  is  broken  by  black  or  colored  hairs,  or 

if  it  is  not  continued  to  the  extremity  of  the  member. 

Trace  of  white-foot,  when  it  occupies  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  coronet. 

Beginning  of  white-foot,  when  it  only  involves  the  region  of 
the  coronet,  which  it  completely  surrounds. 

Small  white-foot,  when  it  surrounds  the  coronet  and  the  pastern. 

White-foot,  when  it  extends  to  the  fetlock. 


1  De  Lafont-Pouloti,  Nouveau  regime  pour  les  haras,  p.  23,  Paris.  1787 

2  See,  for  more  details,  Solleysel,  Le  parfait  mareschal,  Paris,  1693,  t.  ii.  p.  129. 


THE    COATS.  799 

Large  white -foot,  or  half-stocking,  when  it  reaches  the  middle 
of  the  canon. 

Stocking,  when  it  extends  to  the  knee  or  the  hock. 

High  stocking,  when  it  reaches  still  higher  and  extends  upon  the 
forearm  and  the  leg. 

Finally,  very  high  stocking,  when  it  reaches  the  vicinity_of  the 
body. 

c.  In  relation  to  its  composition,  it  is  similar  to  the  markings  of 
the  head  : 

Bordered,  speckled,  ermined,  trout-spotted,  mixed,  mar- 
bled, etc. 

We  should  mention  the  white-feet  of  gray  horses  only  in  cases 
where  these  markings  are  perfectly  apparent. 

[In  a  certificate  of  soundness,  it  suffices  to  specify  the  name  of  the 
region  which  is  white,  it  being  understood  that  the  white  coloration 
exists.  As  to  the  head,  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  the  character 
of  the  marking  without  stating  that  it  is  on  the  head. 

Examples :  light  bay,  star,  off  hind  pastern ;  burnt  sorrel,  blaze, 
three  half-stockings  near  hindj] 

Zebra  Marks. — The  zebra  marks  are  black  or  blackish  sinuous 
lines  directed  transversely  upon  the  regions  of  the  forearm,  the  leg,  the 
knee,  the  hock,  and  the  canon,  which  recall  somewhat  the  disposition 
of  those  seen  upon  the  zebra.  They  are  observed  more  frequently 
upon  the  Isabella,  the  mouse,  the  sorrel,  and  the  fawn  bay, 

Arborizations. — The  arborizations  are  peculiarities  analogous  to 
the  preceding,  but  differ  from  the  latter  in  that  they  are  formed  of 
white  hairs.  They  are  located  upon  the  external  face  of  the  forearm, 
the  leg,  and  the  back  of  the  ears,  in  horses  exclusively  gray.  Our 
observations,  extending  over  a  long  period,  have  taught  us  that  these 
markings  follow  very  accurately  the  direction  of  the  corresponding 
subcutaneous  arterial  branches  (anterior  radial,  anterior  tibial,  and 
posterior  auricular  arteries). 

Color  of  the  Horn. — The  color  of  the  skin  of  the  coronary 
band  determines  that  of  the  horn  of  the  hoof  in  the  parts  situated 
below.  It  is  frequently  modified  by  white  markings  in  the  region  of 
the  foot,  and  may,  in  fact,  be  white,  black,  or  mixed. 

3.  Causes  of  the  Modifications  of  the  Coats. 

In  general,  coats  of  the  same  color  and  even  the  same  shade  have 
not,  at  all  times,  identical  characters.  This  is  due  to  diverse  influ- 


800 


THE   EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


SYNOPTICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  COATS. 


General  Peculiarities. 


Special  Peculiarities. 


(WITHOUT  FIXED  LOCATION.)                          HEAD.                           BODY  AND  MEMBERS. 

1.    White     Mark    of    the 

head.                                           I.—  Body. 

(Some  hairs. 

f  Jet  black. 

Scattered.            l'  Mule  ray- 

Silver. 

*•   \  Medium.             2.  Cross  upon  the  withers. 

1.  Brilliant 

Golden. 

H 

Large.                  3.  Roebuck  abdomen. 

reflections. 

Copper. 
Bronze. 

9 

Proton  P-ed            >i      TT^^  -^                    z.   j 
wAigcv*.          ^^    Jr/j,tre   or  wastiea  mane 

Interrupted.                and  tail 

Wavy. 

Irregular.            5    m    d  mane  and  taiL 

9      <?  t>   //  d 

Blaze. 

,    .            \  Dappled. 

Star. 

hairs. 

g 

List.                               II.—  Members. 

Solid-colored.        ^ 

I- 

Crescent. 

Rubican.                < 

K 

Heart.                  1-    White-feet. 

3.  White 

Snow-flaky.            £ 
Flea-bitten.           ^ 

Flame. 
Bifurcated. 

1  White-foot  (antf- 
1  poster. 

hairs. 

Grayish.                 < 

Pointed. 

Bordered. 

£ 

r  High. 

'anter. 

Accidental 

"H 

Low. 

o  ~w7"Vi-      f        poster. 

markings. 

H 

Right.                  gj 

White-teet-  ja|.erajj 

CO 

i  Left.                     |  . 

,  diagon. 

Speckled. 
Mouchete- 

^   f  Oblique.                § 
2  1  Transverse. 

3  White-feet  -)ai 

truite. 

M 

Ermined. 

^ 

Mixed. 

r  poster. 

4.  Black 

hairs. 

Leopard  - 
spotted. 
Spurious  brand- 
iron  mark. 
Louveture. 

o 

I: 

i 

u 
. 

Bordered. 
Trout-spotted. 
Speckled. 
Ermined. 

Small  list. 

4  White-feet. 

Incomplete. 
Interrupted. 
Trace. 

5.  Red 

hairs. 

Trout-spotted. 
Truite-rnou- 
chete. 
Marbled. 
Wine-colored. 
Rusty. 

H 

Wide  list. 
Semi  -white  face,  g 
(  White  face. 
'  Complete. 
Incomplete. 
Interrupted. 

Coronet. 
Pastern. 
Fetlock. 
Middle  of  canon. 
Stocking  (knee  or 
hock). 
Forearm  or  leg. 

,    TT  •       /•  1                f  Concen- 
6.  Hairsof       T  ^            tpic         ^. 

I- 

1 

f  Supe- 

To  body. 

different      \        ,      j    Eccen-     J§ 
directions.                           ..         *S 

3 

rior.    g 

Irregular. 
Regular. 

*/                      L                         ^ 

.  "•                        O 

Pointed 

"2 

-5   f  Pointed                fe 

Dentated. 

Discolorations  : 

|  j  Dentated. 

Of  the  coat.         Washed. 

H   [  Leprous  spots.     £ 
*   (  List  to  right.       § 

Mixed. 
Bordered. 

Of  the\  Leprous    \    R^dered. 
skin,    f      spots.     |  Marbled; 

M 
H 

I  List  to  left.          §  -j  Trout-spotted. 
'  Mixed.                  &      Speckled. 
Bordered.             8   [  Ermined. 

Absence  of  hairs.  {    p!^1' 

1 

Sreckied?tted'    2'   ^&raw^^- 

\    Partial. 

8 

Ermined.            3.  Arborizations. 

2.  Fox-nosed.                                                     f  White. 

3.  Moustaches.                    *•  Horn  of  hoofs,  j  Black. 

4.   Moor-headed.                                                I  Mixed. 

5.  Moor-faced. 

6.    Wall-eye. 

7.  Fawn-  eye. 

THE    COATS.  801 

ences,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  following  :  the  age,  the  sex, 
the  cleanliness  of  the  skin,  the  nourishment,  the  condition  and  the 
health,  the  atmospheric  action,  the  humidity  of  the  air,  the  sunlight,  the 
season,  the  climate,  the  moulting,  and  the  tinctorial  action  of  certain 
substances. 

Age. — The  foal  is  covered,  at  birth,  with  fine,  short,  woolly-hairs 
of*  a  dark  color,  which,  towards  the  middle  of  the  first  year,  are  re- 
placed by  those  of  the  distinctive  or  adult  coat.  Hence  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  foretell  at  this  period  what  the  latter  will  be.  The  head  and 
the  extremities  are  sometimes  an  index,  but  are  frequently  uncertain. 
"  Thus,"  says  De  Curnieu,1  "  the  gray  is  always  born  very  dark,  and 
sometimes  absolutely  black ;  the  black,  on  the  contrary,  is  at  first  red- 
dish or  mouse-colored,  and  now  and  then  even  ashy  gray.  The  bay  and 
the  sorrel  are  sometimes  darker  at  birth  and  sometimes  lighter  than  at 
the  adult  age,  and  in  all  cases  the  legs  are  of  a  fawn-color,  which 
becomes  so  light  towards  the  region  of  the  foot  that  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  use  care  to  distinguish  them  from  white-feet.  At  this  age  the 
coat  leads  us  into  frequent  errors  and  doubts." 

In  proportion  as  the  animal  grows  older  the  coat,  even  when  it 
appears  made,  is  modified  by  the  more  or  less  early  appearance  of  white 
hairs.  Let  us  recall,  in  passing,  that  it  is  the  knowledge  of  this  fact 
which  has  led  us  to  adopt  the  grouping  established  by  Professor  Neu- 
mann,— that  is  to  say,  to  divide  the  coats  into  primitive  and  derived. 

Sometimes  the  white  hairs  appear  at  an  early  period,  especially 
around  the  eyes,  the  temples,  and  the  ears,  in  horses  which  later  will 
become  gray,  white,  flea-bitten,  or  roan.  The  last  two  are  always 
sorrel  or  bay  at  birth ;  then  they  become  rubican,  and  at  the  end 
of  a  variable  period  the  white  hairs  are  so  numerous  that  the  coat 
must  be  classed  as  roan  or  flea-bitten.  Generally,  they  do  not  remain 
thus :  the  white  in  them  always  increases  more  and  more.  These 
remarks  apply  equally  well  to  the  black  destined  to  become  gray 
afterwards. 

Sex. — The  influence  of  sex  is  ordinarily  combined  with  several 
other  causes  of  which  we  will  speak.  Nevertheless,  it  is  commonly 
observed  that  in  stallions  the  hairs  are  darker,  of  a  brighter  shade>  and 
fresher-looking  than  in  geldings  and  mares.  The  same  is  true  of  their 
diverse  reflections. 

Cleanliness  of  the  Skin. — The  cleanliness  of  the  skin  and  the 
hairs,  obtained  by  good  grooming,  lotions,  baths,  and  local  lathering> 

1  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit,  Ire  partie,  p.  185. 
51 


802  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

lathering,  gives  to  the  coat  a  lustre  and  a  brilliancy  which  are  not  seen 
in  those  of  horses  improperly  cared  for.  The  latter  are  always  dull ; 
the  white  and  light  gray  are  dull  and  ordinarily  soiled  by  the  litter  in 
the  regions  of  the  thighs,  the  buttocks,  the  sides,  the  elbows,  the  knees, 
the  hocks,  and  the  fetlocks. 

Nourishment,  Condition,  Health. — A  good  alimentation,  es- 
pecially a  grain  regimen,  a  satisfactory  degree  of  corpulence,  and  a  good 
state  of  health  render  the  hairs  smooth,  fine,  brilliant,  the  shade  of 
the  coat  more  bright,  and  the  skin  supple.  On  the  contrary,  in  poorly- 
nourished,  thin,  emaciated,  or  diseased  horses  the  hairs  are  rough  and 
staring  and  have  a  dead  color. 

Atmospheric  Action. — Animals  which  are  always  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  open  air  and  the  sun,  and  those  which  run  in  pasture  day 
and  night,  for  example,  are  soon  sunburnt  or  tanned,  and  are  covered 
with  long,  dry,  dead,  staring  hairs  of  lighter  tint.  It  is  different  with 
those  which  are  constantly  kept  in  the  stable,  protected  from  the  atmos- 
pheric inclemencies,  the  dust,  or  the  cold  by  coverings  or  blankets, 
under  which  the  coat  loses  nothing  of  its  lustre  and  its  brilliancy. 

Humidity  of  the  Air. — Dampness  makes  the  coat  darker,  by 
moistening  the  hairs,  causing  them  to  adhere  to  one  another,  and 
modifying  their  reflections ;  mist  or  fog  simply  deadens  it,  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  brilliantly-polished  object  which  is  placed  in  an  atmosphere 
charged  with  watery  vapor. 

Sunlight. — The  direct  action  of  sunlight  altogether  changes  the 
aspect  of  the  coat,  especially  in  well-groomed  horses.  It  then  commu- 
nicates to  the  hairs  incomparably  bright  shades  and  brilliant  reflections. 
Under  these  conditions  the  white,  the  light  gray,  the  black,  the  bay, 
the  sorrel,  and  the  Isabella  become,  according  to  circumstances,  silver, 
jet,  golden,  copper,  bronze,  and  sometimes  rainbow-colored.  In  the 
shade  all  these  peculiarities  disappear. 

Season  and  Climate.— The  influence  of  the  seasons  and  the 
climates  seems  to  be  dependent  upon  the  sunlight  and  the  hygrometric 
state  of  the  air.  Thus  the  hairs  are  shorter,  smoother,  more  shiny, 
and  darker  in  summer  than  in  winter,  when  they  lose  their  reflection, 
become  longer,  coarser,  paler,  and  washed.  Besides,  in  warm  climates 
the  coat  is  more  brilliant  and  its  shades  brighter  than  in  cold  and  moist 
climates.  However,  these  characters  change  as  soon  as  the  atmosphere 
becomes  cloudy  and  damp.  This  is  due  to  the  less  intense  light  and 
to  the  moisture,  two  causes  which  contribute  to  render  the  coat  dull 
and  sombre. 

Moulting. — In  general,  moulting  or  shedding  the  coat  gives  to 


THE    COATS.  803 

it  a  lighter  color,  because  the  hairs  are  always  paler  at  their  base 
than  at  their  point ;  it  becomes,  on  the  contrary,  slightly  darker  in 
the  white  and  light  gray,  because  it  allows  us  to  perceive  the  black 
color  of  the  skin.  Let  us  cite  some  examples  :  the  ordinary  black 
becomes  rusty ;  the  burnt  sorrel,  maroon ;  the  cherry  bay,  light ;  the 
dark  Isabella,  ordinary  ;  the  ordinary  mouse,  light ;  the  roan,  flea- 
bitten  (upon  the  body  only) ;  finally,  the  louvet,  Isabella  and~some- 
times  almost  white.  But  in  proportion  as  the  hairs  grow  the  horse 
regains  little  by  little  his  primitive  shade. 

Tinctorial  Action  of  Certain  Substances. — Garsault1  has 
spoken  of  horses  dyed  bay,  bay  brown,  or  black,  in  order  to  prevent 
their  recognition,  or  to  arrange  them  better  with  reference  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  owner.  Unfortunately,  at  the  next  moulting-time  the 
horse  will  recover  his  old  coat,  sometimes  even  fifteen  days  afterwards, 
if  the  color  has  been  sparingly  used  !  This  fraudulent  practice  is  no 
longer  employed ;  there  are,  however,  a  few  dyers  who  use  it  in  order 
to  conceal  the  imperfections  in  the  colors  of  dogs. 

The  application  of  certain  medicaments  to  the  skin  produces  for 
a  short  time  an  abnormal  coloration  of  the  coat.  Such  are  the  tinct- 
ure of  iodine,  which  stains  it  more  or  less  yellow ;  nitrate  of  silver, 
black ;  Villate's  solution,  pale  green ;  ointment  of  the  biniodide  of 
mercury,  which  colors  it  red  ;  mercurial  ointment,  slaty  gray  ;  unguen- 
tum  populeum,  vegetable  green,  etc.  It  suffices  to  call  attention  to 
these  artificial  peculiarities,  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  confounded 
with  the  natural ;  they  are  of  but  temporary  duration. 

4.     Indices  furnished  by  the  Coats  and  their  Peculiarities  as 
to  the  Qualities  of  Horses. 

What  is  more  difficult  to  overcome  than  prejudices  and  superstitious 
ideas?  Often  a  simple  examination  would  suffice  to  overthrow  them, 
but,  nevertheless,  they  always  find  here  and  there  minds  disposed  to 
give  them  a  kind  welcome  and  to  propagate  them. 

This  is  shown  very  plainly  by  all  that  has  been  said  and  written 
upon  the  selecting  of  horses  according,  exclusively,  to  their  coat  or  their 
peculiar  markings. 

The  color  of  the  hairs,  their  shade,  the  form  of  the  white  marking 
on  the  head,  the  number  and  extent  of  the  white  feet,  the  presence,  the 
form,  and  the  situation  of  the  tufts,  etc.,  have  all  served  as  the  basis 
of  a  theory,  and  the  theorists  have  committed  the  error  of  arguing 
from  a  particular  premise  to  the  general.  A  brown  bay  horse,  for  ex- 

i  Garsault,  N.ouveau  par  fait  marshal,  p.  36,  4e  6d.,  Paris,  1770. 


804  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

ample,  which  has  shown  himself  endowed  with  great  qualities,  has  a 
star  on  the  forehead ;  this  has  been  sufficient,  in  many  cases,  to  give 
this  coat  and  this  marking  a  premium  over  all  others. 

Here,  as  in  all  preconceived  ideas,  coincidences  have  been  noticed 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  contrary  facts,  interpreted  as 
exceptions,  although  more  numerous.  Thus,  black  horses  are  but 
slightly  esteemed,  because  they  are  used  in  hearses ;  white  horses  and 
those  whose  coat  is  pale  or  washed  are  rejected,  under  the  pretence  that 
they  are  slow,  lymphatic,  and  deficient  in  energy ;  sorrel  horses  are  in 
disrepute,  because  they  are  believed  to  be  of  a  vicious  temperament,  etc. 

In  other  cases,  there  is  not  even  the  shadow  of  a  reason  in  favor 
of  the  judgment  formed.  Taste,  fancy,  caprice,  and  fashion  alone 
determine  the  choice.  "  It  is  even  impossible,"  writes  De  Curnieu, 
keen  connoisseur  though  he  be,1  "for  a  man  with  much  experience 
among  horses  not  to  have  certain  whimsical  preferences  for  such  or  such 
a  coat,  or  such  or  such  a  mark.  Thus,  I  never  like  to  buy  a  cherry 
bay  horse  with  four  white  feet,  while  a  brown  bay  with  these  markings 
pleases  me,  provided  he  has  a  white  mark  on  the  head.  I  prefer  the 
Isabella  to  be  solid-colored,  and  the  black  to  have  at  least  a  star  on  the 
forehead.  Two  hind  white  feet  and  a  list  appear  to  me  good  signs 
in  a  black,  a  bay,  and,  especially,  a  sorrel  horse.  The  proverb,  (  Cheval 
de  trois,  cheval  de  roi,'  intending  to  express  that  a  horse  with  three  white 
feet  often  has  more  brilliancy  than  endurance,  is  frequently  true.  Two- 
fore  white  feet  and  one  or  none  behind,  and,  in  general,  more  white  in 
front  than  behind,  diminishes  greatly,  to  my  mind,  the  value  of  a  horse. 
Finally,  although  with  all  the  coats  there  are  found  horses  extraordi- 
narily good  as  well  as  bad,  I  always  much  prefer  the  burnt  or  golden 
sorrel,  the  bay,  and  the  trout-spotted." 

These  opinions,  which  vary  with  the  observers,  the  times,  and  the 
places,  being  credited  to-day,  disbelieved  to-morrow,  and  revived  later 
on, — will  they  not,  like  the  belief  of  the  ignorant  in  the  mysterious,  be 
banished  by  a  more  rigorous  observation  and  a  more  careful  judgment 
of  facts? 

In  this  respect,  it  is  interesting  to  read  the  works  of  the  old  horse- 
doctors  and  horsemen.  In  most  cases  they  abound  in  the  strangest 
kind  of  superstitions,  which  Solleysel 2  and  Garsault,3  especially,  have 
reprinted  too  indulgently. 

Strictly  speaking,  all  persons  do  not  manifest  the  same  credulity 

1  De  Curnieu,  loc.  cit.,  Ire  partie,  p.  194. 

2  Solleysel,  Le  parfait  mareschal,  2e  partie,  p.  126,  et  suiv.  ed.  de  1698. 
»  De  Garsault,  loc.  cit.,  p.  15. 


THE    COATS.  805 

concerning  the  indices  furnished  by  the  coats  and  their  peculiarities. 
Thus,  Gaspard  de  Saunier l  does  not  hesitate  to  speak  of  these  remarks 
as  apure  fiddle-faddle  and  imagination  !"  The  old  proverb,  which 
says  that  "  there  are  good  horses  under  all  colors"  was  not  unknown  to 
him,  and  he  leaves  us  to  suppose  that  the  prejudice  against  white,  pale, 
washed,  sorrel,  black,  and  white-footed  horses,  leprous  spots,  etc.,  had, 
even  at  that  time,  numerous  opponents. 

We  do  not  intend  to  examine  these  strange  and  incongruous  opin- 
ions. We  will,  nevertheless,  mention  some  special  requirements  and 
peculiar  facts  worthy  of  interest. 

In  general,  in  pleasure-horses,  the  darker  coats,  especially  the  black 
and  the  sorrel,  are  sought  after,  on  account  of  their  great  lustre,  their 
more  brilliant  reflections,  and  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be  groomed. 
Nevertheless,  the  choice  of  the  coat  has  at  times  another  guide  than 
fancy  and  style.  Thus,  in  the  hunter  the  gray  is  preferred,  because 
this  color  contrasts  more  sharply  with  the  red  costume  of  the  huntsman. 

At  other  times  the  purchaser  desires  a  particular  coat  for  the  reason 
that  it  is,  as  it  were,  a  race  characteristic.  Percheron  and  Brittany 
horses,  for  example,  being  nearly  always  gray,  are  not  in  great  demand, 
either  in  France  or  other  countries,  if  they  have  a  color  which  shows 
that  they  have  been  contaminated  with  some  inferior  races. 

In  the  French  army  it  is  known  that  at  the  remount  depots  gray 
and  white  horses  are  condemned  on  account  of  their  color,  which  can  be 
too  easily  distinguished  on  the  battle-field. 

Moreover,  the  white  and  the  gray  coats  are  objectionable  in  other 
respects,  which  justify  in  part  the  slight  esteem  in  which  they  are  held. 
They  are  soiled  very  easily  by  the  litter  and  mud,  and  become  very 
unpleasant,  at  the  time  of  moulting,  to  the  rider  and  the  driver  on  ac- 
count of  the  white  hairs  which  freely  fly  about ;  finally,  they  predispose 
the  animal  to  the  formation  at  some  time  of  melanotic  tumors,  either 
internally  or  upon  the  exterior  of  the  body,  which  may  occasion  con- 
siderable inconvenience  and  may  even  cause  the  death  of  the  animal  in 
some  rare  cases. 

We  recall,  on  this  subject,  the  appropriate  remark  of  our  col- 
league Mercier  (of  £vreux),  that  subjects  affected  with  internal  or 
external  melanosis  always  have  a  curly  or  frizzled  mane  and  tail,  a 
character  which  should  attract  attention  if  it  be  very  prominent. 

From  a  zootechnical  point  of  view,  the  white  markings  on  the 
head,  the  body,  and  the  members  deserve  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

1  Gaspard  de  Saunier,  L'Art  de  la  cavalerie,  in-folio,  p  51,  Amsterdam  et  Berlin,  1756. 


806  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

As  Hartmann  affirms,1  "  These  markings  are  transmitted  by  heredity, 
and  always  become  larger  in  the  descendants,  so  much  so  that  finally 
pied  horses  will  be  produced." 

The  same  author  establishes  a  connection,  the  accuracy  of  which 
is  far  from  being  demonstrated,  between  the  disagreeable  odor  which 
emanates  at  times  from  certain  horses  and  the  color  of  their  coat. 
According  to  him,  in  fact,  "  the  perspiration  of  rubican,  bay,  and  sorrel 
subjects,  like  that  of  some  florid  and  blond  persons,  has  an  extremely 
strong  and  disagreeable  odor."  Although  we  have  had  two  opportu- 
nities of  verifying  this  fact,  one  upon  a  light  sorrel  and  the  other  upon 
a  dark  gray,  we  see  in  these  exceptions  only,  and,  indeed,  very  rare 
coincidences,  which  it  would  be  absolutely  erroneous  to  establish  as  a 
rule. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE   HEIGHT. 

Definition ;  Importance. — The  height  of  the  horse  is  the  dis- 
tance from  the  summit  of  the  withers  to  the  ground.  It  varies  in  very 
large  proportion  according  to  the  race  and  the  subject.  The  extreme 
measurements  which  we  have  obtained  are  the  following : 

Small  Spanish  horse 0.98  m. 

Heavy-draught  Flemish  horse  .     . 1.83  m. 

Nevertheless,  we  may  meet  subjects  which  are  smaller,  and  likewise 
others  which  are  much  larger.  The  celebrated  American  horse-trainer, 
Carter,  publicly  exhibited  in  London,  it  is  said,2  a  very  remarkable 
giant  of  the  equine  species.  Born  at  Northampton,  six  years  of  age, 
and  of  a  heavy-draught  type,  this  gigantic  animal  was  six  feet  nine 
inches  in  height  (English  measure),  or  2.057  metres,  and  weighed  2500 
pounds,  or  1133  kilogrammes  and  537  grammes.  His  proportions 
were  regular,  and  he  was  active  on  his  feet.  To  make  a  more  striking 
contrast,  a  Scotch  pony  was  placed  alongside  of  him,  which  could  pass 
under  him  without  touching  his  abdomen. 

The  reader  will  see,  d  propos  of  the  services,  the  importance  of  the 
height  when  it  is  a  question  of  determining  the  category  in  which  the 
horse  should  be  classed.  Whence  the  necessity  of  approximating  as 
closely  as  possible  to  it,  inasmuch  as  it  constitutes,  in  relation  to  a 

1  Hartmann,  Trait6  des  haras,  p.  75. 

2  Recueil  de  mSdecine  v6t6rinaire,  ann6e  1847,  p.  790. 


THE    HEIGHT.  807 

technical  description,  a  factor  whose  ordinary  precision  and  fixity  are 
very  great  aids  in  distinguishing,  in  practice,  animals  otherwise  almost 
alike. 

Experienced  persons  judge  the  height  of  a  horse  quite  accurately 
by  a  simple  glance,  scarcely  misjudging  it  even  by  one  centimetre. 
However,  it  is  preferable  to  employ  an  instrument  which  gives  positive 
information  and  constant  results,  if  it  be  well  constructed  and  properly 
manipulated. 

Sometimes,  however,  we  meet  with  certain  very  irritable  subjects 
which  object  to  being  touched,  and  can  only  be  approached  with 
difficulty.  "  Such  cases  are  frequently  found/7  says  Captain  Rivet/ 
"  among  the  horses  in  the  swamps  of  the  Poitou  and  the  Vendee, 
which  have  never  been  shod,  and  which  are  haltered  for  the  first  time 
when  they  are  brought  before  the  committee  on  remounts.77  Be  this 
as  it  may,  we  must  always  act  with  gentleness  and  care  to  avoid  acci- 
dents; the  height  must  be  judged  by  the  eye  alone  whenever  it  is 
impossible  to  take  it  by  other  means. 

Instruments  employed  for  determining  the  Height. — An 
instrument  formerly  in  vogue  was  the  chain,  of  which  some  persons 
still  speak,  but  often  without  being  acquainted  with  it.  The  most 
recent  description  of  it  which  has  been  given  dates  back  to  1770;  we 
will  repeat  it  here  simply  on  account  of  its  historical  interest. 

"The  chain"  writes  De  Garsault,2  "is  made  of  small  links  of  iron  or  brass, 
is  six  feet  long,  and  is  marked  foot  by  foot  by  a  twisted  brass  wire ;  from  the 
fourth  to  the  sixth  foot  other  small  iron  or  brass  wires  mark  the  inches;  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  chain  is  a  plumb.  In  measuring  the  horse,  the  chain  is  so 
held  that  the  plumb  hangs  opposite  to  the  hoof  of  the  fore-foot ;  then,  placing 
the  chain  along  the  side  of  the  shoulder  to  the  point  of  the  withers,  the  corre- 
sponding point  on  the  chain  is  noted ;  then  the  number  of  feet  and  inches  on  the 
chain  is  determined,  and  the  height  of  the  horse  obtained  according  to  this 
measurement.  This  measurement  is  not  exactly  accurate,  because  it  can  be 
modified  by  the  shoulder,  more  or  less  fleshy,  in  different  horses  of  equal 
height,  which  may  sometimes  amount  to  a  difference  of  two  and  one-half  inches 
or  more." 

The  same  author  adds  farther  on  : 

"  Some  persons,  in  the  absence  of  the  graduated  chain,  measure  upon  a  cord 
with  the  fist.  The  fist  measures  three  inches,  which  is  called  a  hand.  Thus, 
nineteen  hands  are  equal  to  about  four  feet  nine  inches.  More  rarely  the  elbow 
is  used  to  measure  the  horse ;  one  elbow  equals  one  foot  and  a  half." 

Modern  horsemen,  much  more  correctly,  measure  the  height  of  the 

1  Rivet,  Guide  pratique  de  1'acheteur  de  chevaux,  p.  53. 

2  De  Garsault,  Le  nouveau  parfait  marechal,  p.  34,  Paris,  1770. 


808 


FIG.  330.— Hippometer  with 
pedestal. 


THE   EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


horse  with  the  open 
hand,  allowing  four 
inches  to  each  hand. 
Thus,  a  horse  five  feet 
WMUW..^.,,^,,,;,***  six  inches  in  height  is 
16.2  hands  high. 

Not  very  long  ago 
horse  -  dealers  em- 
ployed another  measure  equivalent  to  the 
chain.  The  whip,  whose  handle  had  a  deter- 
mined length,  was  provided  with  a  plaited 
lash  or  a  strip  of  leather  which  was  knotted 
at  known  intervals.  To  use  it,  the  handle 
was  suspended  at  the  level  of  the  anterior 
member,  its  extremity  touching  the  ground, 
and  with  the  lash  the  contour  of  the  arm  and 
the  shoulder  was  followed  to  the  most  elevated 
part  of  the  withers. 

The  whip  is  subject  to  the  same  inaccu- 
racy as  the  chain  :  it  measures  the  height  only 
approximately,  making  the  latter  too  great  in 
wide-chested,  fat,  and  muscular  animals,  and 
the  reverse  in  others. 

The  tape-measure,  like  the  preceding 
methods,  and  for  analogous  reasons,  also  gives 
inaccurate  results. 

The  toise  is  an  ancient  measure  of  length 
whose  value  was  six  French  feet  (6.39459 
feet),  but  which  has  been  disused  since  Jan- 
uary 1,  1840,  when  the  metric  system  was 
adopted.  It  served  to  determine  the  height 
of  man  and  of  animals.  At  present,  this 
name  is  improperly  given  to  the  double  metre, 
which  has  replaced  the  former. 

To  measure  the  height  of  the  horse  more 
accurately  we  use  various  instruments,  known 
under  the  generic  name  hippometers,  whose 
form  varies,  but  which  are  all  constructed 
after  the  same  principle.  They  are  composed 
of  a  vertical  rod  about  two  metres  in  length, 
graduated  in  centimetres  and  sometimes  in 


THE    HEIGHT. 


809 


millimetres,  to  which  is  attached  another, 
but  horizontal,  rod  that  can  be  lowered  or 
raised  at  will  upon  the  former,  and  is 
fastened  by  means  of  a  screw. 

The  simplest  of  the  hippometers  is  the 
standard.  It  consists  of  a  flattened  rod, 
graduated  upward  and  downward,  upon 
which  freely  glides  a  horizontal  bar  or 
gauge,  that  is,  consequently,  always  per- 
pendicular to  it.  A  pressure-screw  serves 
to  fix  the  gliding  bar  upon  the  vertical  rod, 
when  the  former  has  been  gradually  low- 
ered upon  the  latter  to  the  level  of  the 
withers.  The  standard  would  be  an  accu- 
rate instrument  were  it  not  for  the  in- 
convenience of  always  placing  it  in  the 
perfectly  vertical  position. 

For  the  standard,  therefore,  the  hippo- 
meter  with  a  pedestal  has  been  substituted. 
In  the  latter  (Fig.  330),  the  vertical  rod,  a, 
is  thick,  quadrangular,  and  inflexible,  and 
rests  upon  a  small  pedestal,  b.  The  hori- 
zontal arm,  c,  glides  upon  the  former,  and 
is  supported  there  by  a  pressure-screw,  d, 
which  can  fix  it  upon  any  point  of  the 
scale. 

The  graduation  is  expressed  in  centi- 
metres, and  at  times  in  millimetres.  We 
may  mention  that  the  proclamation  of  the 
French  Minister  of  War,  dated  June  10, 
1847,  requires  that  the  height  be  taken  in 
centimetres  and  not  in  millimetres.  When 
the  number  of  millimetres  is  above  five,  it  is 
counted  as  a  centimetre ;  if  the  number  of 
millimetres  is  below  five,  they  are  entirely 
disregarded,  and  only  the  even  centimetres 
are  counted. 

This  hippometer  can  scarcely  be  em- 
ployed except  in  large  establishments, 
such  as  remount  depots,  schools,  large 
sales-stables,  etc.  It  is  too  cumbersome, 


J6C 


too  i 


FIG.  331.  — Hip- 
pometer without 
pedestal,  which 
can  be  used  as  a 
compass  of  thick- 
ness by  simply 
raising  or  lower- 
ing the  arm  B. 


810 


THE   EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


f  - 


I* 


hu. 


0.801, 


it.-. 


.20 


30 


*0 


.SO 


.r,o 


JO 


80 


90 


TIG.  332.— Hippometric  cane. 

A.  Closed,  serving  as  a  cane. 

B.  Urtfolded,  forming  a  standard. 


and  would  be  inconvenient  of  ap- 
plication in  the  horse-market,  at 
the  cattle-show,  or  in  the  farm- 
yard, unless  a  large  number  of 
animals  were  to  be  measured. 
Besides,  it  gives  erroneous  results 
whenever  the  ground  upon  which 
the  measurement  is  made  is  not 
perfectly  horizontal. 

For  these  reasons  we  much  pre- 
fer the  hippometer  without  a  pedestal 
(Fig.  331),  which  we  have  had  con- 
structed for  our  particular  use,  and 
which  possesses  the  advantage  of 
being  very  easily  changed  into  a 
compass  of  thickness,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  measuring  the  length  of 
the  body  or  that  of  the  base  of 
support. 

But  when  the  expert  is  called 
away  from  home,  the  hippometrie 
cane  (Fig.  332)  may  be  used ; 
this  is  more  portable,  and,  on 
the  whole,  very  satisfactory,  in 
spite  of  its  flexibility.  It  con- 
sists of  an  ordinary  Malacca  or 
rattan  cane,  jB,  which  is  hol- 
lowed internally,  and  contains  a 
quadrangular  metallic  graduated 
rod,  formed  of  two  pieces,  6  and 
GJ  the  one  gliding  within  the 
other  when  they  are  not  in  use. 
Superiorly  this  rod  is  hollowed 
by  a  longitudinal  slot  designed  to 
lodge  a  horizontal  branch,  e,  which 
the  support,  /,  constantly  keeps 
perpendicular  to  the  rod  in  ques- 
tion. 

Both  pieces  are  graduated  so 
as  to  form  a  continuous  scale 
when  fully  drawn  out,  beginning 


THE    HEIGHT.  811 

at  the  point  g,  whose  situation  varies  according  to  the  height  of  the 
cane  itself.  The  distance,  eg,  is  .always  calculated  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  makes  the  length  of  the  cane  equal  to  one  metre.  This  amounts 
to  the  same  thing  as  though  the  cane  itself  had  this  length,  and,  it 
being  inconvenient  to  carry  a  cane  of  this  size,  the  inventor  conceived 
the  ingenious  idea  of  giving  to  the  distance,  eg,  the  required  length  of 
which  we  speak. 

To  use  this  instrument,  the  handle,  i,  must  be  forcibly  pulled  to 
draw  out  the  whole  length  of  the  superior  segment,  6.  A  catch  placed 
at  the  lower  end  of  this  segment  fixes  it  here,  dy  and  prevents  it  from 
being  pushed  back  into  the  lower  segment  when  pressure  is  made 
upon  the  handle.  It  is  necessary  to  take  this  precaution  in  order  to 
avoid  the  errors  which  would  otherwise  follow.  The  horizontal  bar, 
e,  is  then  placed  in  position,  supported  by/,  and  the  animal  is  meas- 
ured, as  in  the  preceding  cases,  by  gradually  pushing  the  graduated  seg- 
ment into  the  cane,  a.  When  the  segment,  c,  has  been  entirely  pushed 
back,  we  meet  with  a  resistance  at  d :  the  instrument  will  now  shorten 
no  more.  It  is  then  necessary  to  press  upon  the  catch,  d,  to  allow  the 
segment,  6,  to  descend  in  its  turn.  As  soon  as  the  horizontal  arm 
touches  the  summit  of  the  withers,  the  figures  corresponding  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  cane,  h,  are  read,  and  it  only  remains  now  to  add  this  num- 
ber to  one  metre  to  determine  the  accurate  height  of  the  horse. 

When  purchasing  a  hippometric  cane,  it  is  important  to  verify  its 
accuracy  with  care,  for  the  metallic  cap  at  the  extremity,  I,  is  sometimes 
too  short  or  too  long,  and  the  combined  distances  Ih  and  eg  are  then  no 
longer  equal  to  one  metre.  It  is  necessary,  besides,  that  the  arm,  e, 
should  form  a  right  angle,  move  easily,  and,  with  its  support,  /,  be 
easily  lodged  in  the  groove  which  is  excavated  for  it  upon  the  segment  6. 
It  is  indispensable  also  that  the  segments  b  and  c  should  glide  one  within 
the  other,  and  both  within  the  sheath  of  the  cane,  without  excessive 
friction.  Finally,  the  play  of  the  spring  d  should  be  exact. 

Precautions  to  be  taken. — In  order  to  measure  a  horse  certain 
precautions  must  be  taken,  without  which  the  measurement  would 
be  of  no  value.  The  animal  should  first  be  taken  upon  a  horizontal  sur- 
face and  placed  in  the  position  of  regular  station.  An  assistant,  stand- 
ing in  front,  holds  the  head  and  neck  in  their  ordinary  position ;  then 
he  covers  with  one  of  his  hands,  especially  from  behind,  the  eye  on  the 
side  towards  the  operator,  in  order  that  the  animal  may  not  become 
frightened  or  unmanageable.  Besides,  the  operator  should  be  careful 
to  touch  the  animal  very  gently.  As  to  the  hippometer,  it  is  needless 
to  say  that  it  must  be  held  vertically.  If  it  be  inclined  or  incurvated 


812  THE   EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

towards  the  horse,  it  loses  its  horizontal  position  and,  consequently, 
makes  the  height  too  great ;  curved  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  result 
obtained  is  too  small. 

One  means  of  verifying  the  vertical  direction  of  the  instrument  is 
to  examine  with  it,  from  in  front  and  from  the  side,  the  corner  of  a 
building,  the  moulding  on  a  wall,  a  door-postj  etc. ;  in  a  word,  some 
vertical  object  which  is  close  by.  Differences  in  certain  results  are 
very  often  occasioned  by  neglect  of  this  fundamental  test.  In  this 
respect,  the  hippometer  with  a  pedestal  is  as  uncertain  as  the  others ; 
it  deserves  even  less  confidence  when  it  is  employed  upon  soil  not 
perfectly  horizontal  and  uniform  ;  the  least  unevenness  of  the  ground 
will  cause  a  deviation  of  the  horizontal  arm,  the  extent  of  which  is 
directly  proportional  with  the  height  of  the  instrument.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  verify  its  horizontal  direction  at  each  examination  ;  the  small 
pedestal  upon  which  it  is  mounted  has,  in  our  opinion,  no  other  use  than 
to  enable  the  operator  to  get  rid  of  it  easily  when  it  is  in  his  way. 

With  the  hippometric  cane  we  must  take  care  that  its  extremity  be 
not  lower  than  the  shoe  of  the  horse.  This  may  take  place  if  the 
horse  be  measured  upon  uneven  pavements  or  stable  floors.  In  such 
cases  the  extremity  of  the  cane  sometimes  rests  in  a  depression  or  an 
interstice,  whose  depth  and  width,  however,  are  not  sufficient  to  change 
the  equilibrium  of  the  hoof. 

Finally,  we  must  take  notice  of  the  height  of  the  anterior  heels, 
the  thickness  of  the  shoes  and  their  heels,  as  well  as  the  quantity  of 
adipose  tissue,  which,  in  stallions,  is  often  excessive  upon  the  superior 
border  of  the  neck  and  more  or  less  conceals  the  summit  of  the  withers. 

Concerning  army  horses,  Captain  Rivet1  states  that,  "when  the 
horse  is  five  years  old  or  older,  the  maximum  limit  of  the  height  can 
be  exceeded  by  two  centimetres,  but  never  more,  in  order  to  have  a 
standard  of  uniformity  among  army  horses." 

Fraudulent  Methods.— Fraudulent  methods  to  increase  the 
height  are  employed  rather  frequently,  especially  in  cases  where  two 
horses  are  presented  as  mates,  or,  again,  in  horses  offered  at  the  army 
remounts  which  are  not  up  to  the  required  height. 

Under  these  conditions  the  seller  endeavors  to  place  them  in  such  a 
position  that  the  hind-quarters  are  relatively  lower  than  the  fore-quar- 
ters. In  the  stable,  as  well  as  on  the  exhibition-ground,  everything  is 
so  arranged  that  this  trick  can  be  easily  enough  accomplished.  When 
it  cannot  be  done  in  this  manner,  the  seller  augments  the  height  of  the 

1  Capitaine  Rivet,  Guide  pratique  de  1'acheteur  de  chevaux,  p.  55. 


CERTIFICATE    OF    DESCRIPTION.  813 

heels,  the  thickness  of  the  shoes  and  their  heels,  obliges  the  animal  to 
lower  his  head,  which  stretches  the  nuchal  ligament  and  raises  the 
withers;  finally,  if  needs  be,  he  pinches  him  under  the  sternum  or 
irritates  and  excites  him  with  the  whip  to  make  the  animal  restless  and 
render  the  operation  of  measuring  less  exact. 


CHAPTER    III. 

CEETTFICATE   OF   DESCRIPTION. 

Definition ;  Divisions ;  Importance. — A  certificate  of  descrip- 
tion is  a  written  document  comprising  a  short,  precise,  clear,  methodical, 
and  more  or  less  complete  enumeration  of  the  external  characteristics 
which  enable  one  to  distinguish  a  certain  horse  from  all  others. 

It  is  summary  or  detailed,  according  to  the  number  of  items  which 
it  contains. 

In  some  cases  it  is  limited  to  a  simple  indication  of  the  external 
characters.  Some  authors  also  include  elements  which,  strictly  speaking, 
are  not  essential  to  it.  We  refer  to  the  pedigree  and  the  performances, 
of  which  we  will  speak  farther  on. 

Whatever  may  be  its  form,  a  certificate  of  description  is  a  document 
which,  in  many  instances,  may  become  one  of  very  great  importance, 
either  in  disputes  relative  to  some  of  the  redhibitory  vices  or  when 
there  is  a  question  of  theft,  substitutions,  and  exchanges  in  relation  to 
legal  proceedings,  etc.  It  then  becomes  an  official  instrument  by  the 
aid  of  which  one  should  always  be  able  to  establish  the  identity  of  the 
animal  in  litigation. 

Order  to  be  followed. — The  order  adopted  in  the  enumeration 
of  the  characters  which  should  be  included  in  a  complete  description 
of  the  horse  varies  somewhat  according  to  the  circumstances  and  the 
purpose  in  view.  In  general,  it  is  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  infor- 
mation which  it  is  necessary  to  know.  The  only  rule  which  should 
invariably  be  followed  is  to  proceed  in  a  uniform  manner  with  all 
animals  belonging  to  the  same  series,  so  that  we  may  go  forward 
methodically  and  rapidly  without  omitting  any  important  details.  The 
following  is  the  order  usually  adopted  : 

1st.  Sex,  state  of  the  genital  organs.  2d.  Race.  3d.  Service.  4th. 
Coat,  its  varieties  and  its  peculiarities.  5th.  State  of  the  mane  and  tail. 
6th.  Age.  7th.  Height.  8th.  Blemishes  and  peculiar  markings.  9th. 
Diverse  peculiarities  foreign  to  the  coat.  10th.  Date. 


814  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Here  may  also  be  inserted — 

The  name  and  registration  number  of  the  horse,  his  price,  his  pedi- 
gree, his  performances,  and  the  name  and  address  of  the  proprietor. 

In  the  army,  in  breeding  establishments,  and  in  livery,  omnibus,  and 
street-car  stables  the  order  of  this  outline  may  be  a  little  different  from 
the  preceding.  We  will  give  some  examples  farther  on. 

The  preceding  headings  require  some  explanatory  remarks  as  to 
details,  which  we  will  give  below. 

1st.  Sex,  State  of  the  Genital  Organs. — The  words  mare, 
horse  or  entire  horse,  and  gelding  explain  sufficiently  this  first  phrase. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  necessary  to  note  gelding  bistourne,  and  not  entire,  a 
horse  which  has  been  emasculated  by  subcutaneous  torsion  of  the  testic- 
ular  cord.  (See  Bistournage,  page  178.)  Likewise,  we  should  designate 
by  the  terms  cryptorchid  or  monorchid  a  subject  whose  two  testicles,  or 
only  one  of  them,  have  not  descended  into  the  scrotum.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  designate  entire  the  horse  provided  with  only  one  testicle,  and 
in  which  the  other  has  been  removed  for  a  therapeutic  purpose,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  cure  of  strangulated  hernia.  In  such  cases  this  detail 
should  be  indicated  under  the  heading  diverse  peculiarities  foreign  to  the 
coat.  The  presence  of  a  cicatrix  of  a  special  character  at  the  place  of 
the  absent  testicle  always  enables  us  to  distinguish  an  animal  of  this 
kind  from  a  true  monorchid. 

There  are  instances  (very  rare)  in  which  it  is  at  first  embarrassing 
to  name  the  sex  of  the  animal  under  examination.  We  refer  to 
the  so-called  hermaphrodite  horses,  of  which  science  has  already  fur- 
nished quite  a  large  number  of  examples.1  These  subjects  are  nothing 
more  than  complicated  cryptorchids  with  grave  malformation  and 
atrophy  of  the  external  genital  organs,  in  most  instances  having  a 
simple  fissure  of  the  perineum  or  of  the  sheath,  to  which  is  sometimes 
added  a  median  fissure  of  the  canal  of  the  urethra ;  the  latter  mal- 
formation is  known  under  the  name  hypospadia.  We  need,  conse- 
quently, not  hesitate  as  to  the  sex ;  all  observations  agree  in  regarding 
them  as  males,  and  not  as  females,  nor  as  real  hermaphrodites.  Be- 
sides, on  autopsy,  we  constantly  find  the  testicles  either  external  to 
the  inferior  inguinal  ring,  in  the  inguinal  canal,  or  in  the  abdomen ; 

1  See,  for  more  details,  De  Garsault,  Le  nouveau  parfait  marshal,  ch.  ix.  pi.  xxviii.,  Paris, 
1770. 

J.  B.  Gohier,  M6moires  et  observations  sur  la  medecine  et  la  chirurgie  vet&rinaires,  t.  i.  p. 
27,  Paris,  1813. 

A.  Key,  Deux  exemples  d'hermaphrodisme  dans  le  cheval,  in  Journal  de  medecine  vete"ri- 
naire  publi6  &  1'Ecole  de  Lyon,  ann£e  1846,  p.  230. 

I.  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Histoire  generate  et  particuliere  des  anomalies  de  1'organisation, 
t  ii.  p.  87. 


CERTIFICATE    OF    DESCRIPTION.  815 

the  testicles  are  soft,  flabby,  and  without  spermatozoa,  like  those  of 
cryptorchids.  To  these  glands  are  annexed  the  normal  deferent  canal, 
which  terminates  in  the  urethra  after  following  its  ordinary  course  upon 
the  superior  surface  of  the  bladder.  Neither  a  uterus  nor  ovaries  have 
ever  been  found. 

It  is  none  the  less  true  that  the  external  resemblance  of  these  ani- 
mals with  the  mare  is  rather  striking.  They  have,  in  fact,  two  per- 
forated inguinal  glands  well  developed ;  the  borders  of  their  perineal 
fissure  almost  simulate  the  lips  of  a  vulva ;  as  to  their  penis, — atrophied, 
curved  like  an  S,  and  always  directed  backward, — its  free  extremity  is 
lodged  in  the  inferior  commissure  of  the  cutaneous  opening,  like  the 
clitoris  of  the  female.  But  these  animals  are  distinguished  by  other 
external  and  unequivocal  characters.  First,  their  mouth  is  provided 
with  tusks  like  that  of  ordinary  males ;  besides,  their  pseudo-clitoris  is 
customarily  pierced  by  an  orifice  through  which  the  urine  flows,  unless 
there  be  a  hypospadia,  in  which  case  the  urethral  fissure  terminates 
directly  In  the  bladder  and  not  in  the  vagina ;  finally,  they  show  mascu- 
line signs,  neigh,  and  have  an  erection  of  the  penis  at  the  approach  of  a 
mare  in  heat,  and  at  times  endeavor  to  mount  her.  In  the  presence  of 
such  undeniable  proofs  of  masculinity  there  is,  therefore,  no  possible 
doubt.  Such  a  horse  should,  in  our  opinion,  be  designated  cryptorchid 
horse,  affected  with  a  fissure  (median  or  lateral)  of  the  perineum,  the 
sheath,  or  the  urethra,  etc.,  according  to  the  seat  and  the  nature  of  the 
parts  interested. 

2d.  Race. — Save  in  the  races  whose  characters  are  very  striking, 
there  are  instances  in  which  it  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  the  race. 
This  fact  is  due  to  the  numerous  crossings  which  have  been  practised 
for  a  long  time  upon  the  various  types,  formerly  much  more  easily 
recognized.  At  present  the  mixture  often  becomes  so  confusing  that 
one  is  almost  tempted  to  imitate  the  example  of  Buffon  relative  to  the 
dog,  by  establishing,  also,  for  a  number  of  subjects  without  any  estab- 
lished origin,  the  large  group  of  street  horses  (chevaux  de  rue).  In 
practice,  these  animals  are  usually  termed  common  horses,  horses  of  a 
common  race,  a  vulgar  and  improper  expression,  which,  literally,  by 
no  means  conveys  the  idea  of  bastardy,  but  to  which,  nevertheless,  it 
is  intended  to  make  allusion.  In  such  cases,  it  is  better  to  omit  men- 
tion of  the  race  when  it  is  not  very  clearly  characterized,  rather  than 
expose  one's  self  to  error  in  the  diagnosis. 

3d.  Service. — The  service  for  which  the  animal  can  be  employed 
is  indicated  by  these  words  :  "proper  to  the  service  of  .  .  ."  It  is  then 
specified  if  the  animal  in  question  is  a  saddle-horse,  a  driving-horse,  a 


816  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

running-horse,  a  trotting-horse,  a  steeple-chaser,  a  light-  or  heavy- 
draught  horse,  mixed,  etc.  In  general,  this  factor  in  the  description 
can  be  decided  without  difficulty.  When  the  same  subject  can  be  used 
under  the  saddle,  for  driving,  as  well  as  for  light-draught  purposes,  it 
is  said  to  be  for  saddle  and  harness.  We  will  show,  in  speaking  of 
the  pleasure-services,  that  motors  of  this  kind  are  somewhat  frequently 
employed  to-day,  as,  for  example,  the  pony  and  the  cob. 

4th.  Coat,  its  Varieties  and  its  Peculiarities. — The  order  to 
be  followed  here  is  indicated  exactly  by  the  title  of  this  paragraph. 
We  usually  say,  "  color  sorrel,  bay/'  etc.  Finally,  this  expression  can 
be  simplified  by  omitting  the  word  coat. 

Example  :  light  bay,  etc. 

The  term  designating  the  variety  should  be  placed  immediately 
before  it. 

Examples  :  Coat,  burnt  sorrel ;  coat,  rusty  black  ;  dark  roan  gray. 

Finally,  it  is  necessary  to  specify  the  peculiarities  of  the  coat  by 
commencing  with  those  which  have  no  fixed  locality,  and  then  mention- 
ing those  of  the  head,  of  the  body,  and  of  the  members. 

Example :  brown  bay,  very  rubican,  large  blaze,  leprous  spot  at  the 
end  of  the  nose  and  the  superior  lip,  mane  and  tail  mixed,  small  acci- 
dental mark  behind  the  withers,  three  white  feet  irregular  and  dentated, 
one  of  which  (the  anterior  right)  is  smaller. 

5th.  State  of  the  Mane  and  Tail.— The  tail  may  be  entire  or 
may  be  shortened  by  amputation.  In  the  first  case,  the  horse  is  desig- 
nated with  full  mane  and  tail ;  in  the  second,  docked. 

At  the  present  day,  many  horses  have  their  tails  docked,  and  many 
persons  still  term  the  subject  with  full  mane  and  tail  whose  hairs  have 
not  been  shortened,  whatever  may  be  the  state  of  the  trunk  of  his 
tail.  But  it  is  evident  that  it  would  be  more  exact  to  employ  the  term 
tail  docked,  hairs  full,  for  horses  whose  hairs  have  been  preserved  at 
their  full  length  after  the  amputation  of  a  part  of  the  trunk.  Like- 
wise, we  should  say  tail  entire,  hairs  banged,  in  all  cases  in  which  the 
trunk  is  intact  and  the  hairs  alone  have  been  shortened,  as  is  observed 
in  the  race-horse. 

If  this  appendage  has  been  submitted  to  an  operation  after  the 
English  style,  it  suffices  to  use  the  word  docked.  It  is  understood  that 
in  this  case  the  hairs  are  always  banged.  But  when  the  amputation  of 
the  tail  has  not  been  done  in  this  manner,  the  description  should  make 
mention  of  it :  .  .  .  docked,  with  full  hairs.  After  having  given  the 
state  of  the  trunk,  the  condition  of  the  hairs  is  indicated. 

Example  :  Tail  docked,  club-shaped,  brush-shaped,  etc. 


CERTIFICATE    OF    DESCRIPTION.  817 

6th.  Age  and  Peculiarities  of  the  Teeth. — The  reader  has 
seen  that,  from  three  to  six  years,  the  various  degrees  of  the  dental 
wear  are  indicated  by  special  expressions  :  rising  such  age,  having  such 
age,  or  past  such  age.  These  expressions  are  used  in  the  description 
when  the  horse  has  not  yet  reached  his  seventh  year.  When  he 
has  passed  this  age,  the  facts  are  far  from  being  as  positive.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  should  not  fall  into  the  contrary  error  by  "saying 
that  the  horse  is  old  or  aged.  As  the  determination  of  the  age  is  no 
longer  absolutely  certain,  we  always  make  use  of  the  word  about  as 
a  prefix. 

Examples  :  rising  four  years,  five  years,  about  eighteen  or  twenty 
years  old,  about  fifteen  years  old,  nine  years  old,  etc. 

In  this  connection  it  is  also  necessary  to  mention  the  peculiarities 
and  the  anomalies  of  the  teeth  ;  to  recognize,  for  example,  if  the  dental 
cup  is  too  deep  or  too  shallow  ;  if  the  horse  has  supernumerary,  double, 
or  badly-directed  teeth,  wolf-teeth,  etc. ;  if  any  teeth  are  missing ;  if 
those  which  he  has  are  too  long  or  too  short,  irregularly  worn,  etc. ; 
finally,  if  some  of  them  are  worn  abnormally  from  cribbing.  These 
peculiarities  or  anomalies  constitute,  nearly  always,  excellent  signs  of 
identification.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  note  them  with  care. 

7th.  Height.  —  The  height  should  be  expressed  in  metres  and 
centimetres,  or,  what  is  more  preferable  and  more  customary,  in  hands, 
allowing  four  inches  to  the  hand.  It  is  also  necessary  to  say  in  what 
manner  it  has  been  estimated. 

Example  :  height,  sixteen  and  a  half  hands  with  standard  or  with 
chain. 

When  a  certificate  reads  that  a  horse  is  "  about  .  .  .  hands  high/'  it 
is  evident  proof  that  it  has  been  impossible  for  the  operator  to  measure 
the  height  with  accuracy. 

8th.  Blemishes  and  Peculiar  Markings. — It  may  happen  in 
many  cases  that  there  are  no  special  remarks  to  be  entered  in  this 
paragraph.  Be  this  as  it  may,  we  should  here  enumerate  the  various 
blemishes,  such  as  splints,  ring-bones,  spavin,  curb,  thoroughpin,  wind- 
galls,  cicatrices  on  the  shoulders  and  withers,  on  the  knees,  etc. ;  in 
a  word,  all  the  permanent  blemishes.  The  same  applies  to  the  peculiar 
markings  of  horses  on  breeding  farms,  those  of  certain  public  corpo- 
rations, etc. 

9th.  Diverse  Peculiarities  Foreign  to  the  Coat. — Fre- 
quently, likewise,  it  might  be  advisable  to  mention  in  a  certificate  of 
description  that  the  horse  has  a  tendency  to  walk  in  such  or  such  a 
gait, — the  amble,  the  running  walk,  for  example ;  that  he  has  such  or 

52 


818  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

such  a  defect  in  his  equilibrium  (parrot-toed,  crooked-legged,  bow- 
legged,  cow-hocked,  under  himself,  etc.) ;  that  he  is  lame  in  one  of 
his  members  when  warm  or  cold  ;  that  he  has  heaves,  rears,  kicks,  bites, 
etc.  This  information  is  sometimes  of  great  use,  especially  in  gray 
horses,  which  are  so  difficult  to  distinguish  from  one  another.  Needless 
to  say,  these  details  are  useful  in  legal  documents. 

10th.  Date  of  the  Certificate. — If  a  horse  always  retained  the 
same  appearance,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  date  the  certificate.  But 
this  precaution  should  never  be  neglected ;  otherwise,  it  becomes  im- 
possible, at  a  later  period,  to  verify  the  age,  the  height,  the  shade  of 
the  coat,  its  peculiarities,  etc.  Besides,  it  enables  us  to  ascertain  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  during  the  time  intervening  between 
two  successive  certificates,  and  prevents  us  from  erring  as  to  the 
authenticity  of  the  first  one. 

We  have  said  at  the  commencement  of  this  chapter  that  other  facts 
are  sometimes  mentioned  in  the  certificate,  such  as  the  name  of  the  horse, 
his  registration  number,  his  price,  as  well  as  the  name  and  address  of 
his  owner.  These  four  points  needing  no  further  explanation,  we  will 
confine  ourselves  to  their  simple  enumeration.  The  case  is  different, 
however,  with  the  pedigree  and  the  performances. 

Pedigree. — The  term  pedigree  is  synonymous  with  origin  and 
genealogy.  In  stallions,  trotters,  and  runners  it  is  especially  important 
to  know  the  pedigree  or  genealogy.  Farther  on  we  will  give  some 
examples  of  certificates  to  which  are  added  these  particular  facts. 

The  horse  whose  genealogy  has  been  entered  in  the  Stud-Book  is 
called  traced;  in  the  contrary  case  he  is  marked  not  traced.  This 
expression  is  especially  applicable  to  thoroughbred  and  trotting-horses. 

Performances. — This  word  is  employed  on  the  turf  to  indicate 
the  work  which  the  race-horse  is  capable  of  accomplishing.  We  can 
easily  understand  the  importance  which  is  attached  to  a  knowledge  of 
these  performances  when  it  concerns  animals  designed  for  breeding 
purposes  or  for  the  race-course.  There  is  no  public  sale  of  running- 
or  trotting-horses  in  which  the  performances  of  each  subject  are  not 
given  in  a  more  or  less  explicit  manner. 

In  general,  these  certificates  are  rarely  as  detailed,  and,  to  speak  can- 
didly, it  is  useless  to  complicate  them  except  when  they  are  liable  to 
figure  in  legal  proceedings,  or  in  the  case  of  animals  designed  for 
breeding  purposes. 

Most  often  they  are  very  concise,  and  are  confined  to  a  simple  enu- 


CERTIFICATE    OF   DESCRIPTION.  819 

meration  of  the  principal  distinctive  characters  :  sex,  state  of  the  genital 
organs,  service,  coat  (its  varieties  and  its  peculiarities),  age,  height,  and 
date. 

In  the  French  army  all  the  horses  are  marked  by  a  number  burnt 
upon  the  left  anterior  hoof;  the  anterior  right,  on  the  contrary,  is 
reserved  for  a  mark  indicating  the  branch  of  the  service  and  the"  regi- 
ment to  which  the  animal  belongs.  Finally,  each  subject  bears  a  par- 
ticular name ;  the  place  where  purchased  and  the  price  paid  for  him  are 
always  known.  These  are  the  various  elements  which  enter  into  a  mili- 
tary certificate,  and  which  should  be -enumerated  in  the  following  order  : 

1st,  registration  number;  2d,name;  3d,  sex;  4th,  age;  oth,  height; 
6th,  color  and  its  varieties  ;  7th,  peculiarities ;  8th,  where  purchased  ; 
9th,  price;  10th,  regiment. 

On  breeding  farms  the  order  followed  is  almost  the  same.  Here, 
also,  the  pedigree  is  added  to  the  certificate,  and  sometimes  the  prin- 
cipal performances  of  the  subject. 

In  large  transportation  companies  the  order  adopted  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  army,  but  differing  somewhat  with  each  establishment,  and 
for  which  there  seems  to  be  no  uniform  formula. 

In  the  Compagnie  generate  des  omnibus,  of  Paris,  for  example,  each 
horse  corresponds  to  a  descriptive  account,  upon  which  are  recorded  the 
following  elements :  registration  number  (marked  with  the  hot  iron 
upon  the  left  side  of  the  neck),  name  of  seller,  date  of  purchase,  sex, 
age,  height,  coat,  its  varieties  and  its  peculiarities. 

Models  of  Certificates. — We  will  here  give  a  certain  number 
of  examples  of  certificates  in  which  the  principles  previously  mentioned 
will  be  applied. 

Civil  Certificate,  very  Complete.— Philadelphia,  September  23,  1891. 
No.  243.  -Harry,  gelding,  Norman  race,  proper  to  light-draught  service ;  coat 
dark  chestnut  bay,  dappled  upon  the  shoulders  and  croup,  very  rubican  upon 
the  cheeks,  the  neck,  and  the  back ;  head,  star  prolonged  by  a  small  bordered 
list,  deviated  to  the  right,  terminated  by  a  marbled  leprous  spot  between 
and  in  the  nostrils,  and  prolonged  to  the  superior  and  inferior  lips;  three 
accidental  marks,  one  upon  the  left  side  of  the  withers,  the  other  two  upon  the 
right  and  behind ;  grayish  at  the  base  of  the  tail ;  abdomen,  axilla,  and  stifle 
washed ;  diagonal  left  fetlocks,  the  posterior  irregular,  dentated,  and  ermined ; 
pastern,  anterior  right,  bordered,  speckled;  tail  docked  and  banged;  age  six 
years ;  one  supernumerary  left  superior  intermediate  ;  absence  of  superior  right 
canine  ;  16J  hands  high  with  standard.  Small  spavin  on  left  hock,  with  traces 
of  actual  cautery  in  points  in  same  place ;  outbow-foot  anterior  right ;  interfering 


820  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

mark  left  anterior  fetlock.     Bought  for  $500,  in  1880,  of  X ,  horse-dealer 

in  Philadelphia. 

The  same,  less  Complete. — Philadelphia,  September  23, 1891.  No.  243. 
Norman  gelding,  light  draught ;  dark  chestnut  bay,  dappled,  rubican ;  head,  star 
prolonged  by  small  list,  deviated,  terminated  by  leprous  spot  at  the  nostrils  and 
at  the  inferior  lip  ;  three  accidental  marks  upon  withers ;  grayish  at  the  base  of 
the  tail ;  three  white  feet,  one  of  which,  the  anterior  right  is  but  slightly  marked ; 
tail  docked ;  age  six  years ;  16£  hands  high,  standard ;  bought  for  $500,  at 
Philadelphia. 

The  same,  more  Concise. — Gelding,  chestnut  bay,  dappled,  rubican ;  head, 
star  prolonged  by  list,  terminated  by  leprous  spot  at  the  nostrils  and  at  the  in- 
ferior lip ;  tail  docked  ;  three  accidental  spots  upon  the  sides  of  the  withers ;  three 
white  feet;  six  years;  16£  hands  high;  price  $500.  Philadelphia,  September 
23,  1891. 

The  same,  too  Incomplete. — Gelding,  chestnut  bay ;  star  prolonged  by  a 
small  list,  terminated  by  leprous  spot ;  three  white  feet ;  tail  docked ;  six  years ; 
16£  hands  high. 

[The  following  is  a  convenient  formula  of  a  certificate  which  I  have 
used  in  examinations  for  soundness,  and  which  gives  entire  satisfaction. 
(Harger.) 

No, Philadelphia, Mo 189 

EXAMINATION   FOR  SOUNDNESS. 

This  Certifies  that  I  have  this  day  examined,  at  the  request  of 

M 

Animal, /  Age, Height, 

Markings, 

NOTES:  

From  above  notes,  in  my  judgment,  said  Animal  is 


Above  examination  does  not  include  such  obscure  diseases  as  Staggers  (Epilepsy  and  Immobility), 
Moon-blindness,  Cribbing,  without  marking  teeth,  etc.] 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  examples  that  the  details  of  the 
coat  and  its  peculiarities,  as  well  as  most  of  the  other  secondary  matter, 
are  gradually  omitted.  The  animal  is  consequently  more  and  more 
easily  confounded  with  the  others,  especially  if  the  latter  comprise  a 
large  number  and  belong  to  a  troop  in  which  the  horses  are  almost 
uniform  as  to  the  coat  and  its  shade  and  as  to  their  height. 

The  expression  simple,  by  which  is  designated  a  certificate  in 
which  the  details  are  very  summary,  is  not  to  be  encouraged.  The  de- 


CERTIFICATE    OF   DESCRIPTION.  821 

scription  is  either  complete  or  incomplete,  detailed  or  summary.  The 
horse  alone  which  is  described  may  be  simple  or  complicated  in  his 
characters,  and  then  the  certificate  will  be  more  or  less  complete 
according  as  it  is  detailed  or  summary.  It  is  not  possible  to  be  brief 
and  at  the  same  time  complete  in  describing  a  thing  which  is  compli- 
cated. It  is  proper  to  be  relatively  concise,  and  it  is  always  well  to 
pass  upon  the  value  or  the  worthlessness  of  certain  observable  facts. 
It  is  evident  that  if  we  propose  to  give  simply  the  data  of  a  clinical 
observation  of  a  given  horse,  the  enumeration  of  his  registration  num- 
ber, his  name,  the  peculiarities  of  his  coat,  etc.,  will  be  of  no  interest 
in  the  case.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  refers  to  an  animal  concerning  which 
there  is  some  difference,  for  example,  we  should  note  all  the  facts  with- 
out fear  of  making  it  too  detailed. 

Examples  of  Military  Certificates. 

a.  "No.  1212.    Jupiter,  gelding,  four  years ;  1.60  m. ;  cherry  bay,  snow-flaky 
upon  the  croup ;  head  crescent  to  the  right ;  mule  stripe ;  three  white  feet,  of 
which  one,  the  anterior  left,  is  bordered  and  trout-spotted."     (Vallon.) 

b.  "  No.  15.     Cornelius,  stallion,  four  years ;   1.40  m. ;  golden  sorrel ;  pos- 
terior stockings,  dentated  and  ermined  around  coronet."     (Merche.) 

c.  "243.     Alcide,  gelding,  six  years ;  1.54m.;  golden  sorrel;  head  mixed; 
list  bordered  upon  forehead,  terminating  in  leprous  spot  between  the  nostrils  and 
the  lips ;  lateral  right  white  feet,  the  posterior  small.    Bought  at  Angers,  January 
3,  1873,  600  francs.     Traced.     Trace,  of  blisters  on  the  thighs."     (Commission 
d'hygiene  hippique.) 

d.  "  Regulus.     Barb  horse,  entire ;  foaled  at  the  stud  of  B6ne  (Alelick)  in 
1846 ;  height  1.49  m.  with  standard ;  light  gray,  much  trout-spotted,  especially 
upon  the  cheeks  and  around  the  eyes  ;  black  moustaches  ;  traces  of  actual  cautery 
in  points  on  a  spavin  of  left  hock  and  string-halt  on  same  side ;  sold  as  a  stallion, 
1500  francs,  April  1,  1852."     (Merche.) 

The  last  example  is  given  as  a  model  for  a  detailed  certificate. 

Examples  of  Certificates  for  Breeding  Establishments. — 
As  we  have  said,  we  add,  on  the  stock-farm,  the  pedigree,  the  perform- 
ances, and  the  get  of  such  or  such  a  stallion,  also  the  place  and  date  of 
birth. 

a.  "Thoroughbred  colt,  by  Royal  Oak  and  Carisandre,  foaled  March  8, 
1847,  and  entered  in  the  French  Stud-Book  under  the  name  Fianetta ;  coat  light 
bay,  bordered  list  prolonged  to  the  extremity  of  the  nose ;  trace  of  white  foot 
posterior  right,  ermined ;  high  stocking  anterior  right,  bordered  and  irregular." 
(Richard,  du  Cantal.) 

b.  "  Thoroughbred  broodmare,  entered  in  the  French  Stud- Book  under  the 
name  Josephine;  by  Napoleon  and  Agar;   foaled  in  1840.      Height  1.66  m. 
Btirnt  sorrel,  rubican  upon  the  croup  and  the  base  of  the  tail ;  traces  of  white 
feet  left  diagonal  biped ;  blaze  prolonged  by  a  small  list,  bordered  upon  the  fore- 
head ;  grayish  upon  the  right  cheek."     (Richard,  du  Cantal.) 


822 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


c.  "Agar,  English  thoroughbred  mare;  1.58  m. ;  sorrel;  flame;  white  foot 
posterior  right ;  foaled  at  the  stock-farm  of  Pin  in  1837 ;  sire  Eastham,  dam 

Danae. 

"  Eastham :  sire,  Sir  Oliver ;  dam,  Cowslip. 

"  1840.  Imbroglio,  by  Paradox. 

"  1841.  Ben  Agar,  by  Lottery. 

"  1842.  Eeine-de-Chypre,  by  Eylau."     (Vallon.) 

In  certain  cases  the  pedigree  is  more  complete.     The  following  is 
an  example  taken  from  the  Journal  des  haras.1 

PEDIGREE    OF    SAINT   CHRISTOPHER,   WINNER    OF    THE    GRAND    PRIZE    OF 

PARIS    IN    1877. 

f  Partisan,  by  Walton. 

(  Pauline,  by  Moses. 

f  Reveller,  by  Comus. 

I  Rubens  Mare. 

(  Saddler,  by  Waverly. 

I  Rebecca,  by  Lottery. 

J  Mulatto,  by  Catton. 

t  Leda,  by  Filho  da  Puta, 

f  Emilius. 

i  Harriet,  by  Pericles. 

f  Partisan. 

t  Jest,  by  Waxy. 

/  Orville. 

I  Emily,  by  Stamford. 

f  Merlin,  by  Castrel. 

I  Morel,  by  Sorcerer. 

f  Wbalebone. 

I  Peri,  by  Wanderer. 

(  Bob-Booty. 

t  Flight,  by  Escape. 

f  Tramp. 

I  Whisker  Mare. 

f  Lapdog,  by  Whalebone, 

I  Grisette,  by  Merlin. 

f  Andrew,  by  Orville. 

I  Sorcery,  by  Sorcerer. 

f Moriso,  by  Muley. 

I  Ina,  by  Smolensko. 

f  Whalebone. 

I  Peri,  by  Wanderer. 

f  Comus,  by  Sorcerer. 

t  Shuttle  Mare. 

The  pedigree  only  contains  so  many  minute  details  when  it  con- 
cerns  a  celebrated   horse.     If  Saint  Christopher   had   not   won   the 


r 

Gladiator. 

Fitz-Gladiator 

i 

(1850). 

Zarah. 

The  Provost. 

1 

Martha  Lynn. 

1    " 

Plenipo. 

* 

Nuncio  (or  The  I 

i 

Baron). 

Ally. 

i 

1  ' 

r 

Emilius. 

PM 

C 

Eusebia  (1839).   J 

Mangel-  Wurzel. 

8 

., 

Sir  Hercules. 

Faugh-a-Balagh   \ 

1 

. 

(1842). 

Guiccioli. 

OQ 

1  J 

1 

f 

Liverpool. 

Espoir  (1841).    \ 

"¥71          ' 

. 

Esperance. 

J 

L 

1 

Cadland. 

i 

1 

Zarina. 

1  ' 

C 

Sir  Hercules. 

J 

Miss  Whinney    ! 

(1838). 

Euphrosyne. 

1  Journal  des  haras,  annee  1877,  Ire  partie,  p.  371. 


CERTIFICATE    OF   DESCRIPTION.  823 

Grand  Prix  de  Paris,  his  pedigree  would  have  been  indicated  in  the 
following  manner  : 

Saint  Christopher :  sire,  Mortemer ;  dam,  Isoline. 

Mortemer :  sire,  Compiegne ;  dam,  Countess. 
Isoline :  sire,  Etnelnert ;  dam,  Bassishaw. 
Compiegne :  sire,  Fitz-Gladiator ;  dam,  Maid  of  Hart. 
Countess :  sire,  Nuncio ;  dam,  Eusebia. 
Etnelnert:  sire,  Faugh-a-Balagh ;  dam,  Espoir. 
Bassishaw :  sire,  Prime  Warden ;  dam,  Miss  Whinney. 

Sometimes  we  prefer  to  recognize  more  especially  the  direct  gene- 
alogy of  the  two  progenitors.  The  pedigree  is  then  formulated  as 
follows : 

Saint  Christopher. 


Sire,  Mortemer. 
G.  s.,  Compiegne. 
G.  g.  s.,  Fitz-Gladiator. 
G.  g.  g.  s.,  Gladiator. 
G.  g.  g.  g.  s.,  Partisan. 


Dam,  Isoline. 

G.  d.,  Bassishaw. 

G.  g.  d.,  Miss  Whinney. 

G.  g.  g.  d.,  Euphrosyne. 

G.  g.  g.  g.  d.,  Shuttle  Mare. 


In  connection  with  the  pedigree  a  list  of  the  animal's  performances 
is  enumerated,  if  he  be  a  celebrated  one.  It  should  be  remembered, 
nevertheless,  that  in  order  to  operate  with  rapidity  and  precision  it  is 
necessary  to  have  much  practice,  a  methodical  procedure,  and  quick 
perception.  All  certificates  that  are  intended  for  public  use  should 
be  previously  revised  and  corrected  with  care. 


SECTION    SEVENTH. 

THE  APTITUDES  OR   THE  SERVICES. 


THE  horse's  strength  is  employed  in  moving  burdens  placed  upon 
his  back  through  the  agency  of  the  saddle  or  the  pack-saddle,  or 
dragged  along  the  ground,  either  directly  or  by  means  of  particular 
vehicles  on  wheels,  or  hauled  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

In  other  words,  he  carries  or  he  pulls  ;  exceptionally,  he  does  both 
at  the  same  time.  In  both  cases  the  effort  to  be  made  depends  in 
great  measure  upon  the  weight  of  the  burden,  the  velocity  with  which 
it  is  moved,  and  the  consistency  and  inclination  of  the  surface  upon 
which  it  rests. 

From  this  point  of  view,  we  should  primarily  establish  two  prin- 
cipal categories  :  saddle-horses  and  harness-horses.  Practically,  how- 
ever, these  would  be  insufficient,  and  would  confound  aptitudes  which 
it  is  important  to  distinguish.  The  special  exigencies  of  luxury,  the 
army,  commerce,  industry,  and  agriculture  evidently  require  some 
degree  of  specialization ;  again,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  those  require- 
ments which  relate  to  the  reproduction  of  the  species. 

Therefore  we  will  divide  the  services  into  four  principal  chapters. 
In  the  first  we  will  study  the  race-horse,  whose  pecuniary  value  is  the 
most  considerable;  in  the  second  we  will  treat  of  horses  of  luxury ;  in 
the  third,  cavalry  horses  ;  finally,  in  the  fourth,  horses  for  industrial  and 
commercial  purposes,  whose  average  value  is  generally  inferior  to  that 
of  the  preceding. 

We  will  add  that,  according  to  his  category,  the  horse  is  constantly 
utilized  as  an  animal  of  force  or  of  speed  and,  more  rarely,  as  a  mixed 
motor.  All  things  being  equal,  it  follows  that  his  height  and  bulk 
should,  before  all  other  attributes,  constitute  the  principal  elements 
by  which  to  class  him  in  such  or  such  a  group,  because  these  elements, 
united  to  the  bulk  and  elevation  of  the  vehicles,  are  in  direct  relation 
with  the  extent  or  intensity  of  the  muscular  contraction,  the  greatness 
824 


RACE-HORSES.  825 

or  power  of  the  effort  to  be  made.  Afterwards  will  follow,  as  a 
secondary  although  very  important  consideration,  the  examination  of 
his  conformation,  his  breeding,  his  gaits,  his  origin,  and  his  perform- 
ances, if  there  be  any,  his  dressing,  his  training,  his  coat,  etc.  Under 
these  different  aspects  we  will  briefly  investigate  each  service.  The 
information  given  concerning  prices  is  not  absolute,  in  this  sense^  that 
they  are  subject  to  variation  according  to  circumstances,  but  they  are 
drawn  from  a  good  source  and  represent  with  sufficient  accuracy  the 
actual  value  of  the  horses  in  the  place  under  consideration. 


CHAPTER    I. 

RACE-HORSES. 

IT  is  not  our  intention  to  give  an  opinion  here  upon  the  utility 
and  value  of  races,  tests  by  the  aid  of  which  it  is  sought  to  ascer- 
tain the  qualities  of  speed  and  endurance  of  a  certain  number  of  sub- 
jects which  are  designed  for  breeding  purposes,  in  order  to  ameliorate 
the  equine  species.  We  simply  wish  to  recall  that  animals  which 
undergo  these  trials  may  acquire  considerable  value  on  account  of  the 
possibilities  hoped  for  in  them  either  as  reproducers  or  as  machines 
destined  to  win  prizes. 

Thus  considered,  these  animals  constitute  a  category  with  well- 
determined  limits,  concerning  which  we  should  say  a  few  words. 

We  will  divide  race-horses,  according  to  their  specialization,  into 
running-horses,  steeple-chasers,  and  trotting-horses. 

A.— Running-Horse. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — As  his  name  indicates,  the  running-horse 
is  always  ridden  upon  the  race-course  at  a  fast  gallop, — that  is  to  say, 
upon  chosen  ground,  almost  flat,  and  never  presenting  obstacles  to  be 
leaped  over.  The  jockey  who  mounts  him  uses  every  effort  to  make 
him  travel  over  the  ground  with  the  greatest  speed  possible. 

Height. — His  height  varies  from  1.55  metres  to  1.65  metres,  but 
the  highest  is  sought  for,-  since  it  places  the  animal  in  the  best  conditions 
to  take  long  strides. 

Conformation. — We  have  indicated  on  page  406  the  principal 
features  of  this  conformation.  The  running-horse  (Fig.  333)  should 


826 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


have  a  high  chest  and  long  members  ;  a  short  body  and  strong  loins  ; 
the  neck,  shoulder,  croup,  thigh,  buttock,  leg,  and  forearm  should  be 
long,  without  being  too  heavy  in  the  upper  part  ;  the  members  strong, 
clean,  and  free  from  blemishes  ;  he  should  have  wide  and  thick  articu- 


FIG.  333.— Running-horse. 

Vermout,  winner  of  the  great  prize  of  Paris  in  1864.    (Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging 

to  M.  Delton.) 

lations,  closed  in  the  superior  angles,  open  in  the  inferior ;  a  deep 
chest,  abdomen  slightly  full ;  fine  skin,  hair,  mane,  and  tail ;  an  ani- 
mated and  expressive  physiognomy ;  he  should  be  graceful,  nimble, 
elegant,  excitable,  energetic,  impetuous,  and  of  great  endurance. 

Preferred  Coats. — The  two  coats  which  are  the  most  common 
are  the  bay  and  the  sorrel,  sometimes  the  roan,  and  more  rarely  the 
roan  gray ;  the  black  is  but  little  esteemed,  the  qualities  of  the  horse 
being,  of  course,  taken  into  consideration. 

Price. — The  price  of  a  running-horse  is  as  variable  as  that  of  a 
work  of  art.  It  is  determined,  for  the  eighteen  months'  colt,  or  the 
yearling,  which  has  not  yet  appeared  upon  the  turf,  according  to  his 
genealogy  and  his  conformation.  At  that  time  the  greatest  value  is 
attached  to  the  qualities  of  the  parents  and  even  of  the  grandparents, 
especially  when  they  are  combined,  in  their  descendant,  with  great 
perfection  of  form.  In  such  cases,  the  value  of  the  young  subject 


RACE-HORSES.  827 

remains  always  contingent,  since  he  has  not  yet  shown  what  he  is 
capable  of  accomplishing.  Speculations  have  no  other  base  than  the 
succession  of  trials  undergone  during  the  training.  Under  these  con- 
ditions the  price  may  vary  from  $200  to  $6000. 

Beginning  at  the  age  of  two  years,  as  soon  as  the  colt  appears 
upon  the  race-course,  his  value  increases  in  proportion  to  the  number 
and  nature  of  the  prizes  which  he  has  won.  His  value  as  a  stallion 
may  then  be  $2000,  $6000,  $10,000,  $20,000,  $40,000,  and  even 
$60,000,  when  his  conformation  is  perfect.  On  the  contrary,  if  he  has 
not  been  successful,  his  owner  can  scarcely  dispose  of  him  for  a  few 
hundred  dollars.  With  such  variations,  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
anything.  Horses  which  have  been  purchased  for  $20,000,  by  reason 
of  the  hopes  arising  from  a  victory  too  easily  won,  have  been  known, 
after  a  few  easy  defeats,  to  depreciate  in  value  to  $1000  or  even  to 
$600! 

Origin. — The  running-horse  is  always  of  the  so-called  thorough- 
bred blood.  His  pedigree  is  inscribed  either  in  the  English  or  French 
Stud-JBook.  It  is  therefore  very  easy  to  become  accurately  informed 
as  to  the  qualities  of  his  ancestors  by  consulting  one  or  other  of  the 
aforesaid  records. 

B.— The  Steeple-Chaser. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — This  name  is  given  to  a  variety  of  horses 
which  only  appear  in  races  in  which  obstacles  are  to  be  leaped  over. 
Here,  again,  the  horse  is  mounted  and  always  ridden  at  a  rapid  gallop. 
The  trial  takes  place  upon  the  race-course,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  but 
a  series  of  artificial  obstacles  are  intentionally  placed  upon  the  track, 
such  as  hedges,  walls,  ditches,  brooks,  Irish  benches,  etc.,  over  which 
the  animal  must  leap  successively  before  reaching  the  end.  This  kind 
of  race,  being  much  more  exciting,  delights  the  public  infinitely  more 
than  the  ordinary  race,  on  account  of  the  incessant  dangers  threatening, 
at  each  new  obstacle,  the  jockey  and  his  mount. 

Height. — The  medium  height  is  comprised  within  the  same  limits 
as  that  of  the  preceding, — that  is  to  say,  between  1.55  metres  and  1.65 
metres.  The  intrinsic  value  being  equal,  preference  is  given  to  the 
tallest  subjects,  because  they  are  able  to  leap  over  higher  obstacles 
without  loss  of  speed. 

Conformation. — The  conformation  does  not  differ  much  from 
that  of  the  running-horse,  for  only  horses  which  have  not  performed 
well  on  the  race-course  are  risked  in  the  steeple-chase.  High  withers, 
a  short  and  straight  dorso-lumbar  region,  a  strong  and  beautiful  attach- 


828 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


ment  of  the  loins  ;  large  and  strong  muscles  of  the  hind-quarters,  par- 
ticularly of  the  croup  (which,  without  inconvenience,  may  be  a  little 
inclined),  the  thigh,  the  buttock,  and  the  leg;  development  of  the 
articulations,  especially  of  the  hocks  and  the  pasterns ;  strength  and 
beauty  of  equilibrium  of  the  anterior  members  ;  finally,  a  rather  short 
body, — such  are  the  principal  qualities  to  be  sought  for.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  training  constitutes  an  essential  element  of  this  condition. 
If  the  subject  is  not  trained  with  the  special  purpose  to  jump  high, 
freely,  and  with  skill,  it  is  useless  to  enter  him  in  this  kind  of  race, 
whatever  may  be  the  perfection  of  his  form. 

The  horse  which  we  have  chosen  (Fig.  334)  as  a  type  is  Bois- 
Koussel,  which  won  the  French  Derby  in  1864.     Although  he  never 


FIG.  334— Steeple-chase  horse. 

Bois-Roussel,  winner  of  the  French  Derby  in  1864.    (Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging 

to  M.  Delton.) 

ran  in  a  steeple-chase,  his  whole  conformation  indicates  how  great 
would  have  been  his  fitness  for  this  service  had  he  been  trained  with  a 
view  to  it.  It  is,  then,  quite  intentionally  that  we  here  recommend  his 
portrait  to  the  reader's  attention,  in  spite  of  the  different  use  to  which 
he  has  been  put  by  his  owner. 

Preferred  Coats. — Most  subjects  in  this  category  are  bay,  sorrel, 
or  roan,  but  excellent  ones  are  found  among  the  other  colors. 


RACE-HORSES.  829 

Price. — The  price  of  the  steeple-chaser  is  as  variable  as  that  of 
any  other  race-horse.  It  is  determined  according  to  the  pedigree  and 
the  conformation  in  the  colt  which  has  not  yet  performed  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  according  to  the  performances  and  the  successes  obtained 
when  he  has  already  appeared  upon  the  turf. 

Ordinarily,  it  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  preceding,  because  the  ani- 
mals which  are  entered  in  steeple-chases  are  neither  as  beautiful  nor 
as  serviceable.  It  is  evident  that  if  their  chances  of  winning  a  prize 
on  the  race-course  were  good,  it  would  be  to  the  advantage  of  their 
owners  to  utilize  them  in  this  way,  for  accidents  are  much  less  common. 
For  these  reasons  we  give,  based  upon  very  general  indications,  the 
figures  $200  to  $12,000  as  representing  the  approximate  value  of  this 
variety  of  horse. 

In  a  large  number  of  hippodromes  it  is  rather  common  to  meet 
among  steeple-chasers  running-horses  which  have  met  with  some  accident 
in  a  former  race,  a  laceration  or  rupture  of  the  tendons,  for  example. 
They  are  then  said  to  be  broken  down.  In  this  case,  they  are  castrated 
with  a  view  of  modifying  somewhat  their  conformation,  and  are  then 
fired  that  they  may  regain  their  strength.  However,  their  price  is  dimin- 
ished in  proportion  to  the  blemishes  of  which  they  still  bear  the  traces. 

Origin. — Formerly  the  half-thoroughbred  horse  was  employed  for 
the  steeple-chase,  being  foaled  and  raised  exclusively  with  a  view  to 
this  end.  Little  by  little  the  trainers  conceived  the  idea  of  making 
use  of  the  thoroughbred  horse,  which  experience  has  always  shown  to 
be  superior  in  speed  and  endurance.  For  this  reason  we  no  longer 
see  the  half-breed  at  the  present  time. 

C. — Trotters. 

On  a  parallel  with  the  running  races  are  placed  the  trotting  races,  in 
harness  or  under  the  saddle,  for  which  purpose  a  particular  variety  of 
horses  is  produced.  We  must  then  distinguish  at  once  in  this  group 
trotters  in  harness  and  trotters  under  the  saddle. 

i.    Trotters  in  Harness. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — As  their  name  indicates,  these  animals 
are  always  driven  upon  the  race-track  harnessed  to  very  light  vehicles 
called  sulkies  or  skeletons. 

"  The  sulky  is  composed  of  a  small  seat,  without  covering,  for  a 
single  person.  The  driver  has  his  legs  separated,  and  his  feet  rest 
upon  two  bars  fastened  to  the  shafts ;  besides,  the  horse  is  harnessed  so 
short  that  his  hind-quarters  are  placed  between  the  two  legs  of  the 


830  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

driver.  This  vehicle  is  not  suspended ;  a  pair  of  very  large  light 
wheels,  an  axle,  and  two  shafts  form  the  whole;  which  does  not  weigh 
more  than  twenty-five  kilogrammes."  l 

In  construction  and  lightness  the  skeleton  resembles  the  sulky  very 
much,  but  it  has  four  wheels  and  is  not  very  high. 

In  Russia  and  in  England  the  trotters  in  harness  are  often  utilized 
with  the  vehicles  of  which  we  have  just  spoken ;  in  America,  princi- 
pally in  the  United  States,  a  skeleton  a  little  modified,  known  under 
the  name  of  buggy,  is  used,  which  the  French  vulgarly  call  araignee 
(spider),  because  of  its  aspect,  or  mort-subite  (sudden  death),  on  account 
of  the  dangers  to  which  it  exposes  the  driver  when  rounding  the  turns. 
In  Norway,  the  Norwegians  employ  it ;  in  cold  countries,  in  general, 
the  sleigh  is  used. 

Height. — The  ordinary  height  of  these  horses  varies  from  1.52 
metres  to  1.65  metres. 

Conformation. — The  animal  should  be  harmonious,  unblemished, 
well  constructed  in  the  body  and  in  the  members.  Withers  rather  low 
and  loins  slightly  weak  may  be  overlooked,  but  a  powerful  croup, 
thighs,  buttocks,  legs,  and  hocks  are  essential ;  also,  long  neck,  shoulders, 
and  forearms ;  not  too  horizontal-  in  the  croup ;  normal  inclinations  of 
the  superior  segments  of  the  members ;  width,  height,  and  depth  of 
the  chest ;  wide,  thick,  neat,  and  clean  articulations  ;  in  a  word,  all  the 
characters  of  a  beautiful  conformation.  It  is  especially  when  in  motion 
that  a  trotter  can  be  judged.  By  his  actions,  lengthened,  close  to  the 
ground,  and  regular,  by  the  extent  and  complete  projection  of  the  an- 
terior members,  and  by  the  energetic  action  of  the  hind  members,  he 
will  manifest  in  the  best  way  his  aptitude  as  a  trotter. 

We  give  as  an  example  of  this  variety  (Fig.  335)  the  portrait  of 
Fazan,  a  ^Russian  stallion  of  great  value,  presented  to  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  III.  by  Czar  Alexander  II.  at  the  time  of  the  Universal 
Exposition  in  1867. 

Finally,  with  respect  to  education  or  training,  he  should  be  accus- 
tomed to  preserve  the  trotting  gait  during  the  whole  duration  of  the 
race.  The  rules  specify  formally  that  every  horse  which  breaks  (runs) 
is  obliged  to  resume  the  trot  immediately.  This  change  from  a  fast 
gait  into  another  less  fast  always  causes  loss  of  time  and  a  consider- 
able slackening  of  speed.  Subjects  of  the  first  rank  are  not  wanting  in 
number,  which  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  winning  a  prize,  because 


1  Belvalette  et  Quenay,  Rapport  du  jury  international  de  1'Exposition  universelle  de  1878 
(section  de  la  carrosserie  et  du  charronnage),  p.  46,  Paris,  Imp.  nat.,  1880. 


RACE-HORSES. 


831 


they  are  too  ardent,  too  excited,  from  the  moment  they  appear  on  the 
track  until  the  end  of  the  race. 


FIG.  335.— Trotter  in  harness. 

Fazan,  Russian  stallion  of  the  Orloff  variety.    (Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M. 

Delton.) 

Preferred  Coats. — Properly  speaking,  there  are  not,  among 
trotters  under  harness,  any  preferable  coats.  It  may  simply  be  said 
that  the  dark  colors,  bay  or  sorrel,  are  always  the  most  esteemed. 

Price. — The  price  of  geldings  and  mares  varies  from  $600  to  $2000 
and  even  $40,000.  Stallions  are  much  more  expensive ;  to  our  knowl- 
edge there  are  some  which  have  brought  as  much  as  $105,000  in 
America.  Here,  again,  the  differences  of  price  result  from  causes  of 
the  same  nature  as  those  which  influence  the  value  of  race-horses  in 
general ;  such  are  the  pedigree  (genealogy),  the  conformation,  the  gaits, 
the  performances  (trials  undergone),  races  won,  etc.  We  will  dwell  no 
further  upon  these. 

Origin. — Several  countries  are  renowned  for  their  trotting-horses. 
The  United  States,  England,  Russia,  and  France  furnish  the  most 
remarkable  examples.  The  American  trotter  has  only  lately  been  im- 
ported into  Europe  ;  the  English  is  bred  mostly  in  Norfolk  and  also  in 
Yorkshire ;  the  Russian  is  found  in  the  stud  of  Orloff ;  as  to  the  French, 
he  comes  especially  from  Normandy,  more  rarely  from  the  Ardennes. 


832 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


These  animals  all  possess  great  speed  and  endurance.  However,  if 
we  wish  to  classify  them  with  regard  to  speed,  the  American  and  Rus- 
sian ordinarily  come  first,  whilst  the  Norman  and  English  only  hold 
the  second  place.  As  regards  endurance,  the  Norman  and  English 
excel  the  American  and  Russian.  We  will  find  these  last  two  ex- 
citable ;  their  chest  would  be  improved  were  it  a  little  higher,  like  that 
of  the  English  horse,  for  example. 

2.  Trotters  under  the  Saddle. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — Trotters  under  the  saddle  appear  on  the 
race-course  always  mounted,  like  the  running-horse  or  the  steeple- 
chaser ;  it  is  useless  to  add  that  they  never  have  any  obstacles  to  leap 
over. 

Height. — Their  height,  slightly  inferior  to  that  of  the  preceding, 
varies  between  1.50  metres  and  1.62  metres. 

Conformation. — Their  conformation  is  the  same,  although  still 
greater  perfection  is  sought,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  fore-quarters, 


FIG.  336.— Trotter  under  the  saddle. 
Bayadere,  Anglo-Norman  mare.    (Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 


Ill 


already  burdened  with  the  weight  of  the  rider.     For  the  trotter 
harness,  withers  somewhat  low,  a  back  slightly  hollow,  loins  rather 


HORSES    OF   LUXURY.  833 

weak,  and  anterior  equilibrium  somewhat  defective,  may  be  overlooked  ; 
but  such  defects  are  unpardonable  in  the  trotter  under  the  saddle. 

We  give  as  an  example  the  portrait  of  Bayadere  (Fig.  336),  a 
celebrated  Norman  trotter,  never  beaten,  and  foaled  in  1853  by  Phe- 
nomenon and  Bayadere  (by  Ramsay),  victor  in  twenty-two  trotting 
races  at  the  expositions  of  1862  and  1863. 

Preferred  Coats. — Taste  and  fashion  have  established  nothing 
in  particular  in  this  respect ;  there  are  no  coats  of  special  value  ;  the 
darker  ones  are  preferred,  however,  to  the  others. 

Price. — The  prices  here  are  lower  than  those  of  the  preceding 
category,  because  horses  trotting  under  the  saddle  are  less  common  and 
less  in  demand  than  those  trotting  in  harness.  These  prices  vary  from 
$400  to  $2000  and  even  $2500  for  geldings  and  mares.  For  stallions 
four  years  of  age  as  much  as  $5000  have  been  paid. 

Origin. — Nearly  all  these  animals  originally  came  from  Normandy 
and  Norfolk,  and  result  from  crossing  practised  for  a  long  time  between 
the  local  races  of  these  countries  and  the  thoroughbred  horse. 


CHAPTER    II. 

HORSES   OF   LUXURY. 

IN  this  group  we  place  horses  used  for  the  trot  and  the  gallop,  but 
never  appearing  upon  the  turf.  These  are  exclusively  animals  of 
display  ;  they  are  mounted  or  harnessed  ;  more  rarely  they  are  adapted 
for  horseback  riding  and  for  driving.  Their  service,  which  is  not  fa- 
tiguing, consists  of  a  single  drive  of  two  or  three  hours  at  the  most, 
during  which  they  move  at  moderate  speed. 

They  constitute  an  important  commercial  element,  which  recom- 
mends itself  both  by  the  number  of  its  representatives  and  the  high 
prices  which  they  reach. 

We  will  divide  them  into  two  categories  with  respect  to  their  des- 
tination :  coach-horses  and  saddle-horses.  The  former  having  a  much 
greater  value  than  the  latter,  will  be  examined  first. 

A. — Coach-Horses. 

Coach-horses  are  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  vehicles  with 
which  they  were  formerly  used.  These  horses  are  harnessed  at  the 

53 


834  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

present  time  to  all  carriages  of  luxury,  in  pairs  or  single,  according  to 
circumstances. 

With  respect  to  height  and  bulk,  they  are  again  subdivided  into 
large  coach-horses  and  small  coach-horses. 

i.    Large  Coach-Horses. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — The  large  coach-horses  are  nearly  always 
driven  in  pairs,  two  or  four  at  a  time,  to  large  carriages  of  luxury  of 
various  kinds. 

Height. — The  average  height  of  these  horses  varies  from  1.63 
metres  to  1.70  metres;  exceptionally,  some  of  1.78  and  even  1.80 
metres  are  found. 

Preferred  Coats. — The  coat,  in  this  category,  has  an  importance 
which  must  not  be  neglected.  The  ordinary  bay,  the  brown  bay,  and 
the  burnt  or  golden  sorrel  are  the  colors  most  highly  prized. 

In  certain  cases  two  subjects  of  different  coats  are  harnessed 
together :  a  brown  bay  and  a  beautiful  dappled  gray  or  a  white  horse, 
for  example.  This  variegation  is,  however,  no  longer  fashionable ;  it 
attracts  the  eye  and  has  a  pretentious  appearance,  and  at  the  present 
time,  at  least,  is  not  often  seen  among  the  aristocracy. 

Formerly,  two  dark  horses,  alternating  with  two  light  ones,  were 
driven  in  pairs  to  a  mail-coach  or  a  Daumont  carriage.  They  are  then 
disposed  like  a  checker-board,  according  to  the  common  expression  :  a 
dark  and  a  light  at  the  pole,  and  a  light  and  a  dark  in  front.  The 
result  is  that  coats  of  the  same  color  are  placed  diagonally.  This  is,  be 
it  understood,  a  purely  fantastic  or  capricious  blending  of  shades. 

The  black  coats  are  but  little  esteemed ;  they  are  only  made  use  of 
as  evidences  of  mourning.  In  such  cases,  the  carriage  and  harness,  as 
well  as  the  dress  of  the  coachman  and  footman,  are  black.  Unless  the 
owner  be  in  mourning,  a  black  team  is  no  longer  fashionable.  Hence 
a  black  coat  should  be,  to  the  buyer  who  is  above  questions  of  fashion, 
a  forcible  pretext  for  depreciation. 

Conformation. — The  large  coach-horse,  being  the  horse  of  dis- 
play par  excellence,  should  have  a  perfect  conformation  and  gaits  as 
brilliant  as  possible.  His  intrinsic  value  is  of  secondary  importance, 
for  he  has  always  enough  endurance  to  perform  the  service  required 
of  him,  which  is  not  laborious.  The  horse  thus  chosen  should  have 
a  square  head,  rather  light,  neat,  and  expressive ;  a  long,  supple,  and 
well-attached  neck  ;  beautiful  withers ;  oblique  and  muscular  shoul- 
ders ;  a  good  dorso-lumbar  line ;  a  horizontal  croup  with  a  tail  well 
attached  and  well  carried ;  a  round  and  descending  rib ;  a  full  and 


HORSES    OF    LUXURY. 


835 


short  flank,  a  muscular  thigh,  a  descending  buttock;  strong,  clean 
members  without  defect ;  small  feet,  etc.  If  slender,  he  does  not  prop- 
erly fill  the  harness  and  appears  disproportionate  with  the  vehicle  to 


FIG.  337.— Large  coach-horse. 

Lahore,  half-thoroughbred  Anglo-Norman,  belonging  to  the  Marquis  d' Aligre.   Grand  prize  at  the 
horse  exposition  of  1868.    (Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

which  he  is  harnessed  ;  too  stout,  he  becomes  heavy,  massive,  wanting  in 
suppleness  and  grace ;  he  must  be  fine  and  well  proportioned  (Fig.  337). 
Origin. — The  most  valuable  large  coach-horses  are  half-breeds 
(metises)  more  or  less  resembling  the  horses  which  come  from  England, 
particularly  from  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire ;  the  largest  among  them 
are  bred  in  Suffolk.  Normandy,  especially  the  plain  of  Caen,  fur- 
nishes some  very  handsome  ones,  but  they  are  second  to  the  English. 
Then  come  the  German  and  the  Dutch  coach-horses,  the  former  raised 
principally  in  Hanover  and  Mecklenburg,  the  latter  in  Friesland. 
Both  are  very  numerous  in  the  Paris  market.  They  are  brilliant,  have 
considerable  style,  and  are  sometimes  from  very  good  ancestry.  How- 
ever, their  conformation  is  sometimes  inferior  to  the  English  and 
the  Norman  coach-horses;  they  often  lack  something  to  be  desired. 


836  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Among  these  horses  the  defects  are  seen  in  their  long,  narrow  head, 
which  is  but  slightly  arched  and  poorly  attached  ;  their  eyes,  which  are 
placed  high  ;  their  slender  neck,  flat  chest,  weak  back,  long  and  poorly- 
attached  loins,  hollow  flanks,  prominent  haunches,  slender  members, 
coarse  mane  and  tail,  and  large  and  flat  feet.  Their  movements,  it  is 
true,  have  a  certain  elegance,  but  they  are  excitable.  These  subjects  trot 
from  the  knee  (knee-action)  and  are  wanting  in  speed  and  in  activity. 

Price. — The  price  varies  according  to  the  size  of  the  animals, 
their  conformation,  breeding,  pedigree,  coat,  and  especially  according 
to  the  dressing,  the  mating,  and  the  brilliancy  of  their  gaits.  It  varies, 
for  a  pair  of  fine  coach-horses,  from  $2000  to  $3000  and  even  $4000. 

But  this  price  increases  very  much  when  two  pairs  of  horses,  very 
similar  and  well  mated  in  all  respects,  are  selected,  for  they  are  obtained 
with  difficulty.  Under  these  conditions,  there  are  examples  of  two- 
matched  pairs  which  have  cost  as  much  as  $12,000  and  $15,000. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  to  buy  a  pair  of  Hanoverian, 
Mecklenburg,  or  Friesland  horses  for  $1000,  $1500,  or  $1800  at  the 
most,  but  they  are  never  coach-horses  of  the  highest  grade. 

2.    Small  Coach-Horses. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — The  small  coach-horse  is  harnessed 
single  or  double  to  carriages  of  less  weight,  such  as  the  landau,  three- 
quarter  coupe's,  ordinary  coupes,  etc.  Less  wealthy  people  drive  them 
sometimes  to  the  landau  and  the  caleche  as  they  would  a  large  coach- 
horse,  which  would,  however,  be  much  more  in  accord  with  this  kind 
of  vehicle  were  his  price  not  so  high. 

Height. — As  its  name  indicates,  this  horse  is  of  inferior  size  to 
that  of  the  preceding;  it  varies  from  1.56  metres  to  1.62  metres. 

Preferred  Coats. — The  whims  of  fashion  are  here  as  exacting 
as  for  the  large  coach-horse.  If  the  light  coats,  principally  the  gray, 
are  preferred,  it  is  on  condition  that  the  subjects  have  some  exceptional 
qualities. 

Conformation. — The  conformation  of  this  horse  always  implies 
elegance,  style,  firmness,  brilliant  and  striding  gaits.  Nevertheless,  he 
should  be  more  bulky,  more  stocky,  and  closer  to  the  ground  than  the 
large  coacher.  Besides,  proportionally,  his  work  is  more  considerable, 
since  he  is  generally  driven  alone  to  carriages  almost  as  heavy.  Among 
other  beauties,  he  must  have  a  neat  head,  long  neck,  good  withers  and 
shoulders,  strong  body,  strong  members,  without  defect  and  with  good 
equilibrium,  good  action,  and  enough  bulk  to  fill  the  harness  well 
.(Fig.  338). 


HORSES    OF    LUXURY.  837 

Origin. — The  finest  small  coach-horses  come  from  England  and 
Normandy ;  the  latter  are  produced  in  Merlerault  (Orne)  ;  the  Han- 
overian, the  Mecklenburg,  and  the  Dutch  occupy  a  second  rank. 


FIG.  338.— Small  coach-horse. 

Shang-Hai',  half-thoroughbred  Anglo-Norman.    Grand  prize  at  the  horse  exposition  of  1868. 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

Price. — This  horse  is  necessarily  inferior  in  value  to  that  of  the 
large  coach-horse.  In  the  first  place,  he  is  smaller ;  again,  his  mating 
need  not  be  taken  so  much  into  consideration,  since  he  is  oftener  driven 
single ;  finally,  when  driven  double,  he  is  mated  more  easily,  because 
there  are  more  from  which  to  choose  and  less  to  be  exacted. 

Besides,  his  price  is  subject  to  the  same  variations,  inherent  princi- 
pally to  the  size,  conformation,  breeding,  coat,  and  brilliancy  of  the 
gaits.  It  varies  from  $500  to  $1200.  The  pair  has  an  average  value 
of  from  $1400  to  $1600;  exceptionally,  from  $2000  to  $2400 

B.— Saddle-Horses. 

All  horses  of  this  category  may  be  utilized  for  the  service  of  the 
saddle ,  some  exclusively,  others  accessorily,  they  being  fitted  for  a 
double  purpose.  If  we  have  joined  these  latter  to  the  former,  it  is 
as  much  to  avoid  making  a  division  as  to  call  attention  to  the  fact, 
that  they  are  harnessed  perhaps  less  often  than  they  are  mounted. 


838 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


We  will  adopt  here,  as  in  the  preceding  groups,  the  distinctions  estab- 
lished in  commerce. 

i.    The  Hackney. 

Adaptation. — The  saddle-horse  of  pure  luxury,  which  is  reserved 
for  the  promenade  and  for  display,  and  which  is  put  to  no  other  use,  is 
the  hackney.  He  occupies,  in  the  list  of  saddle-horses,  the  same  place 
as  the  large  coach-horse  among  the  coach-horses, — that  is  to  say,  the 
first  rank.  He  is  chosen  for  gentlemen  or  for  ladies  and  young  men. 
In  the  first  case,  he  is  generally  larger,  more  nervous,  better  bred, 
higher,  and  has  a  longer  gait ;  his  price  is  also  higher. 

Height. — For  a  man,  a  hackney  of  1.55  metres  to  1.62  metres  is 
needed;  for  ladies  and  young  men,  he  may  be  smaller,  since  he  is 


FIG.  339.— Hackney. 

Gelding  belonging  to  the  Princess  of  Metternich.    (Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to 

M.  Delton.) 

intended  to  carry  less  weight;  his  height  also  varies  from  1.54  metres 
to  1.60  metres. 

Preferred  Coats.— These  are,  indisputably,  the  dark  shades  : 
the  bay,  brown  bay,  golden  or  burnt  sorrel.  The  gray  coats,  on 
account  of  their  resemblance  to  those  of  common  horses,  are  but  little 
valued. 


HORSES    OF   LUXURY.  839 

Conformation. — The  purity  of  the  anatomical  outlines  approaches 
perfection ;  the  harmony  of  the  form  and  the  fine  proportions  of  the 
body  give  to  the  connoisseur  an  impression  of  plastic  beauty  ;  the  thin- 
ness of  the  integument,  the  neatness  of  the  members,  and  the  beauty  of 
the  whole  are  carried  almost  to  extremes ;  the  ease  and  suppleness  of 
the  movements,  the  gracefulness  of  the  attitudes,  the  nobleness  of  the 
walk,  the  expression  of  the  physiognomy,  the  pride  and  intelligence 
of  the  look,  the  elegance  and  brilliancy  of  the  gaits,  united  to  breed- 
ing, docility,  impetuosity,  and  ardor, — such  are  the  qualities  which  this 
horse  should  possess,  the  animal  chosen  by  every  sportsman  really 
worthy  of  the  name  (Fig.  339). 

Origin. — The  finest  hackneys  are  often  of  pure  English  breeding, 
sometimes  Irish  very  nearly  thoroughbred.  Eastern  Prussia  also  fur- 
nishes some ;  they  are  known  in  commerce  by  the  name  trakens, 
because  they  are  produced  principally  in  the  stud  of  Trakehnen. 
Some,  also,  come  from  Wiirtemberg,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Stuttgart. 
Finally,  Normandy  possesses  some  that  are  quite  handsome,  principally 
in  that  part  of  the  department  of  Orne  which  is  called  Merlerault. 

The  hackney  lightest  in  weight,  that  which  is  preferred  for  ladies 
and  young  men,  is  found  among  horses  of  all  origins,  many  of  them, 
however,  being  small  thoroughbreds  and  horses  from  Southern  France, 
principally  from  the  vicinity  of  Tarbes. 

Price. — The  price  of  these  animals  varies,  much  according  to  size, 
conformation,  fineness,  breeding,  gaits,  coats,  etc.  The  largest  ones 
cost  from  $600  to  $1400  or  $1600  ;  the  smaller  ones  from  $200  to 
$1000  or  $1200. 

2.   The  Cob. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — The  cob  is  a  horse  of  luxury  for  driving 
or  riding,  which  is  used  as  a  saddle-horse  for  old  persons  and  those  of 
heavy  weight,  and  which  may,  besides,  be  employed  as  a  driving-horse 
for  light  carriages,  such  as  phaetons,  buggies,  dog-carts,  etc. 

Height. — The  expression  cob  has  been  abused  by  being  applied 
to  all  rather  powerful  small  horses.  In  England  the  average  height 
of  the  cob  is  1.40  metres;  in  France  he  is  larger,  his  height  varying 
from  1.50  metres  to  1.58  metres. 

Preferred  Coats. — The  present  fashion  rather  favors  the  roan 
and  the  iron  gray,  but  we  find  all  kinds  of  coats. 

Conformation. — This  horse,  a  very  pleasant  sort  to  use,  is  short, 
stubby,  muscular,  regular  and  round  in  form,  close  to  the  ground  ;  he 
has  an  expressive  head,  a  rather  strong  neck,  a  wide  chest,  strong 
members,  compact  conformation,  and  a  calm  and  docile  temperament. 


840 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Notwithstanding  some  appearance  of  clumsiness  and  indifference,  he 
has,  nevertheless,  style,  elegance,  distinction,  beautiful  gaits,  and  ardor 
when  necessary  (Fig.  340). 


••-  ---.'. 

FIG.  340.— Cob. 

(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

Origin. — The  English  cobs  are  by  far  the  most  valuable.  They 
come  from  Norfolk.  Ireland  also  produces  some.  The  French  variety 
is  less  numerous ;  some  are  found  in  the  market  of  Niort,  which  are 
brought  from  Poitou  and  Saintonge. 

Price. — When  the  pedigree  is  good,  their  value  ranges  from  $400 
to  $1600. 

3.   The  Hunter. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — As  the  name  indicates,  this  horse  is 
exclusively  designed  for  hunting.  He  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  steeple-chaser,  which  is  one  variety  of  race-horse.  His  principal 
characteristics  are  those  of  galloping  and  leaping  over  obstacles. 

Height. — His  average  height  ranges  from  1.54  metres  to  1.62 
metres.  It  is  never  less,  but  sometimes  more ;  the  huntsman  chooses 
his  mount  with  reference  to  his  own  size  and  weight.  Thus,  certain 
hunters  attain  a  height  of  1.75  metres. 


HORSES    OF   LUXURY. 


841 


Preferred  Coats. — Little  importance  is  placed  upon  the  color 
of  the  coats  of  these  horses.  However,  light  coats,  such  as  the  gray 
and  the  pied  particularly,  are  very  much  in  favor,  as  they  contrast 
agreeably  with  the  red  coat  of  the  rider. 


FIG.  341.— Hunter. 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

t 

Conformation. — A  beautiful  hunter  should  have  a  long,  high 
neck,  never  arched ;  beautiful  shoulders,  high  chest,  prominent  withers, 
strongly-built  body,  muscular  loins,  well  attached,  a  powerful  croup, 
thigh,  and  buttock,  and,  finally,  strong  members  of  good  equilibrium. 
To  these  qualities  must  be  added  energy,  good  breeding,  endurance, 
and  speed,  for  hunting  is  very  laborious  and  difficult,  and  exacts  a 
special  training  (Fig.  341). 

But  all  horses  which  are  used  for  this  service  by  no  means  possess 
all  these  conditions,  especially  in  France.  Many  of  them  are  blemished 
and  have  a  very  defective  conformation ;  hence  they  are  not  serviceable 
very  long. 

Origin. — The  best  hunting-horses  are  half-breeds,  bred  in  England 
and  in  greater  numbers  in  Ireland.  Those  which  are  used  in  France 
are  usually  half-ruined  thoroughbred  and  some  Norman  horses. 

Price. — Their  value  is  not  uniform,  owing  to  the  variety  of  their 


842 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


breeding,  their  state  of  preservation,  the  absence  of  blemishes  on  their 
members,  and  their  degree  of  training.  In  France,  their  price  varies 
from  $160  to  $500;  in  exceptional  cases  they  are  worth  from  $800 
to  $1000.  But  in  England,  "a  hunter  known  to  have  performed 
brilliantly  with  the  county  hounds  may  reach  a  price  ranging  from 
600  to  750  guineas."1 

4.    Double  Pony. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — The  double  pony  is  smaller,  more  com- 
mon, less  fine,  and  less  speedy  than  the  cob.  Like  the  latter,  he  can 
be  mounted  or  driven  to  harness,  according  to  circumstances. 


FIG.  342.— Double  pony. 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

Height. — His  average  height  is  from  1.45  metres  to  1.53  metres. 

Preferred  Coats. — They  are  of  all  colors,  which  are  of  equal 
value. 

Conformation. — This  horse  is  close  to  the  ground,  broad-backed, 
muscular,  of  a  strong  conformation  and  rounded  form;  his  head  is 
coarse,  his  members  strong,  but  not  very  fine ;  he  is  often  sluggish  and 
indolent  (Fig.  342). 


1  Plazen,  inspecteur  general  des  haras.    (Note  communiquee.) 


HORSES    OF    LUXURY. 


843 


Origin. — He  has  no  special  centres  of  production,  but  is  found 
scattered  over  Denmark,  Poland,  Ireland,  Wales,  and  in  France,  in 
Brittany,  along  the  English  Channel,  the  Ardennes,  etc. 

Price. — His  price  varies  from  $100  to  $300 ;  when  of  exceptional 
form  and  aptitude,  his  value  may  even  rise  to  $350. 

5.    Pony. 

Mode  of  Utilization. — The  pony  is  the  smallest  horse  of  luxury, 
and  is  especially  adapted  to  children's  use.  When  harnessed,  he  is 
driven  to  all  sorts  of  small  vehicles. 

Height. — The  height  of  ponies  is  very  variable ;  it  ranges  from 
1.30  metres  to  1.45  metres ;  but  there  are  some  in  which  it  is  no  more 
than  one  metre. 


FIG.  343.— Pony. 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

Preferred  Coats. — We  have  nothing  particular  to  say  in  this 
respect.  In  England,  odd  coats  are  the  most  sought  after,  the  piebald, 
for  example. 

Conformation. — The  body  is  close  to  the  ground,  compact,  and 
muscular ;  the  head  often  concave  over  the  forehead  and  nose,  and 
expressive ;  the  neck  a  little  heavy,  but  carried  high ;  the  members 
fine  and  neat ;  the  mane,  the  forelock,  the  tail,  and  the  hairs  of  the 
extremities  are  long,  coarse,  and  abundant ;  in  trotting,  the  step  is  high 
and  frequently  repeated  ;  finally,  they  possess  speed,  energy,  endurance, 
and  a  robust  constitution  (Fig.  343). 


844  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Origin. — The  most  remarkable  ponies  come  from  England,  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  Iceland,  the  Shetland  Islands,  Wales,  Corsica,  the  Crau 
d' Aries,  the  Landes,  and,  generally,  from  all  mountainous  and  poor 
countries. 

Price. — In  France,  the  price  of  a  pony  varies  from  $60  to  $300. 
"  In  England,  when  the  animal  is  exceptional,  it  may  increase  to  $1000 
or  $1200  and  even  more/'1 


CHAPTER    III. 

CAVALRY   HORSES. 

THE  horses  intended  for  the  army  are,  in  France  and  other  conti- 
nental countries,  bought  in  the  breeding  districts  by  special  committees, 
which  act  under  instructions  from  the  Minister  of  War. 

For  the  present,  we  will  limit  ourselves  to  indicating  the  divisions 
established  by  the  remounts,  the  requirements  which  the  animals  bought 
by  them  must  meet,  and,  finally,  the  prices  which  are  paid  for  them. 

Army  horses  are  divided  into  three  great  categories,  according  to 
their  service  :  the  horses  de  carri&re,  employed  in  the  equestrian  schools 
of  the  army  ;  staff  horses,  reserved  for  the  remount  of  the  corps  of 
officers ;  finally,  troop  horses,  which  constitute  the  principal  part  of  the 
cavalry.  Staif  and  troop  horses  are,  besides,  classed  according  to  that 
part  of  the  army  to  which  they  are  suited :  reserve,  line,  light  cavalry, 
and  artillery  (saddle  or  harness).  Again,  in  each  of  these  subdivisions 
they  are  distinguished,  according  to  their  qualities,  as  very  good,  good, 
or  passable. 

Each  year  the  price  of  the  cavalry  horse  is  established  by  the 
Budget  Committee,  but  it  generally  remains  about  the  same. 

This  schedule  price  is  neither  a  minimum  nor  a  maximum  one ; 
it  is  looked  upon  as  representing  the  value  of  a  good  horse  in  each 
category. 

It  is  always  understood  that  a  sufficiently  large  margin  is  left  to  the 
officials  of  the  remount  depots,  for  the  practice  of  economy,  either  by  en- 
couraging the  production  of  horses  of  such  or  such  a  category  by  paying 
more  for  them,  or  in  order  to  give  a  proper  value  to  the  animals  that 
are  difficult  to  obtain,  as  the  cavalry-school  and  the  reserve  horses,  for 
example,  which  are  in  great  private  demand  by  the  wealthy.  It  is  the 

1  Plazen,  loc.  cit. 


CAVALRY   HORSES.  845 

duty  of  the  presidents  of  the  commissions  on  purchasing  to  see  that  the 
latter  do  not  exceed  the  limits  of  price  allowed  to  them. 

fATvrm»v  SCHEDULED  REAL  PRICE 

PRICE.  PAID  AT  THE  REMOUNT. 

Cavalry-School  Horses  .    .     .     .360  dollars.        300  to  440  dollars. 

Staff  Horses. 

Reserve 280  "  260  to  320  " 

Line 272  "  240  to  280  " 

Vanguard 228  "  210  to  280  " 

Troop  Horses. 

Reserve 232  "  21C  to  280  " 

Line 206  "  180  to  220  " 

Light  cavalry 182  "  150  to  200  " 

Artillery  (saddle) ....  200  "  200  to  220  " 

Artillery  (harness)    ...  200  "  160  to  190  " 

We  give  in  the  above  table  the  scheduled  figures  which  were  estab- 
lished by  the  French  government  in  1889,  and  we  place  opposite  the 
prices  which  the  remount  really  pay.1 

We  will  now  quote  from  Captain  Rivet,2  whose  competency  in  this 
direction  is  well  known.  The  lines  below  are  full  of  precious  infor- 
mation for  purchasing  officials  and  officers  of  the  army. 

A.— Staff  Horses. 

"  They  may  be  classed  as  follows : 

"  1st.  Ordinary. — Regular  conformation,  medium  neck,  sufficient 
power  and  speed.  Those  which  have  a  rather  large  head,  a  white 
color,  washed  mane  and  tail  or  coat,  and  slight  blemishes  are  also 
included  in  this  class. 

"2d.  Good. — Those  which  have  sufficient  breeding,  good  neck 
and  lines,  regular  conformation,  strong  body  and  members,  and  good 
gaits. 

"3d.  Very  Good. — Those  which  possess  a  good  conformation 
and  good  breeding,  a  fine,  expressive  head,  strength,  beautiful  chest, 
good  members,  prominent  tendons,  long  and  brilliant  gaits. 

"  The  price  of  the  ordinary  horse  is  from  75  to  150  francs  less  than 
that  of  the  good  horse,  with  a  range  of  50  francs  above  or  below. 

"  The  value  of  the  very  good  horse  is  100,  150,  and  in  rare  instances 
200  francs  more  than  the  average. 

"  The  price  of  the  gray  horse  is  one-eighth  less  than  that  of  the 
class  in  which  he  may  be  placed. 

"  The  standard  line  horse  ranks  between  the  reserve  corps  horse 

1  Wiart,  VetSrinaire  en  ler  a\i  d6p6t  de  remonte  de  Caen.    (Note  communique^.) 

2  A.  Rivet,  Guide  pratique  de  1'acheteur  de  chevaux,  p.  19,  et  suiv.,  Caen,  1877. 


846  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

and  the  light  cavalry  horse ;  the  average  scheduled  price  of  the  staff 
horse  may  be  applied  to  him.  The  price  of  the  reserve  horse  will 
be  100  francs  more,  and  that  of  the  light  cavalry  150  francs  less. 

"  These  data  convey  nothing  absolute,  and  are  only  points  of  refer- 
ence which  may  be  utilized  specially  in  countries  which  furnish  the 
majority  of  reserve  and  line  horses." 

B. — Troop  Horses. 

"  The  troop  horses  may  also  be  grouped  into  three  principal  classes  : 

"  1st.  Passable. — Either  by  reason  of  their  conformation,  their 
defects  of  equilibrium,  their  want  of  ampleness  of  the  chest,  or  their 
blemishes. 

"  2d.  Good. — These  may  be  subdivided  into  three  categories  :  a, 
if  there  are  white  markings,  if  the  coat,  the  mane,  and  the  tail  are 
washed,  the  head  large,  the  neck  short,  etc. ;  b,  good,  properly  so  called, 
if  they  have  enough  neck,  strong  body  and  members,  sufficient  weight, 
harmonious  conformation,  and  good  action ;  c,  if  they  have,  besides, 
a  fair  physiognomy,  a  solid  coat,  and  energy. 

"3d.  Very  Good. —  Those  that  have  a  good  physiognomy,  a 
neck  well  attached,  a  very  good  body,  beautiful  chest,  good  members, 
fine  coat,  power,  and  long  gaits. 

"  The  passable  horse,  of  which  no  more  than  a  certain  number  should 
be  willingly  bought,  commands  one-fifth  less  than  the  scheduled  price. 

"  The  price  of  a  good  horse  of  the  first  degree  is  about  60  francs  less 
than  the  average ;  that  of  the  second,  degree,  or  properly  called  good, 
is  the  mean  sum ;  and,  finally,  that  of  the  third  degree  is  50  francs  more. 

"  The  very  good  horse  costs  from  75  to  100  francs  more  than  the 
average  price. 

"The  price  of  the  gray  horse  is  one-eighth  less  than  that  of  the 
category  in  which  it  may  be  classed,  and  the  passable  gray  should  never 
be  bought,  so  as  not  to  encourage  that  coat,  which  is  known  to  be 
unsuitable  for  war  service. 

"  Every  horse  that  is  one-fifth  less  in  value  than  the  average, 
should  be  condemned. 

"  In  order  to  operate  with  quickness  and  certainty,  if  it  be  possible, 
it  is  well  to  draw  up  a  table  of  the  different  prices  based  upon  these 
statements,  and  to  consult  it  when  necessary.  (See  pages  747  and  848.) 

"  It  is  important  to  make  marked  differences  in  the  prices,  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  the  horses,  so  as  not  to  be  always  confined  to  the 
average  prices  for  the  very  good  and  the  passable  horse. 

"The  breeder  and  the  horse-dealer  should  be  convinced  that  the 


f  ^  ,  4  a  w- 

/ 

|    UNIVERSITY 


C4F.4ZJ2F    HORSES. 


847 


committee  judges  impartially  and  as  accurately  as  possible  the  horses 
which  are  presented  to  them,  and  that  they  pay  for  a  horse  what  he  is 
worth  from  a  military  point  of  view. 

"  A  horse  may,  in  fact,  have  considerable  commercial  value  for  a 
heavy  team,  or  as  a  coach-horse,  and  still  not  be  suitable  for  the  cavalry, 
or  only  be  a  very  ordinary  saddle-horse.  Again,  a  beautiful  saddle- 
horse  may  be  more  valuable  for  the  remount* than  for  commerce.  These 
differences  are  of  importance,  and,  while  seeking  to  approximate  to 
the  mercantile  value  of  the  animal,  we  should  not  forget  the  use  for 
which  he  is  reserved.  .  .  . 

Schedule  of  Prices 

ACCORDING  TO   THE  AVERAGES   PAID  AT  THE   REMOUNT. 


1.  Cavalry-School  Horses. 

Beautiful  lines,  much  expression,  irreproachable  body,  good  breeding,  energy,  good  temper,  easy  and 

long  gaits. 


HEIGHT. 

ORDINARY. 

GOOD. 

VERY  GOOD. 

Head  somewhat 
common,  white 
coat     a     little 
washed,   slight 
blemishes. 

Good  head,  solid 
coat,     without 
blemishes. 

Good  physiognomy,  beau- 
tiful coat,  brilliant  gaits. 

320  to  340  dollars. 

Gray  I. 
280  to  298  dollars. 

360  to  380  dollars. 

torses. 
315  to  332  dollars. 

400  to  410  dollars  and  more. 
350  to  394  dollars  and  more. 

1  56  m  to  1  62  m  . 

2.  Staff  Horses. 


HEIGHT  AND  ARMS. 

ORDINARY. 

GOOD. 

VERY  GOOD. 

Regular  confor- 
mation,      me- 
dium       neck, 
enough  power 
and        action, 
head        rather 
large,       slight 
blemishes. 

Good       enough 
breeding,  neck, 
and  lines  ;  reg- 
ular       confor- 
mation,      full, 
strong       body 
and   members, 
good  action. 

Beautiful  lines,  expression, 
fine  head,  energy,  power, 
fine  chest  ;  good  members, 
prominent   tendons,  bril- 
liant gaits. 

1.56  m.  to  1.60-62  m..  Reserve 
1.53  m.  to  1.58  m.,  Line  .... 
1.52  m.  to  1.54  m.,  Light       .   . 

1.56  m.  to  1.60-62  m.,  Reserve 
1.53  m.  to  1.58  m.,  Line     .   .   . 

250  to  265  dollars. 
230  to  245 
205  to  215 

Gray  I 

280  to  290  dollars. 
260  to  270 
225  to  240 

Torses. 

245  to  254  dollars. 
228  to  236        " 
200  to  210 

300  to  310  dollars  and  more. 
280  to  290        "             " 
250  to  260 

260  to  270  dollars  and  more. 
245  to  254 
210  to  228 

1.52  m.  to  1  54  m.,  Light    .  .  . 

848 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Schedule  of  Prices 

ACCORDING  TO  THE  AVERAGES  PAID  AT  THE  REMOUNT — (Continued). 


3.  Troop  Horses. 


HEIGHT  AND  ARMS. 

PASSABLE. 

GOOD. 

VERY  GOOD. 

By  reason  of  con- 
formation,     de- 
fects of  equilib- 
rium,   want    of 
fulness    of    the 
chest,  or   blem- 
ishes. 

1st  Degree. 

2d  Degree. 

3d  Degree. 

Good  physiogno- 
my, neck  well 
attached,    very 
good  body,  fine 
chest,         good 
members,  beau- 
tiful          coat, 
strength,    long 
gaits. 

»M 

^03 

a  * 

2  .8^ 
*<£ag 
5-2 

ll-a 

^d§oj 
o^^ 

MQS 
%%'3« 

SS  M,| 

•s^sfS 

|,8,S  8. 

02 

Besides,  fair  phys- 
iognomy, solid 
coat,  energy. 

1.56  m.  to  1.60-62  m., 
Reserve 

About  200  dollars. 
165      " 
14       155 
«       145       « 

«       145      «. 
155      " 

( 

Must  not   go   be- 
yond a   certain 
proportion       of 
passable    horses 
with  dark  coats, 
and  should  not 
buy    any    gray 
ones. 

220  dollars. 
195 
182 
190 
190 

182       " 
Tray  Hors 

230  dollars. 
205 
192       " 
180 
180 

192 

?S. 

195  dollars. 
180       " 
190 
158 
158 

170 

235  dollars. 
215 
205 
190 
190 

205       " 

205  dollars. 
190 
180 
168 
168 

180 

Rarely. 

240  to  250  dollars 
and  more. 
220  to  225  dollars 
and  more. 
207  to  212  dollars 
and  more. 
195  to  200  dollars 
and  more. 
195  to  200  dollars 
and  more. 

207  to  212  dollars 
and  more. 

Rarely. 
210  to  220  dollars 
and  more. 
200  to  210  dollars 
and  more. 
190  to  200  dollars 
and  more. 
178  to  186  dollars 
and  more. 
178  to  186  dollars 
and  more. 

190  to  200  dollars 
and  more. 

1.51  m.  to  1.54-57  m., 
Line 

1.51m.  to  1.54  -57  m. 
Artillery  (saddle) 
1.48  m.  to  1.54   m. 
Light  
1.48   m.  to  1.60  m. 
Draught    .... 
1.54  m.  to  1.60  m. 
Transports  t'n  (sad- 
dle)   

1.60  m.  to  1.60-62  m., 
Reserve  
1.51  m.  to  1.54-57  m., 
Line 

1.51  m.  to  1.54-57  m., 
Artillery  (saddle)  . 
1.48  m.  to  1.54    m., 
Light  

1.48  m.  to   1.60  m., 
Draught    

1.54  m.  to   1.60  m., 
Transportat'n  (sad- 
dle) 

"  NOTE.—  The  saddle  artillery  is  the  dragoon  ;  but  as  the  good  line  horse  cannot  be  found  in 
sufficiently  large  number,  a  difference  of  price  must  be  made  between  the  one  which  fills  the 
desired  conditions  and  the  one  which  is  more  compact,  especially  in  the  neck  and  shoulders. 
"  This  table  contains  nothing  absolute;  it  is  only  a  series  of  indications  which  aid  in  fixing 
the  price  to  be  given  for  each  horse  suitable  for  the  army,  so  as  to  pay  for  him  no  more  than 
his  real  value.    The  scale  is  continuous  in  each  category  from  the  minimum  to  the  maximum." 

"  The  hollow  back  is  generally  the  cause  of  the  greatest  variations  ; 
it  depreciates  the  horse  for  the  saddle  to  a  great  extent ;  too  much  ex- 
aggerated, it  even  renders  him  altogether  unfit  for  this  service,  whilst 


HOUSES    OF    INDUSTRY   AND    COMMERCE.  849 

under  the  saddle  his  neck  projects  as  well  as  his  head,  which  gives  a 
certain  grace  to  the  gaits. 

"  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  a  slightly  hollow-backed 
horse  with  a  narrow  chest,  and  scarcely  four  years  old,  will  be  strong 
and  broad  enough  at  six  years  old.  Proper  consideration  is  not  always 
given  to  the  diiference  existing  between  the  four-year-old  and  the  five- 
or  six-year-old  horse.  With  the  four-year-old  horse  everything  Is 
clumsily  bundled  up  ;  his  future  condition  must  be  guessed  at ;  he 
will  certainly  gain.  The  six-year-old  horse,  on  the  contrary,  will 
remain  about  the  same.  Still,  the  horse  and  especially  the  mare  six 
years  of  age,  which  have  never  had  anything  but  grass,  are  like  those 
of  four  years  old. 

"  Whilst  confining  ourselves  to  the  regular  limits  of  height,  we  must 
not  class  a  horse  to  the  centimetre;  our  judgment  must  be  founded  upon 
his  construction,  his  ampleness,  his  expression,  his  degree  of  thorough- 
bred descent,  and  his  gaits.  A  certain  horse  of  1.54  metres  will  make 
a  good  cuirassier  if  he  has  a  strong  build  ;  another  of  the  same  height 
can  only  make  an  ordinary  dragoon  if  he  possesses  a  medium  develop- 
ment ;  another  of  1.60  metres  is  good  for  nothing  if  he  is  leggy,  lanky, 
and  weedy. 

"  Only  the  horse  which  is  really  worthy  of  the  name  should  be 
classed  as  an  officer's  horse  ;  we  should  not  yield  to  simply  apparent 
qualities  which  are  not  backed  by  strength  and  endurance.  Reasoning 
thus,  it  would  often  happen  that  the  officers7  horses  would  be  inferior 
to  the  troop  horses. 

"  The  principal  centres  of  production  and  amelioration  in  France 
are  Normandy,  Brittany,  Vendee,  Poitou,  Limousin,  Bigorre,  and 
Morvan,  which  produce  horses  suitable  for  the  saddle.  The  Franche- 
Comte",  Lorraine,  Ardennes,  Boulonnais,  Perche,  and  the  Pays  de 
Caux  are,  in  geographical  order,  the  countries  where  draught-horses 
are  especially  predominant." 


CHAPTEK    IV. 

HORSES   OF   INDUSTRY   AND   COMMERCE. 

WE  will  consider  in  this  chapter  all  draught-horses,  by  far  the 
most  numerous  class,  including  as  it  does  the  animals  employed  in 
commerce  and  agriculture,  in  the  service  of  workshops  and  manufac- 
tories, in  farm-labor,  in  omnibuses  and  tramways,  and  in  all  sorts  of 

54 


£50  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

heavy  transportation,  in  the  retail  deliveries  of  large  stores,  for  hack- 
ney cabs  and  coaches, — which,  in  a  word,  are  used  for  all  the  special 
requirements,  so  numerous  and  so  various,  of  the  ordinary  city  and 
country  life. 

The  very  diversity  of  these  requirements  renders  impossible  a 
detailed  classification  of  the  horses  thus  employed.  As  a  general 
rule,  they  are  used  either  at  a  walk  or  at  a  trot.  In  the  first  case, 
of  course,  the  burden  is  always  considerable  as  compared  with  that 
in  the  second.  The  conformation  must  therefore  be  proportionally 
different. 

This  fact  permits  us  to  establish  two  large  divisions  in  this  category  : 
heavy-draught  horses  and  light-draught  horses.  But  among  heavy- 
draught  subjects  there  are  some  whose  work  is  alternately  accomplished 
at  a  walk  or  at  a  trot,  and  which  resemble  very  much  the  slow  heavy- 
draught  variety  by  their  large-  size  and  the  bulk  of  the  weight  which 
they  carry,  but  are  distinguished  from  the  light-draught  horses  by 
an  inferior  speed  and  less  slender  forms.  We  have  previously  given 
them  the  name  fast  heavy-draught  horses  (see  page  409). 

Such  are  the  three  tolerably  well-defined  groups  into  which  horses 
of  service,  properly  so  called,  may  be  divided.  Difficulties  arise  as 
soon  as  we  undertake  to  establish  secondary  divisions.  The  reason  of 
this  is  that  the  three  principal  factors  of  the  general  form,  height, 
bulk,  and  the  gaits,  vary  only  within  scarcely  appreciable  limits, 
according  to  the  destinations. 

It  is  less  the  whole  conformation  than  the  education  imparted  with 
a  view  to  the  adaptation  desired  which  principally  specializes  a  partic- 
ular aptitude  in  a  given  category,  like  that  of  the  heavy-draught,  for 
example. 

Thus,  the  shaft-horse,  the  heavy  cart-horse,  the  tow-horse,  the  dray- 
horse,  the  horse  that  unloads  wood  upon  the  wharf,  the  horse  that  is 
employed  to  hold  the  cart  back  when  going  down  a  descent,  or  to  help 
to  draw  it  when  going  up  a  sharp  incline,  all  these  are  draught-horses 
that  are  recognizable  as  such  at  first  sight,  but  which  education,  train- 
ing, and  habit  have  rendered  peculiarly  fit  for  some  special  service.  No 
doubt  the  qualities  which  make  special  motors  of  them  imply  some  physi- 
cal modifications  ;  but  these  are  imperceptible,  owing  to  the  part  played 
by  the  moral  modifications.  Now,  we  must  be  careful  not  to  confound, 
among  these  changes  in  the  form  of  the  body,  those  which  result  from 
actual  adaptation  and  those  which  proceed  from  usage.  The  first  are 
incomparably  weaker  than  the  second,  and  cannot  be  considered  as 
capable  of  realizing  distinct  types  of  conformation  unless  these  changes 


HORSES    OF   INDUSTRY   AND    COMMERCE.  851 

have  been  produced  and  transmitted  during  numerous  generations. 
For  this  reason,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  generalities  in  what  con- 
cerns the  great  divisions  of  the  horses  of  industry  and  commerce. 

A.— Slow  Heavy-Draught  Horses. 

These  animals  are  always  employed  at  a  walk.  We  will  take-as  a 
type  the  dray-horses,  which  are  usually  employed  for  hauling  build- 
ing materials,  wood,  stones,  and  iron,  and  which  are  harnessed  to  those 


FIG.  344.— Slow  heavy-draught  horse  (dray-horse). 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

vehicles  known  as  drays,  loaded  with  enormous  weights,  also  to  heavy 
wagons,  carts,  etc. ;  in  a  word,  to  all  two-  or  four-wheeled  vehicles 
intended  for  heavy  traction.  The  dray-horse  is  rarely  harnessed  alone  ; 
generally  four  or  five  horses  similar  to  him,  but  sometimes  smaller,  are 
driven  in  the  same  team. 

With  regard  to  conformation,  preference  is  for  a  body  that  is 
massive,  low-set,  ample,  very  muscular,  short-flanked,  cylindrical,  with 
solid,  large,  and  broad  limbs,  good  feet,  good  physiognomy,  ardor,  and 
endurance  (Fig.  344).  He  is  preferred  entire,  as  he  is  then  more  vigor- 


852  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

ous.  In  this  connection  those  horses  are  reserved  as  shaft-horses  which 
are  nearest  to  perfection ;  their  loins  are  short  and  very  straight,  their 
croups  well  made,  their  members  very  strong,  of  good  quality  and  per- 
fect equilibrium.  Unfortunately,  owners  are  far  from  always  attending 
to  these  requirements  ;  they  too  often  employ  as  a  shaft-horse  their 
tallest  horse,  wrongly  imagining  that  muscular  power  and  other  qualities 
necessary  for  this  work  are  directly  and  exclusively  in  proportion  to 
the  height. 

The  height  is  very  great,  on  account  of  the  volume  and  weight  of 
the  loads  to  be  moved.  It  varies  from  1.55  metres  to  1.75  metres; 
exceptionally,  it  exceeds  the  last  figure ;  in  this  case,  the  horse  is  in 
most  instances  badly  conformed  and  defective. 

As  to  the  coat,  little  importance  is  attached  to  it ;  however,  custom 
favors  the  dapple  and  the  dark  gray  more  than  the  coats  called  colored, 
— that  is  to  say,  the  bay,  chestnut,  roan,  black,  etc. 

As  to  prices,  they  vary  greatly,  according  as  the  animals  are 
destined  for  industry  and  commerce  or  are  bought  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. On  an  average,  geldings,  mares,  and  non-producing  stallions 
cost  from  $300  to  $500  ;  stallions  from  $600  to  $1000.  Shaft-horses, 
all  things  being  equal,  bring  twenty-five  per  cent,  more  than  the 
others,  but  it  is  daily  becoming  more  and  more  difficult  to  obtain 
them,  on  account  of  the  enormous  competition  of  the  Americans  on 
the  French  market.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  every  year 
the  breeders  of  the  Perche  and  the  Beauce  export  to  the  United  States 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  of  their  handsomest  gray  horses,  which 
the  American  purchasers  buy  for  stallions,  at  from  $1200  to  $1600. 

B.— Fast  Heavy-Draught  Horses. 

As  we  have  said,  the  horses  of  this  category  differ  from  those  of 
the  preceding  in  that  they  alternate  the  trot  with  the  walk,  the  loads 
which  they  pull  being  much  less  heavy.  In  Paris,  they  are  specially 
used  for  brewers7  and  milkmen's  wagons,  and  for  omnibuses  and 
tramways. 

They  are  of  smaller  stature,  and  the  body  is  less  massive,  less 
ample,  and  less  muscular ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  have  longer,  lighter, 
and  more  slender  members,  longer  necks,  and  a  more  rapid  gait. 

Brewers'  Horses  (Fig.  345)  are  from  1.62  metres  to  1.65  metres 
high.  They  are  harnessed  singly  to  small  two-wheeled  wagons  called 
brasseuses,  also  in  pairs  to  light  drays.  They  trot  almost  invariably. 
Most  of  them  come  from  Perche,  Beauce,  and  Normandy  (Eure  and 


HORSES    OF   INDUSTRY   AND    COMMERCE. 


853 


Seine-Infe"rieure).     Small  Boulonnais  and  some  coarse  Breton  horses 
are  found  among  them.     Their  average  price  varies  from  $300  to 


FIG.  345.— Fast  heavy-draught  horse  (brewers'). 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Delton.) 

$350;  but  it  is  never  very  high,  for  they  are  not  in  demand  as 
stallions ;  they  are  not  bulky  enough  for  this  service. 

The  milkmen's  horses  are  a  little  smaller  ;  their  height  is  only 
1.60  metres.  In  France,  they  are  driven  to  two- wheeled  wagons  called 
laiti$res.  They  come  from  the  same  localities  as  the  preceding,  but  they 
are  lighter  in  weight,  more  slender,  and  more  active.  Their  price 
varies  from  $300  to  $320. 

The  subjects  which  we  describe  under  the  names  of  stage-coach, 
omnibus,  and  tramway  horses,  more  bulky  and  heavier,  although 
not  so  tall,  mark  well  the  transition  between  the  types  of  the  fast 
heavy-draught,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  and  those  of  light- 
draught,  which  follow  immediately  afterwards.  They  are  worked  in 
twos  and  in  threes  in  railroad  trucks,  in  omnibuses  which  are  used  by 
large  transportation  companies,  and  in  the  street-cars,  which,  in  spite 
of  their  considerable  volume,  have  a  very  weak  coefficient  of  traction, 
allowing  the  use  of  lighter  motors,  and  therefore  lessening  the  expense 
of  purchase  and  of  keep. 


854 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


The  largest  of  these  horses  are  those  used  by  the  French  express 
companies;   their  height  is  from  1.62  metres  to  1.65  metres;   then 


FIG.  346.— VSlocitS,  Percheron  mare  of  the  Compagnie  g6n6rale  des  omnibus.    Grand  prize  of  the 

Universal  Exposition  of  1878. 
(Reproduced  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  M.  Del  ton.) 

come  those  of  the  three-horse  omnibus,  and  of  the  street-cars,  which 
are  1.60  metres  to  1.62  metres;  those  of  the  tramways  rank  last; 
their  height  varies  from  1.58  metres  to  1.60  metres. 

It  is  impossible  to  indicate  by  words  the  differences  of  conformation 
which  distinguish  these  animals  from  the  preceding.  We  refer  the 
reader  to  what  we  have  already  said  on  page  409.  They  are  of  about 
the  same  type,  with  more  or  less  bulk  and  speed  according  to  the  height 
and  the  purpose  of  use.  But  the  volume  remains  considerable  in  pro- 
portion to  the  members,  which,  without  losing  any  of  their  strength, 
become  longer  and  more  slender  to  give  more  extent  to  the  movements 
and  increase  the  rapidity  of  the  steps  (Fig.  346). 

The  Perche,  Beauce,  Brittany,  Normandy,  and  the  Ardennes  are 
the  sections  which  furnish  these  horses  for  commerce.  Those  of  Nor- 
mandy come  from  Eure,  Seine-Infe'rieure,  and  Orne,  particularly  from 
the  vicinity  of  Mortagne. 

The  express  horses  and  the  street-railroad  horses — that  is  to  say,. 


HORSES    OF   INDUSTRY   AND    COMMERCE.  855 

the  largest  division  of  the  group — are  worth  from  $280  to  $350. 
The  average  price  of  those  of  the  Compagnie  ge"nerale  des  omnibus  et 
tramways  of  Paris  is  $250  ;  a  little  more  or  a  little  less,  according  to 
circumstances. 

C.— Light-Draught  Horses. 

In  this  category  we  have  placed  the  horses  whose  habitual  step  is 
the  fast  trot. 

The  true  type  which  formerly  represented  it  was  the  post-horse, 
now  somewhat  scarce,  but  still  reserved  for  certain  services  of  luxury.. 
Teams  of  post-horses  are  in  fact  rather  in  vogue  in  chateaux,  country 
residences,  and  villas  during  the  hunting,  the  racing,  or  the  bathing 
season,  for  visits  among  relatives,  friends,  or  guests. 

The  post-horse  may  be  considered,  from  his  conformation  and  breed- 
ing, as  the  intermediate  between  the  small  coach-horse  and  the  fast 
heavy-draught  horse.  He  should  be  low-set,  rather  plump,  with  good 
members,  regular  body,  with  a  fine  neck,  a  horizontal  croup,  and  long 
gaits.  His  height  varies  from  1.56  metres  to  1.58  metres.  These 
characters  make  him  resemble  very  closely  the  cob,  whose  finer  and 
more  brilliant  qualities  he  does  not,  however,  possess.  He  is  driven 
in  twos  or  in  fours  in  mail-coaches  and  family  carriages.  A  few  years 
ago  the  dark  gray  was  the  color  preferred  for  this  kind  of  horses ; 
now  the  bay  and  the  black  are  preferred.  Most  of  these  horses  come 
from  the  vicinity  of  Mortagne  (Orne),  Cotes-du-Nord,  and,  especially, 
Finistere,  where  they  are  fonnd  in  the  Conquet,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  St.  Renan  and  Trelabu.  Their  average  price  is  from  $300  to  $350. 

Secondary  to  these  animals,  but  more  common,  less  elegant,  and 
of  less  regular  form,  we  place  the  geldings  and  mares  of  com- 
merce, which  are  used  for  all  sorts  of  professions  and  industries. 

Their  height  varies  from  1.58  metres  to  1.65  metres,  according  to 
the  weight  of  the  vehicles  which  they  are  to  draw ;  it  is  rarely  as  high 
as  1.70  metres ;  in  such  cases  they  are  nearly  always  thin,  lanky,  long- 
legged,  and  delicate.  They  are  constantly  worked  alone,  their  load 
being  seldom  heavy.  They  come  principally  from  the  Pays  de  Caux 
(arrondissements  of  Havre,  Dieppe,  and  Yvetot),  the  Ardennes,  May- 
enne,  Sarthe,  and  Cotes-du-Nord.  Tneir  price  varies  from  $200  to 
$400. 

In  the  series  of  light-draught  subjects  are  found  many  small 
common  horses,  suitable  for  fast  individual  or  public  services. 
They  are  often  designated  (especially  in  Brittany  and  Normandy)  by 
the  name  bidets,  or  nags,  but  they  have  nothing  in  common  with  the 


856  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

animals  which  were  formerly  called  bidets  d'allure,  whose  gait  was 
a  running-walk,  which  were  used  under  the  saddle,  and  disappeared 
with  the  custom  of  travelling  on  horseback,  since  the  improvement  of 
the  roads  and  the  use  of  railroads.  In  large  cities  they  are  represented 
by  horses  for  hire.  Energetic,  very  robust,  inured  to  fatigue  and  pri- 
vations, of  a  somewhat  regular  conformation,  light,  and  quick,  they  are 
harnessed  alone  or  in  pairs  to  small  carriages,  such  as  small  breaks, 
small  upholstery  wagons,  pleasure-carts,  tilburies,  cabriolets,  etc.  For 
public  service  they  are  used  in  the  various  kinds  of  coaches  (coupes, 
victorias,  cabs),  and  also,  in  some  provincial  towns,  on  tramways. 

Their  medium  height  varies  from  1.50  metres  to  1.56  metres,  and 
their  cost  from  $160  to  $180. 

They  have  no  special  centre  of  production,  but  are  ordinarily 
furnished  by  the  less  fertile  districts. 


SECTION    EIGHTH. 

VICIOUS  HORSES. 


UP  to  this  point  we  have  occupied  ourselves  only  with  the  external 
conformation  of  the  horse,  and  the  reader  should  by  this  time  be  in 
possession  of  the  elements  necessary  to  appreciate  it  thoroughly.  Still, 
this  will  not  be  sufficient  for  him.  It  may  in  fact  happen  that  the 
animal  has  an  irreproachable  form,  superb  actions,  energy,  and  ardor, 
and  yet  is  deficient  in  the  moral  qualities  necessary  to  utilize,  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  use  him,  all  the  advantages  which  the  perfection 
of  his  mechanism  confers  upon  him.  Poorly  endowed  in  this  respect, 
he  will  expend  his  forces  at  a  loss,  under  the  influence  of  the  bad 
habits  which  he  has  contracted ;  or  he  will  be  harmful,  dangerous, 
unserviceable,  on  account  of  his  vices,  which  is  a  much  more  serious 
matter,  especially  so  far  as  the  public  interest  is  concerned.  A  rapid 
examination  of  his  moral  imperfections,  whether  slight  or  grave, 
becomes  an  indispensable  complement  of  the  preceding  sections.  We 
will  divide  this  subject  into  two  chapters : 

In  the  first  we  will  study  the  vices  or  vicious  habits, — that  is  to  say, 
the  dispositions  contracted  by  frequent  repetition  of  injurious  actions, 
which,  however,  involve  no  very  bad  consequences,  implying  no  evil 
natural  inclinations,  and  never  entirely  preventing  the  utilization  of 
the  horse. 

In  the  second  we  will  pass  in  review  the  vices  properly  so  called, — 
that  is  to  say,  the  serious  defects,  showing  an  indocile,  stubborn,  or 
timorous  nature,  a  bad  education,  an  indomitable  aggressive  character, 
defects  which,  in  a  word,  render  the  animal  dangerous  or  almost  useless. 

The  question  to  be  solved  is  this :  given  a  vicious  horse,  how  are  we 
to  recognize  him  f 

857 


858  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

CHAPTER    I. 

WHIMS   AND   VICIOUS    HABITS. 

WE  designate  as  whims,  bad  or  vicious  habits,  a  certain  number 
of  acts,  resulting  in  most  instances  from  idleness,  which  the  horse  free 
from  restraint  incessantly  repeats,  without  any  other  motive,  in  reality, 
than  the  gratification  of  desires  which  at  length  become  imperative,  but 
which  always  more  or  less  interfere  with  his  complete  utilization.  The 
subjects  of  these  whims  may  be  classified  as  follows  : 

1st.  Horses  which  loll  the  tongue,  double  it  up,  or  continually  pro- 
trude it  from  the  mouth. 

2d.  Horses  which  strike  the  lower  lip  against  the  upper. 

3d.  Horses  which  rub  the  lower  extremity  of  the  head  against  the 
manger,  or  the  tail  against  surrounding  objects. 

4th.  Horses  which  shake  the  head  up  and  down  or  jerk  the  reins. 

5th.  Horses  which  grasp  the  branches  of  the  bit  with  the  lower  lip. 

6th.  Horses  which  tear  their  blankets  with  the  teeth. 

7th.  Horses  which  rest  one  hind-foot  upon  the  other. 

8th.  Horses  which  lie  down  cow-fashion. 

9th.  Horses  which  strip  their  halters. 

10th.  Horses  which  roll  as  soon  as  they  are  harnessed,  or  upon 
entering  the  stable  after  working. 

llth.  Horses  which  trot  in  the  stable. 

12th.  Horses  which  paw  in  the  stable. 

13th.  Horses  which  weave  like  a  bear. 

14th.  Horses  which  eat  earth. 

15th.  Horses  which  crib  or  suck  wind. 

We  pass  over  divers  other  vices  of  too  little  importance  to  deserve 
mention  here.  They  consist  most  frequently  of  a  kind  of  sudden, 
convulsive,  and  involuntary  movement  of  certain  regions,  which  the 
animal  has  inadvertently  contracted  by  degrees,  and  which  has  no 
other  effect  than  that  of  rendering  him  ungraceful.  Ordinarily,  this 
contraction  has  its  seat  in  the  face,  in  some  of  the  nasal  muscles,  the 
lips,  the  cheeks,  or  the  eyelids.  At  other  times  it  takes  place  in  one  or 
other  of  the  muscles  of  the  head  ;  the  latter  then  shakes  by  slight  jerks, 
more  or  less  marked  and  more  or  less  frequently  repeated  according 
to  circumstances.  Finally,  there  are  cases  in  which  the  same  phe- 
nomenon is  observed  in  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  which  determines 


WHIMS    AND    VICIOUS    HABITS.  859 

a  more  excessive  displacement,  and  is  therefore  more  disagreeable  to 
the  eye. 

1st.  Horses  which  loll  the  Tongue,  double  it  up,  or  con- 
tinually protrude  it  from  the  Mouth. — When  describing  the 
region  of  the  tongue,  we  had  occasion  to  say  a  few  words  about  these 
vicious  habits.  It  is  known  that  certain  horses  during  work  protrude 
the  tongue  from  the  buccal  cavity,  usually  either  to  the  left  or  to  the 
right,  sometimes  in  front.  This  defect  constitutes  what  is  called  lolling 
the  tongue,  or  having  a  pendulous  tongue,  but  it  is  not,  as  one  might 
suppose,  always  the  result  of  a  paralysis  of  the  lingual  muscles. 

On  other  occasions,  a  horse  wTill  alternately  protrude  his  tongue 
from  his  mouth  and  retract  it  somewhat  as  serpents  do  :  he  is  then 
said  to  have  a  snake's  tongue. 

Sometimes  the  animal  doubles  up  the  tongue, — that  is  to  say,  folds 
the  free  part  backward  and  underneath,  without  its  being  visible, 
however,  on  the  exterior. 

Finally,  there  are  horses  which  displace  the  tongue  in  such  a  man- 
ner that,  instead  of  supporting  the  bit,  it  lies  on  top  of  the  latter. 
The  inconveniences  which  result  from  these  four  different  lingual  dis- 
placements are  not  identical.  The  lolling  tongue,  besides  giving  a  stupid 
expression  to  the  face,  is  exposed  to  cuts,  often  deep,  which  hinder  the 
prehension  of  food,  its  mastication,  insalivation,  and  deglutition. 

The  serpentine  tongue  is  a  less  important  defect :  the  most  serious 
fault  to  be  found  with  it  is  the  great  loss  of  saliva  which  it  occasions, 
for  it  is  drawn  back  into  the  mouth  only  after  it  has  become  dried  in 
order  to  become  moistened  again.  Besides,  it  becomes  filthy  and  soils 
the  parts  of  the  harness  which  it  touches. 

As  to  the  other  habits,  they  injure  the  bitting  by  preventing  the  bit 
from  having  its  ordinary  point  of  support.  They  are  remedied  by 
tightening  the  curb. 

2d.  Horses  which  strike  the  Lower  Lip  against  the 
Upper. — Certain  horses,  harnessed,  mounted,  at  rest,  or  during  exer- 
cise, in  the  stable  or  outside,  have  the  bad  habit  of  continually  moving 
their  lower  lip,  by  sudden  and  rapid  to-and-fro  movements,  which 
cause  it  to  strike,  sometimes  with  a  noise,  against  the  upper  lip.  This 
singular  vice  is  nothing  worse  than  unpleasant.  In  the  language  of 
horsemen,  it  is  called  cracking  nuts.  It  is  prevented  either  by  adapting 
to  the  bit  a  lip-strap,  or  by  fastening  to  the  lower  part  of  its  two 
branches  a  sort  of  metallic  cross-piece,  conforming  with  the  shape  of 


860  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

the  tuft  of  the  chin  and  limiting  the  descending  movements  of  the 
lower  lip, 

3d.  Horses  which  rub  the  Lower  Extremity  of  the  Head 
against  the  Manger,  or  the  Tail  against  surrounding  Ob- 
jects.— In  the  stable  we  sometimes  see  a  horse  rubbing  the  end  of 
his  nose  against  the  side  of  the  manger,  or  the  tuft  of  his  chin  against 
the  bottom  of  the  latter.  He  then  moves  his  head  alternately  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  or  from  before  to  behind,  with  provoking  per- 
sistence, as  if  he  experienced  from  these  manoeuvres  a  pleasant  tickling 
sensation.  This  habit  is  indulged  in  during  the  intervals  between 
meals,  when  the  animal  has  no  food  with  which  to  occupy  himself. 
To  remedy  this  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible ;  fortunately,  it  has 
no  serious  drawback. 

It  is  different,  however,  with  horses  which  rub  the  base  of  the  tail 
against  surrounding  objects,  as  the  sides  of  the  stall.  The  hairs  of 
the  tail  soon  become  dishevelled,  tangled,  break,  and  fall  off,  under  the 
influence  of  repeated  rubbings.  This  disfigures  the  part  very  much. 
No  doubt  uncleanliness,  or  disease  of  the  skin,  ordinarily  causes  intense 
itching  in  this  region.  Often,  however,  this  symptom  results  from  the 
presence  of  worms  in  the  intestine.  Attention  should  be  especially 
paid  to  this.  An  appropriate  treatment  will  remove  the  cause  and  its 
effect  at  the  same  time. 

4th.  Horses  which  shake  the  Head  or  jerk  the  Reins. — 
In  either  of  these  cases  the  horse  gives  his  head  alternate  movements 
of  extension  and  flexion  when  he  is  in  harness  or  mounted.  With  the 
driving-horse  or  the  draught-horse,  the  reins,  constantly  drawn  forward 
or  backward,  may  be  caught  by  the  extremity  of  the  shaft  or  the  pole, 
and  annoy  the  driver.  With  saddle-horses,  besides  the  difficulty  in 
keeping  a  proper  hold  of  the  reins,  the  movements  of  the  head,  when 
they  are  extensive,  jerk  the  arms  and  the  body  of  the  rider  with  great 
violence,  and  sometimes  may  even  unseat  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
horse  that  is  given  to  this  habit  pays  no  attention  to  the  ground  upon 
which  he  moves,  and  hence  is  liable  to  stumble  and  fall. 

Outside  of  the  dressing  and  the  combined  action  of  the  reins,  there 
is  but  one  remedy  for  this  habit,  and  that  is  the  employment  of  a 
martingale  of  suitable  length. 

We  do  not  allude  here  to  horses  which  practise  the  habit  on  account 
of  an  exaggerated  sensibility  of  the  bars,  or  to  those  whose  dressing 
has  not  yet  been  completed,  horses  to  whom  the  pressure  of  the  bit  is 


WHIMS    AND    VICIOUS    HABITS.  861 

disagreeable,  annoying,  or  painful.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is 
evident  that  the  pressure  should  be  diminished,  either  by  modifying  the 
form  of  the  bit,  or  by  making  the  traction  of  the  reins  proportional  to 
the  degree  of  sensibility  of  the  mouth. 

5th.  Horses  which  grasp  the  Branches  of  the  Bit  with 
the  Lower  Lip. — This  habit,  a  very  common  one,  shows  itself  during 
work,  in  walking,  in  trotting,  and  more  rarely  in  galloping.  Usually 
it  is  with  the  lower  lip  that  the  animal  seizes  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
bit.  Sometimes  he  succeeds  in  seizing  it  between  his  teeth,  especially 
if  the  bit  is  of  the  kind  called  pelham,  or  if  the  bar  is  broken.  In 
such  cases,  the  defect  may  become  serious  at  any  moment, — for  exam- 
ple, in  places  where  it  is  important  to  drive  with  care  to  avoid  obstacles 
in  the  road.  Usually  a  light  jerk  of  the  reins  will  compel  the  horse 
to  let  go  and  take  his  attention  away  from  it.  But  when  this  is  ineffica- 
cious, the  false  curb  must  be  applied,  or  even  a  bit  having  its  branches 
curved  backward. 

6th.  Horses  which  tear  their  Blankets  with  the  Teeth. — 
There  are  horses  which  have  the  habit  of  biting  and  tearing  their 
blankets.  Perhaps  the  salty  taste  which  is  found  in  woollen  fabrics 
impregnated  with  sweat  or  other  excrementitious  productions  of  the 
skin,  leads  them  at  first  to  lick  the  blanket,  and  then  to  tear  it; 
but  never,  as  is  thought  by  some,  do  they  eat  it.  The  inconven- 
ience is  more  serious  to  the  owner  than  to  the  animal,  since  it  occa- 
sions expensive  repairs.  This  can  be  avoided  by  using  a  bar  attached 
at  one  end  to  the  halter  and  at  the  other  to  the  surcingle,  which  pre- 
vents the  lateral  inclination  of  the  head  and  neck.  Another  means  is 
often  employed  which,  in  our  opinion,  is  more  efficacious.  It  is  a  kind 
of  biby  made  of  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  or  of  leather,  fastened  at  one 
extremity  to  the  posterior  part  and  the  sides  of  the  nose-band  of  the 
halter,  the  other  extremity  hanging  free  a  certain  distance  below  the 
lips.  This  bib  interposes  between  the  teeth  and  the  blanket  every  time 
the  horse  attempts  to  bite  the  latter.  He  never  succeeds  in  doing  more 
than  biting  the  leather  without  being  able  to  tear  it,  since  it  oifers  no 
resistance  to  his  eiforts.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  bib  soon 
becomes  soiled  by  the  saliva  and  the  food,  so  that  it  acquires  a  disagree- 
able odor,  and  soon  wears  out,  rendering  its  frequent  renewal  necessary, 
which  is  expensive. 

7th.  Horses  which  rest  one  Hind-Foot  upon  the  other. — 
It  is  not  a  rare  thing  to  see  a  horse  when  he  is  tired  rest  himself  by 


862  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

placing  the  plantar  surface  of  one  hind-foot,  semi-flexed,  upon  the 
anterior  face  of  the  other.  Some  subjects  acquire  this  habit  under  the 
influence  of  certain  causes  apart  from  fatigue,  but  as  yet  insufficiently 
ascertained.  Perhaps  the  unevenness  of  the  stable  floor,  as  we  have 
observed,  makes  it  difficult  for  him  to  stand  upright,  and  may  bring 
about  this  result. 

However  this  may  be,  the  prolonged  and  frequently-repeated  contact 
of  the  shoe  occasions  wounds  of  the  coronet  and  contusions  of  the  coro- 
nary band.  Sometimes  even,  as  a  consequence  of  these  latter,  the 
superior  border  of  the  wall  becomes  thickened,  entirely  changing  the 
direction  of  its  anterior  face  and  tending  to  render  it  more  or  less 
perpendicular  to  the  ground. 

The  only  means  of  preventing  this  defect  consists  in  protecting  the 
parts  exposed  to  wounds  by  a  leather  pad  or  boot. 

8th.  Horses  which  lie  down  Cow-Fashion. — The  cause  of 
this  habit  has  thus  far  eluded  observation.  The  horses  which  manifest 
it  assume  the  decubitus  peculiar  to  ruminants, — that  is  to  say,  they 
hold  their  anterior  members  flexed  under  the  chest.  The  result  of 
this  is  that  the  extremity  of  the  branches  of  the  shoe,  the  heels  (always 
on  the  inner  side),  presses  against  the  elbow.  From  its  prolonged  con- 
tact and  friction  there  results  at  first  an  irritation  of  the  skin,  then 
sometimes  a  wound,  but  more  usually  an  indolent  tumor  capable  of 
acquiring  a  considerable  volume,  and  called  a  shoe-boilj  on  account  of 
the  cause  which  gives  rise  to  it.  In  treating  of  the  elbow  (page  221), 
we  said  that  during  several  years  we  kept  trace  of  a  horse  which  was 
actively  worked  and  which  had  at  each  elbow  an  enlargement  of  this 
kind,  of  the  size  of  a  man's  head.  Generally,  the  tumor  is  annoying 
and  ungraceful  rather  than  harmful.  However,  it  may  become  so  pain- 
ful as  to  necessitate  suspension  of  work.  As  soon  as  an  excoriation  or 
evidence  of  friction  is  seen  on  the  surface  of  this  region,  it  is  important 
to  ascertain  the  animal's  usual  mode  of  decubitus.  If  he  lies  down 
like  a  cow,  it  will  be  advisable  to  remedy  the  habit  either  by  protecting 
the  foot  with  a  boot,  or,  preferably,  by  shortening  the  inside  heel  of 
the  shoe  to  prevent  it  from  rubbing  against  the  elbow. 

9th.  Horses  which  strip  their  Halters. — This  expression  is 
used  in  horse  language  to  indicate  that  a  horse  is  in  the  habit  of  extri- 
cating his  head  from  the  halter. 

The  inconvenience  of  such  a  habit  is  often  of  no  consequence, 
especially  when  the  horse  is  alone  in  the  stable.  However,  if  there  is 


WHIMS    AND    VICIOUS    HABITS.  863 

fodder  in  the  stable,  or  if  the  oat-box  has  been  left  open,  a  greedy, 
gluttonous  horse  is  apt  to  contract  a  fatal  indigestion.  In  other  cases 
he  goes  and  scents  around  his  neighbors,  attempts  to  fight,  teases  the 
mares  and  perhaps  mounts  them  if  he  be  a  stallion,  and  is  liable  to 
injuries  from  bites  and  kicks,  as  well  as  to  falls,  wounds,  contusions, 
fractures,  and  accidents  of  all  kinds. 

A  plain  strap  around  the  neck,  instead  of  the  halter,  would  often 
be  sufficient  to  keep  the  horse  in  his  place,  if  it  did  not  leave  too  much 
liberty  to  the  head.  Hence  it  is  better  to  employ  at  the  same  time  both 
neck-strap  and  halter,  each  fastened  separately  to  the  manger.  But  it 
would  be  erroneous  to  believe  that  a  throat-latch  added  to  the  halter 
will  always  be  sufficient  to  check  this  practice,  as  certain  authors 
thought,  particularly  Cardini.1  We  have  from  personal  knowledge 
numerous  proofs  to  the  contrary. 

10th.  Horses  which  roll  as  soon  as  they  are  harnessed 
or  when  they  return  to  the  Stable  after  working. — Another 
very  disagreeable  habit  is  that  of  rolling  upon  entering  the  stable  after 
work,  or  on  being  harnessed.  Some  horses  experience  this  desire  to 
such  an  extent  that  they  seek  its  gratification  at  every  opportunity. 
After  an  insignificant  exercise,  with  a  harness  perfect  in  regard  to  its 
adjustment,  under  conditions,  therefore,  when  the  horse  can  be  neither 
tired  nor  inconvenienced,  lie  will  commence  to  roll  as  soon  as  he  is  not 
watched.  The  consequences  of  this  vice  are  much  more  serious  for  the 
owner  than  for  the  animal  himself.  The  latter  only  runs  the  risk  of 
getting  soiled ;  he  is  rarely  injured.  But  it  often  happens  that  he 
breaks  the  saddle,  tears  his  blankets,  and  ruins  the  harness.  Under 
these  conditions,  the  expenses  of  repairing  become  onerous.  Fortu- 
nately, the  vice  is  easily  prevented  by  tying  the  horse,  so  that  he 
cannot  lie  down  until  the  harness  has  been  either  put  on  or  removed. 

llth.  Horses  which  trot  in  the  Stable. — This  habit  is  rare; 
however,  several  horses  have  furnished  us  examples  of  it.  In  the 
stable,  in  front  of  the  manger,  they  move  successively  upon  their  diag- 
onal bipeds  with  considerable  rapidity,  thus  accomplishing  a  sort  of 
stationary  trot,  but  more  or  less  irregular  and  interrupted.  We  think 
that  regular  exercise  instead  of  a  prolonged  stay  in  the  stable  would 
overcome  this  vice.  The  result  of  the  habit,  when  it  exists  in  an  ex- 
aggerated degree,  is  to  fatigue  the  animal  to  no  purpose  whatever.  In 
this  case,  his  anterior  members  must  be  fettered  or  hobbled. 

1  Cardini,  Dictionnaire  d'hippiatrique  et  d'6quitation,  Paris,  1848. 


864  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

12th.  Horses  which  paw  in  the  Stable.— Certain  subjects  con- 
tract the  habit  of  persistently  pawing  the  floor  of  their  stable  with  one 
of  their  fore-feet.  In  cases  of  colic  the  horse  frequently  manifests,  in 
this  manner,  the  uneasiness  and  pain  which  he  suffers.  We  do  not 
allude  here  to  this  symptom.  We  wish  to  speak  more  especially  of  an 
analogous  habit,  which  has  no  morbid  cause,  but  which  evidences  the 
restlessness  the  animal  feels  when  alone  in  the  stable,  when  he  has  in- 
sufficient exercise.  This  is  a  'most  disagreeable  vice.  Besides  useless 
fatigue  and  loss  of  energy,  it  causes  a  rapid  wearing  out  of  the  shoe, 
necessitating  its  more  frequent  renewal,  and  gives  rise  to  incessant 
noise,  well-nigh  unbearable,  especially  at  night-time,  an  inconvenience 
of  no  trifling  nature  when  the  stable  occupies  the  first  floor  of  a  dwell- 
ing-house. The  means  of  remedying  this  habit  consists  in  giving  the 
horse  proper  daily  work,  and,  if  need  be,  from  time  to  time  fettering 
the  two  anterior  members. 

13th.  Horses  which  weave. — This  habit,  similar  to  that  of  the 
bear,  consists  in  lateral  oscillations  of  the  head  and  neck,  accompanied 
by  an  analogous  and  alternate  movement  of  the  body  upon  the  anterior 
members.  Sometimes  these  members  retain  the  same  position,  at  other 
times  one  foot  is  slightly  raised,  the  left,  for  example,  when  the  move- 
ment takes  place  to  the  right,  and  vice  versa.  The  subjects  which  es- 
pecially contract  this  habit  are  those  which  stand  too  long  in  the  stable, 
and  whose  fore-feet  rest  upon  an  uneven  stable  floor.  Generally  being 
of  an  irritable  temperament,  they  assume  a  particular  attitude  in  order 
to  execute  it ;  their  anterior  feet,  separated  from  each  other,  diverge ; 
their  toes  are  turned  outward  like  the  outbow-footed  horse.  The 
habit  is  indulged  in  with  more  or  less  frequency,  but  especially  during 
the  intervals  between  meals.  Its  principal  effect  is  a  useless  fatigue, 
and  it  is  with  much  difficulty  that  the  habit  can  be  prevented.  This 
may  be  effected,  however,  by  attaching  the  animal  with  two  straps  of 
such  a  length  that  the  head  can  still  be  raised  and  lowered,  but  cannot 
be  turned  to  the  right  or  the  left. 

14th.  Horses  which  eat  Earth.— This  vice  is  a  depravation  of 
the  appetite,  which  is  by  no  means  rare  in  some  localities.  Perhaps  the 
saline  taste  of  certain  soils  causes  the  animals  in  some  cases  to  contract 
the  habit.  But,  ordinarily,  the  insoluble  and  insipid  minerals  thus 
swallowed  are  not  capable  of  stimulating  the  taste.  Thus,  examples 
have  been  recorded  of  horses  which  eat  chalk  ;  we  have  seen  several 
of  them  in  Champagne.  They  had  at  first  fallen  into  the  habit  of 


WHIMS    AND    VICIOUS    HABITS.  865 

licking  the  plastering  on  the  walls  of  their  stables,  then  they  had  bitten 
it  with  the  teeth,  and  finally  had  eaten  it. 

At  any  rate,  the  facts  of  which  we  speak  are  exact  and  are,  besides, 
familiar  to  physiologists  and  pathologists.  Are  they  always  the  result 
of  a  vicious  habit  and  bad  education,  or  are  they  rather  the  expression 
of  a  need  of  the  organism  which  does  not  find  a  sufficient  quantity^of 
earthy  salts  in  the  ordinary  aliments?  This  has  not  yet  been  de-. 
monstrated.  The  truth  resides,  in  all  probability,  in  both  of  these 
hypotheses. 

Of  itself,  the  vice  of  eating  earth  may  give  rise  to  very  serious 
consequences.  Subjects  which  suffer  from  it  are  exposed,  among  other 
things,  to  frequent  colics,  and  even  to  irremediable  intestinal  obstruc- 
tions. Their  purchase,  therefore,  is  not  to  be  recommended,  but,  in 
France,  this  vice  is  not  considered  as  belonging  to  the  list  of  redhibitory 
vices.  We  shall  see  that  the  case  is  entirely  different  with  the  following 
vice,  which  consists  in  swallowing  air. 

15th.  Horses  which  have  the  Vice  of  "  Wind- Sucking,"  or 
swallowing  Air. — The  various  modes  of  swallowing  air  are  vulgarly 
known  by  the  names  cribbing  and  wind-sucking.  In  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  this  habit  is  accompanied  with  a  guttural  noise  very  much 
resembling  an  eructation  ;  exceptionally,  this  noise  is  not  made. 

Authors  are  far  from  agreeing  upon  the  true  nature  of  cribbing. 
Nearly  all  consider  it  as  proceeding  from  a  simple  eructation  of  gas 
through  the  mouth.  Others  consider  it  as  resulting  from  a  deglutition 
of  air.  Notwithstanding  the  number  and  authority  of  those  who  ex- 
press an  opinion  contrary  to  ours,  we  hold  firmly  to  our  view,  for  it 
rests  upon  physiological  and  experimental  facts  to  which  no  serious 
objection  has  yet  been  offered.1 

In  the  first  place,  the  guttural  noise  has  not  the  characters  of  that 
of  belching,  but  is  rather  an  effort  having  its  seat  in  the  larynx.  Upon 
a  horse  which  cribbed  with  a  loud  sound,  we  practised  tracheotomy  and 
divided  the  two  recurrent  laryngeal  nerves. 

The  animal  continued  to  crib ;  but  the  sound  disappeared  on  account 
of  the  paralysis  of  the  larynx  and  the  opening  made  in  the  trachea. 


i  See,  for  further  details : 

Liautard,  Du  tic  a  1'appui,  in  Journal  de  mSdecine  v6t6rinaire  publi6  a  1'Ecole  de  Lyon, 
1861,  pp.  552  et  600. 

Farges,  Du  tic  et  de  ses  diverses  especes  dans  le  cheval,  in  Recueil  de  m6decine  vete>inaire, 
1864,  p.  5. 

Arm.  Goubaux,  Communication  sur  le  tic  proprement  dit,  in  Journal  de  m6decine  v6t6ri- 
naire  public  a  1'Ecole  de  Lyon,  1866,  p.  249. 

55 


866  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Besides,  to  suppose  that  it  is  produced  by  an  eructation  would  make  it 
necessary  to  admit  that  horses  which  crib  have  the  power  of  ejecting 
into  the  oesophagus  the  gas  contained  in  their  stomach.  Such  is  not 
the  case  ;  for  we  have  never  seen,  at  the  autopsy,  any  abnormal  dila- 
tation of  the  cardiac  end  of  the  stomach ;  a  stomach  inflated  through 
the  pylorus  will  not  allow  any  escape  of  air  from  the  O3sophagus,  free 
from  ligature,  no  matter  what  pressure  may  be  employed. 

We  will  add  that  if  the  guttural  air  were  an  eructation,  as  is  be- 
lieved, we  could  not  understand  why  such  horses  suifer  from  abdominal 
tympanites  still  more  when  they  crib  persistently,  whilst  we  know 
that  their  meteorism  disappears  promptly  as  soon  as  the  gas  is  ejected 
through  the  anus.  H.  Bouley  affirms,  however,  that  he  saw  a  horse 
belch  and  perceived  the  grassy  odor  of  the  gases  ejected  by  the  animal. 
An  observation  of  the  same  kind  has  been  made  by  one  of  our  pupils, 
which  case  we  published  in  the  Journal  de  I'  Ecole  veterinaire  de  Lyon. 
By  no  means  disputing  the  exactness  of  these  facts,  we  simply  consider 
them  to  be  pure  coincidences,  very  rare  and  altogether  exceptional. 

What  we  maintain  is  that  horses  which  crib  swallow  air. 

To  demonstrate  this,  it  suffices  to  expose  the  oesophagus  and  slightly 
raise  it,  as  in  performing  oasophagotomy.  We  shall  then  see,  after  each 
eifort,  a  mouthful  of  air  descending  through  this  passage  in  the  direction 
of  the  stomach. 

Another  and  even  more  palpable  proof  consists  in  collecting,  imme- 
diately after  death,  the  gases  contained  in  the  stomach  and  the  first 
portions  of  the  intestine,  and  submitting  them  to  a  chemical  analysis. 
Clement,  at  our  request,  undertook  these  researches,  when  he  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  chemical  laboratory  in  the  veterinary  school  of  Alfort.  In 
the  stomach,  always  more  or  less  distended,  he  found  pure  air  ;  in  the 
small  intestine  he  also  found  air,  but  it  was  modified  on  account  of  its 
mixture  with  the  gaseous  products  of  digestion. 

These  experiments,  therefore,  show  that  the  essential  character  of 
this  vice  is  a  deglutition  of  air,  frequently  laborious  and  at  such  times 
accompanied  by  a  noise  resulting  from  an  effort  having  its  seat  in  the 
larynx. 

The  horse  does  not  always  perform  this  air-swallowing  in  the  same 
manner.  Sometimes  he  does  not  take  any  point  of  support ;  sometimes, 
on  the  contrary,  the  inferior  extremity  of  his  head  is  supported  upon  a 
resisting  body  in  order  to  render  the  act  easier.  From  these  different 
methods  come  the  distinctions  of  cribbing  in  the  air,  or  wind-sucking, 
and  cribbing  with  support,  according  to  the  method  employed  by  the 
animal. 


WHIMS    AND    VICIOUS    HABITS.  867 

The  old  French  law  upon  the  redhibitory  vices  ranked  cribbing  in 
the  air,  without  support  or  without  wear  of  the  teeth,  among  the  vices 
capable  of  causing  a  nullification  of  the  sale.  At  present,  according  to 
the  new  law  of  1884,  cribbing  properly  so  called,  whatever  its  form, 
with  or  without  wear  of  the  teeth,  is  to  be  considered  as  redhibitory. 

The  vice  manifests  itself  usually  as  follows  :  To  crib  in  the  mr,  the 
animal  begins  by  agitating  his  lips  by  frequent,  rapid,  and  slight  up- 
and-down  movements  of  these  organs ;  then  he  suddenly  lowers  his  head, 
sometimes  to  a  level  with  his  knees,  and  then  swallows  a  mouthful  of 
air,  with  or  without  the  production  of  the  guttural  sound  which  has 
wrongly  been  compared  to  an  eructation.  Often  this  effort  is  not  suc- 
cessful ;  in  this  case  it  is  confined  to  a  simple  deglutition  of  saliva, 
which,  however,  does  not  appear  to  give  the  desired  satisfaction,  since 
the  attempts  are  renewed  until  the  desire  is  satisfied. 

Cribbing  with  support  diifers  from  the  preceding  only  in  this, — that 
in  order  to  execute  it  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  head  is  supported 
upon  a  resisting  body  of  some  kind.  Horses  which  are  prevented  from 
cribbing  in  this  manner  sometimes  learn  to  crib  in  the  air,  and  vice 
versa.  We  have  seen  (page  753)  that  the  body  chosen  as  the  point  of 
support  is  very  variable.  Sometimes  it  is  the  bottom  of  the  manger, 
the  border  of  the  manger,  the  internal  or  the  external  edge  of  this 
border,  the  lower  cross-piece  of  the  hay-rack,  the  halter-strap ;  some- 
times it  is  the  window-sill,  the  side  of  a  stall,  the  end  of  the  shaft,  that 
of  the  pole,  the  harness  of  his  mate,  etc. ;  more  rarely  the  animal  cribs 
upon  himself.  In  most  instances,  the  teeth  effect  the  support ;  in  other 
cases  it  is  the  lips,  the  tuft  of  the  chin,  the  inferior  border  of  the  jaw. 
The  subject  often  previously  moves  his  lips  over  the  body  which  he  is 
going  to  seize,  or  he  licks  it  and  wets  it  with  saliva.  Then  he  presses 
forcibly  on  it,  arches  his  neck  if  this  body  is  somewhat  low,  and,  finally, 
energetically  contracts  his  inferior  cervical  muscles,  especially  the  sterno- 
maxillaries,1  and  at  that  moment  produces  the  guttural  noise  of  which 
we  have  spoken. 

When  the  teeth  rest  on  the  point  of  support,  there  is  an  abnormal 
wear  of  the  incisors.  As  the  reader  already  knows  the  various  char- 
acters of  this  wear  (see  page  753),  we  shall  not  refer  to  it  again.  We 
need  only  bear  in  mind  that  in  cases  of  expert  testimony  it  is  useful 
to  prove  its  existence,  and  to  show  clearly  that  it  is  the  necessary  con- 
sequence of  the  manner  in  which  the  support  is  effected.  Horses 


1  At  autopsies,  we  have  frequently  noticed,  as  M.  Berthe  has  done,  that  these  muscles  are 
much  more  voluminous  than  under  ordinary  conditions. 


868  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

indulge  in  this  vice  during  meals  or  during  the  intervals  between 
meals,  and  repeat  it  with  more  or  less  frequency  and  persistence. 
Some  desist  from  the  practice  in  the  presence  of  strangers  ;  others  do 
it  only  when  they  are  alone  in  the  stable ;  the  greater  number,  how- 
ever, indulge  in  it  whenever  they  experience  the  desire ;  and  there  are 
some  in  which  the  accidental  arrival  of  some  one  in  their  stable  pro- 
vokes the  desire  to  crib.  This  vice  is  not  always  equally  easy  to  detect. 
Certain  subjects  must  be  carefully  watched  for  a  long  time ;  in  some 
cases  the  observer  is  even  obliged  to  conceal  himself  to  detect  them. 
The  expert  should  never  neglect  this  precaution  when  he  has  any 
doubts  as  to  the  case. 

Long  periods  of  intermittence  in  the  manifestation  of  this  act  have 
been  recorded.  Bellanger  tells  us  of  a  cribber  which,  during  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1858,  had  never  cribbed,  but  which  resumed  this  habit 
upon  his  return  to  his  stable  in  Paris.  The  same  observation  may  be 
made  every  day.  Very  often  the  removal  or  change  of  the  body  which 
acts  as  a  support  will  be  sufficient  to  cause  the  disappearance  of  this 
defect.  Unfortunately,  this  remedial  measure  is  only  temporary  in  its 
effect ;  the  animal  soon  manages  to  find  a  new  place,  and  the  habit  i& 
recommenced. 

Many  remedies  for  cribbing  have  been  devised.  The  one  which 
seems  to  give  the  best  results  is  a  leather  strap  placed  more  or  less 
tightly  around  the  neck  at  the  level  of  the  throat.  In  conjunction 
with  work,  it  produces  good  effects  upon  vigorous  horses  which  become 
restless  through  a  too  prolonged  standing  in  the  stable.  We  have  per- 
formed tenotomy  upon  the  two  sterno-maxillary  muscles,  but  without 
success.  Cribbing  horses  are  subject  to  flatulence  of  the  intestines,  as 
has  been  said.  The  quantity  of  air  which  they  swallow  is  sometimes 
so  enormous  that  it  causes  a  distention  of  the  intestines  accompanied 
by  colicky  pains.  Fortunately,  the  latter  are  not  of  a  serious  charac- 
ter. Brisk  exercise  and  the  occasional  application  of  the  whip,  if 
necessary,  forcing  the  animal  to  run,  jump,  and  kick,  will  soon  cause 
the  expulsion  of  the  gas.  But  it  escapes  through  the  anus  and  not 
through  the  oesophagus. 

Cribbers  are,  moreover,  a  source  of  useless  expense  to  their  owners, 
because  they  mutilate  the  hay-rack,  the  manger,  the  harness,  etc.,  upon 
which  they  apply  their  teeth.  Besides,  the  wear  of  their  teeth  is  some- 
times so. marked  that  they  experience  inconveniences  from  it,  princi- 
pally when  their  incisors  are  shortened  to  a  level  with  the  gums. 
Horses  that  crib  have  been  supposed  to  require  a  longer  time  to  eat 
their  oats,  and  to  lose  a  portion  during  feeding,  which  led  to  their 


VICES    PROPERLY    SO    CALLED.  869 

being  fed  from  nose-bags  instead  of  from  a  manger.  We  are  not  of 
this  opinion.  Often  have  we  taken  note  of  the  time  required  by 
cribbers  to  consume  their  ration.  When  they  have  an  ordinary  appe- 
tite it  takes  them  about  fourteen  minutes  to  eat  two  litres  of  oats ;  if 
they  drop  a  certain  quantity  of  the  feed,  they  will  afterwards  pick  it 
up  again  from  the  ground.  The  loss  of  time  and  food  is  insignificant. 


CHAPTER    II. 

VICES  PROPERLY  SO  CALLED. 

UNDER  the  above  heading  we  class  those  serious  moral  defects  which 
indicate  an  indocile,  stubborn,  or  irritable  nature,  a  bad  education,  an 
ungovernable  temperament,  an  inclination  to  be  aggressive,  or  to  resist, 
— vices  which,  in  a  word,  render  the  animal  dangerous  or  almost  useless. 

Generally,  horses  which  have  these  imperfections  are  called  vicious  ; 
they  are  further  designated  in  various  ways,  according  to  the  vice  with 
which  they  are  affected.  Thus,  the  balky  horse  is  one  which  disobeys 
the  command  of  his  driver  or  refuses  to  go  in  the  desired  direction ; 
the  biter,  one  which  attacks  or  defends  himself  with  his  teeth;  the 
kicker,  one  which  uses  his  hind-feet  under  similar  circumstances ;  the 
rearing  horse,  one  which  raises  the  fore  part  of  the  body  to  strike  or 
to  dismount  his  rider ;  the  shyer,  one  which  is  easily  frightened  by 
accidental  things  or  circumstances  for  which  he  cannot  account. 

Sometimes  vicious  horses  are  qualified  as  wicked,  and  at  other  times 
as  stubborn.  There  are  some,  however,  for  which  specific  names  would 
be  impossible.  We  will  rapidly  pass  them  in  review. 

§  1.  EXTERNAL  MANIFESTATIONS  PROPER  TO  EACH  VICE. 

1st.  Balky  Horses. — The  balky  horse,  as  already  said,  refuses  to 
obey  his  rider  or  his  driver. 

Balkiness,  one  of  the  most  common  equine  vices,  is  as  frequently 
found  in  the  saddle-horse  as  in  the  driving-horse.  Sometimes  the 
animal  obstinately  goes  in  a  direction  different  from  that  in  which  he 
is  desired  to  go ;  sometimes  he  refuses  to  go  along  certain  roads,  to  pass 
by  certain  objects  or  certain  houses ;  in  other  cases,  he  stops,  notwith- 
standing the  most  energetic  efforts  of  the  rider  or  driver  ;  or  he  will 
insist  on  going  to  the  right,  to  the  left,  forward,  backward,  or  will  refuse 
to  advance,  to  turn,  to  back,  to  jump,  etc.  It  is  not  from  fear, but  from 


870  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

stubbornness ;  not  from  a  spirit  of  resistance,  but  from  a  determination 
to  have  his  own  way.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  such  horses 
are  the  source  of  serious  danger  to  those  who  drive  them,  since  one  has 
to  contend  constantly  with  them,  and  sometimes  it  becomes  impossible 
to  handle  them  by  the  ordinary  means.  Numerous  accidents  are  thus 
occasioned  in  large  cities,  where  the  streets  are  always  crowded.  We 
have  seen  balky  horses  allow  themselves  to  be  belabored  with  blows 
rather  than  move  one  step ;  many  will  remain  in  the  same  spot,  without 
offering  any  other  resistance  than  a  determined  obstinacy.  These  are 
the  least  dangerous.  Generally  they  make  this  vice  still  worse  by 
striking  with  their  fore-feet  or  by  biting ;  in  such  cases,  the  best  course 
to  pursue  is  to  await  their  pleasure ;  the  wisest  plan,  however,  would 
have  been  not  to  purchase  them  at  all. 

2d.  Horses  difficult  to  Approach  or  to  Groom. — We  include 
among  vicious  horses  those  which  it  is  difficult  to  approach.  As  soon 
as  such  horses  see  any  one  coming  near  them,  they  set  back  their  ears, 
stamp  with  their  feet,  strike  or  kick,  show  their  teeth  and  try  to  bite. 
When  loose  in  their  stalls,  they  turn  around  and  commence  to  kick. 
If  they  be  placed  in  a  single  stall,  it  is  often  difficult  to  avoid  their 
attacks.  When  they  do  not  succeed  in  biting  or  striking,  they  press 
the  attendant  who  approaches  them  against  the  side  of  the  stall,  even 
leaning  down  to  squeeze  him  with  still  more  force.  Many  of  them, 
when  mounted,  have  the  habit  of  pressing  the  leg  of  the  rider  against 
trees,  walls,  and  other  objects.  It  is  with  a  view  to  avoid  accidents  of 
this  kind  that  all  riding  academies  are  provided  with  a  wall  inclined 
towards  the  track. 

All  these  animals  are  skittish  and  irritable.  We  should  approach 
them  boldly,  speak  to  them,  and  avoid  raising  the  arms,  and  especially 
touching  or  stroking  their  hind-quarters.  Gentleness,  caresses,  some 
little  dainty,  in  a  word,  kind  treatment,  will  have  the  happiest  effect 
upon  their  disposition ;  while  loud  words,  threats,  and  the  use  of  the 
whip  will  nearly  always  render  them  intractable. 

Certain  subjects  have,  besides  this  vice, -that  of  being  difficult  to 
groom.  They  bite  their  halter-strap  when  they  are  curried,  snort,  arch 
their  back,  try  to  lie  down,  press  the  groom  against  the  stall,  stamp, 
strike  with  the  hind-feet,  set  back  the  ears,  and  show  in  a  thousand 
ways  their  distaste  for  the  grooming.  When  they  are  only  skittish  or 
ticklish,  they  are  not  very  dangerous.  If  they  are  badly  treated,  how- 
ever, they  will  soon  become  aggressive.  They  should  therefore  not  be 
dressed  with  the  curry-comb,  nor  should  they  be  treated  harshly ;  it 


VICES    PROPERLY    SO    CALLED.  871 

would  also  be  well  to  tie  the  head  to  the  hay-rack  to  protect  one's  self 
from  bites  and  kicks. 

When  these  simple  means  are  not  efficacious,  others  must  be  impro- 
vised according  to  circumstances.  Recourse  may  be  had,  for  example, 
to  the  muzzle,  a  side-line,  a  rope  forming  a  loop  around  the  neck, 
passed  through  the  mouth,  then  around  the  hind  pastern,  and  forward 
again  through  the  halter,  where  it  is  tied  or  held  by  an  assistant,  etc. 
The  important  point  is  to  secure  the  head  and  keep  it  in  place ;  the 
proceedings,  in  this  respect,  vary  according  to  the  disposition  of  the 
localities,  but  it  would  be  out  of  our  scope  to  describe  them  in  detail. 

3d.  Horses  difficult  to  Harness  or  to  Mount. — In  most  cases, 
a  horse  allows  himself  to  be  harnessed  without  any  difficulty,  especially 
if  the  harness  causes  him  no  pain  by  rubbing  over  sore  places  and  is 
applied  with  care  and  gentleness. 

Sometimes,  however,  he  offers  a  most  determined  resistance.  He 
kicks,  strikes  in  front,  rears,  squeals,  bites,  and  tries  to  lie  down.  Under 
these  conditions,  he  becomes  all  the  more  dangerous  according  as  the 
man  who  approaches  him  is  loaded  with  the  harness  or  blanket  with 
which  he  wishes  to  cover  him.  Certain  animals  refuse  to  receive  the 
bit ;  they  turn  their  heads  from  side  to  side,  rear,  or  try  to  run  away 
or  to  bite.  Others  puff  up  and  resist  when  an  attempt  is  made  to 
tighten  the  girth,  or  to  place  them  between  the  shafts,  or  to  mount  them. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  animal  often  rears,  plunges  forward,  and  jumps 
as  soon  as  the  rider's  foot  is  put  in  the  stirrup.  Some  avail  themselves 
of  this  moment  to  bite  their  rider ;  others  rear  and  kick  as  soon  as 
he  is  in  the  saddle ;  the  more  vicious  try  to  dismount  their  rider,  then 
to  lie  down  and  trample  upon  him. 

Nothing  could  be  more  varied  than  the  ways  in  which  this  vice  is 
manifested.  It  may  be  modified,  but  it  is  impossible  to  overcome  it 
altogether.  The  most  frequent  means  used  consists  in  fastening  the 
horse's  head  very  short  to  the  hay-rack  before  harnessing  him,  in  order 
to  prevent  him  from  kicking  and  biting  ;  two  of  his  diagonal  members 
are  hobbled  if  he  attempts  to  rear.  In  some  cases  recourse  must  be 
had  to  the  twitch  in  order  to  bridle  him.  Lastly,  it  often  becomes 
necessary,  to  get  him  between  the  shafts,  to  cover  his  head  with  an 
apron.  But  it  is  only  by  a  methodical  dressing  that  he  can  be  accus- 
tomed to  receive  the  rider. 

4th.  Horses  difficult  to  Shoe. — It  is  very  important,  when  pur- 
chasing a  horse,  to  make  him  lift  his  feet  one  after  the  other,  and  to 


872  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

strike  each  foot  with  a  hammer,  in  order  to  make  sure  that  he  lets  him- 
self be  shod  without  difficulty.  The  neglect  of  this  precaution  may 
result  in  very  serious  consequences ;  for  animals  which  are  difficult  to 
shoe  are  always  a  great  inconvenience  to  their  owners,  and  too  often 
the  cause  of  accidents  to  blacksmiths  and  other  persons.  When  the 
horse  is  merely  lazy,  the  inconvenience  is  comparatively  trifling ;  he  gets 
himself  carried,  as  the  saying  is,  and  the  farrier  can  relieve  himself  of 
a  portion  of  the  weight  by  means  of  a  rope  fastened  to  the  pastern  and 
passed  around  the  thorax.  But  when  the  animal  absolutely  refuses  to 
allow  his  feet  to  be  manipulated,  his  shoeing  becomes  difficult  and 
dangerous.  In  fact,  it  is  then  necessary  to  place  him  in  a  stocks  or  travis, 
and  sometimes  to  throw  him  down  upon  a  soft  bed  of  straw,  to  succeed 
in  the  attempt.  We  see,  then,  to  what  inconveniences  one  is  subjected 
at  each  successive  shoeing  of  the  horse.  The  risk  of  personal  injuries, 
and  of  wounds  inflicted  by  the  horse  upon  himself,  and  the  dangers  to 
which  one  is  exposed  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  employ  violent 
means,  make  it  judicious  to  reject  him,  or,  should  the  vice  not  have 
been  perceived  at  the  time  of  purchase,  to  get  rid  of  him. 

5th.  Biters. — We  designate  by  this  term  horses  which  use  their 
teeth  against  persons  who  approach  them,  groom  them,  mount  or  lead 
them,  as  well  as  those  which  use  them  as  weapons  of  defence  against 
other  animals.  This  vice  is  undoubtedly  most  common  in  stallions, 
which  often  show  around  their  lips,  nostrils,  sides,  and  upper  border 
of  the  neck,  and  the  withers,  evident  traces  of  the  struggles  they  have 
had  with  their  neighbors  and  rivals.  In  whatever  direction  they 
gratify  their  vicious  propensity,  they  all  eventually  become  very  dan- 
gerous. Some  have  been  seen  to  plunge  ferociously  upon  their  victim, 
trample  him  underfoot,  bruise  him,  and  rend  him,  as  if  impelled  by  a 
furious  rage.  As  a  rule,  dealers  do  not  hesitate  to  put  them  up  for 
sale,  especially  when  the  vice  is  not  very  marked.  Hence  purchasers 
should  leave  no  means  untried  to  recognize  them.  They  usually  set 
back  their  ears,  pucker  their  nostrils,  curl  up  their  lips,  stretch  out 
their  heads,  and  show  their  teeth  when  any  one  passes  within  reach  of 
them.  Sometimes,  however,  they  appear  very  docile,  accustomed  as 
they  are  to  the  grooms ;  at  other  times  their  apparent  gentleness  is  due 
only  to  their  being  cowed  down  by  the  remembrance  of  past  punish- 
ments or  their  dread  of  future  ones.  As  soon  as  they  change  masters 
their  vicious  and  aggressive  nature  quickly  reasserts  itself.  It  is  then 
important  that  the  new  owner  should  approach  them  himself,  and  caress 
and  stroke  them  gently,  so  as  to  avoid  startling  them.  Such  animals 


VICES    PROPERLY   SO    CALLED.  873 

are  not  useless.  Were  not  their  vice  a  grave  one,  they  would  be  as 
good  as  other  horses,  for  they  are  neither  indocile  nor  lazy.  On  the 
contrary,  fatigue,  privations,  and  bad  treatment  are  of  little  concern  to 
them.  That  is  why  there  is  but  little  hesitation  to  use  them.  Many 
of  them  perform  the  most  laborious  work.  It  is  customary  to  work 
them  on  the  lead,  or  to  place  them  between  horses  with  which- they 
have  no  desire  to  fight.  But  they  must  always  be  watched.  The 
simplest  way  to  protect  one's  self  against  their  attacks  is  to  muzzle 
them ;  in  the  stable,  they  can  be  secured  by  means  of  the  necklet  or 
neck-cradle,  or  by  tying  them  on  both  sides  of  the  stall,  or  with  the 
side-rod  fastened  to  the  surcingle,  a  nose-band,  a  muzzle,  a  rope  pass- 
ing through  the  mouth  and  the  hind  pastern.  When  they  are  very 
troublesome,  it  is  well  to  make  use  of  the  muzzle. 

6th.  Horses  which  rear  and  strike  with  the  Fore-Feet. 
— There  are  some  horses  which  only  rear ;  others  rear  and  at  the  same 
time  strike  with  the  fore-feet ;  still  others  strike  without  rearing.  The 
first,  or  rearers,  raise  themselves  suddenly  upon  their  hind-feet  for  the 
purpose  of  defence  or  attack,  by  a  sudden  impulsion  of  the  anterior  mem- 
bers. This  act,  which  is  often  only  the  result  of  excessive  playfulness 
or  restlessness,  may  unfortunately  also  assume  the  character  of  a  very 
dangerous  vice.  The  saddle-horse,  when  rearing,  sometimes  strikes  the 
rider  with  his  head  and  injures  him  either  in  the  face  or  on  the  chest. 
The  blow  is  in  some  cases  so  violent  that  the  rider  is  dismounted  and 
under  the  horse's  feet.  Besides,  the  animal  himself  often  loses  his 
balance  and  falls  over  backward,  crushing  the  rider  under  his  body 
and  causing  serious  fractures  of  the  ribs,  the  pelvis,  or  the  limbs. 

Some  rearers,  as  soon  as  they  are  standing  up,  avail  themselves  of 
this  attitude  to  strike  out  with  their  fore  members  at  neighboring  per- 
sons or  horses.  Some  have  been  seen,  after  throwing  off  their  rider,  to 
kneel  down  upon  him  and  crush  him  in  the  most  horrible  manner. 
Under  similar  circumstances,  there  are  some  which  attack  the  groom 
with  their  teeth,  a  habit  which  is  popularly  characterized  in  a  singular 
way  by  the  expression,  they  are  in  love  with  the  man  !  Are  not  these 
actions  rather  the  result  of  a  premeditated  vengeance  directed  against 
those  who  have  been  violent  and  brutal  in  their  treatment  of  the 
animals  intrusted  to  their  care  ? 

This  vice  is  tolerably  easily  remedied.  When  in  the  stable  the 
horse  may  be  prevented  from  rearing  by  a  short  halter-strap ;  in  the 
shafts  or  mounted,  by  the  use  of  the  martingale.  When  he  simply 
strikes  in  front,  this  habit  is  sometimes  corrected  by  the  manger  being 


874  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

made  very  slanting  in  front ;  it  then  becomes  impossible  for  him  to 
raise  his  forearms  very  high  without  striking  his  knees  against  the 
bottom  of  the  manger. 

7th.  Horses  which  back. — The  importance  of  this  vice  has 
been  recognized  for  a  long  time  past,  for  Gabriel  Meunier,1  in  the  midst 
of  an  enumeration  of  very  diiferent  matters,  exclaims,  "Du  cheval 
qui  recule.. .  .  .  Libera  nos,  Domine!" 

Although  more  difficult  than  ordinary  progression,  backing  is  an 
act  which  every  horse  properly  dressed  should  be  able  to  perform  when 
required.  There  are  some,  however,  which  back  without  any  apparent 
motive ;  others  do  it  as  soon  as  they  are  touched  with  the  whip,  or 
when  they  are  in  the  hands  of  unskilful  drivers  or  inexperienced 
riders.  A  similar  result  is  produced  when  the  animal  inclining  his 
head  to  one  side,  in  the  endeavor  to  rid  himself  of  flies,  for  example, 
hooks  the  inferior  cross-bar,  which  unites  the  two  branches  of  the  bit, 
against  the  end  of  one  of  the  shafts.  We  have  also  seen  it  occur  in 
cases  of  turning  a  four-wheeled  carriage  by  holding  the  horse  by  the 
bridle,  when  the  lines  have  remained  attached  to  the  dasher ;  finally,  it 
is  often  the  consequence  of  fear  or  of  pain  occasioned  to  the  bars  by  brutal 
tractions  upon  the  reins. 

Whatever  the  cause  which  produces  it,  horses  having  this  habit  are 
always  very  dangerous,  especially  in  large  cities,  where  they  may  back 
through  shop- windows,  knock  against  other  vehicles,  injure  the  passers- 
by,  etc.  Outside  of  good  training  and  careful  driving  we  know  of  no 
practical  means  to  remedy  this  evil.  It  is  important,  then,  at  the  time 
of  purchasing  an  animal,  to  ascertain  that  he  is  free  from  the  habit. 

8th.  Kickers. — "  A  cheval  rueur  d'avant  passe,"  says  a  proverb 
of  the  sixteenth  century,2  which  may  be  translated,  "  With  a  kicking 
horse,  pass  in  front." 

This  vice  consists  in  kicking  as  a  means  of  attack  or  of  defence. 
All  horses,  however,  do  not  kick  in  the  same  manner.  Some  kick  at 
the  riding-boot,  when  they  endeavor  to  strike,  with  one  of  their  pos- 
terior members,  the  leg  of  the  rider  as  he  is  about  to  mount.  Others 
kick  cow-fashion,  give  a  kick  like  a  cow,  forcibly  projecting  one  hind- 
foot  forward  and  outward,  like  a  cow,  to  reach  a  person  standing  near 
their  corresponding  anterior  member.  Again,  there  are  some  which 
kick  backward  with  only  a  single  posterior  member.  But  generally  it 

1  Gabriel  Meunier,  Tremor  des  sentences,  sixteenth  century.  2  Mimes  de  Baif. 


VICES    PROPERLY   SO    CALLED.  875 

is  kicking  properly  so  called  which  is  witnessed.  It  often  takes  place 
in  the  stable,  without  any  good  reason.  In  such  cases,  the  injuries 
sustained  by  the  points  of  the  hock  produce  small  swellings,  capped- 
hoek,  which  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  purchasing  a  horse. 
Frequently  it  occurs  during  work,  from  contact  of  the  leg,  the  spur, 
the  riding- whip,  or  the  whip-lash,  from  the  touch  of  the  lines  upon 
the  croup,  or  of  certain  parts  of  the  harness,  as  the  traces,  or  from 
some  unexpected  occurrence  stimulating  the  hind  members  and  sur- 
prising the  animal.  The  subjects  worked  in  single-file  at  times  kick 
the  shaft-horse  with  violence  upon  the  head,  the  chest,  and  the  internal 
face  of  the  forearm.  The  same  is  true  of  saddle-horses  with  reference 
to  those  who  follow  them,  or  to  their  neighbors  in  the  parade,  in  the 
riding-school,  and  in  cavalry  manoauvres.  Mares,  especially  those 
which  continually  evert  the  clitoris,  are  very  irritable  when  people 
approach  them  too  closely.  Too  low  a  dash-board  sometimes  permits 
the  driving-horse  to  catch  the  lines  under  his  tail  and  retain  them 
there.  Should  the  attempt  be  made  to  pull  them  out  forcibly,  it  is  by 
no  means  rare  for  the  horse  to  kick.  We  cannot  too  strongly  condemn 
the  bad  practice  which  some  drivers  have  of  correcting  a  horse  for  this 
or  any  other  habit  by  the  free  use  from  behind  of  a  long  whip,  the  lash 
of  which  in  a  manner  encircles  the  animal's  shoulder,  ribs,  back,  loins, 
and  a  part  of  the  croup.  This  so-called  girdle-whipping  is  often  dan- 
gerous. The  animal,  surprised  by  so  violent  and  so  sudden  a  punish- 
ment, ordinarily  responds  to  it  by  a  shower  of  kicks,  and  it  is  very 
fortunate  if  he  does  not  run  away. 

Under  all  these  circumstances,  kickers  can  inflict  upon  their  neigh- 
bors more  or  less  serious  injuries,  such  as  contused  wounds  of  the 
chest,  the  ribs,  or  the  abdomen,  or  fractures  of  the  bones  of  the  head, 
the  forearms,  or  the  legs.  Too  often,  also,  these  accidents  befall  the 
persons  who  drive,  mount,  approach,  or  groom  the  animals  in  question. 

The  kicking-strap,  passing  across  the  croup  from  one  side  to  the 
other,  and  fastened  to  the  shafts,  is  a  fairly  practical  method  to  prevent 
kicking  during  work  when  the  animal  is  in  harness.  In  the  stable, 
the  rope  through  the  mouth  and  around  the  fetlock,  as  before  described, 
should  be  fixed  to  the  halter.  With  this  appliance  a  horse  will  seldom 
kick  more  than  once.  Finally,  when  they  are  used  under  the  saddle, 
the  rider  must  bring  good  horsemanship  into  play  to  prevent  them  from 
lowering  their  heads,  and  be  very  careful  at  the  time  of  mounting. 

We  will  also  consider  with  kickers  those  horses  which  switch  their 
tails, — that  is  to  say,  which  shake  their  tails  like  dogs  when  their 
hind-quarters  are  approached.  "  Don't  buy  a  horse  that  switches  his 


876  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

tail"  is  the  advice  of  an  old  proverb.1  This  advice  is  to  be  remem- 
bered, for  these  animals,  among  which  are  found  especially  ticklish  sub- 
jects andpissy  mares,  are  inclined  to  kick  and  show  their  evil  intentions. 
They  expose  persons  to  all  the  dangers  we  have  enumerated. 

9th.  Timid  Horses,  Shyers. — Fear,  says  Littre",2  is  a  painful 
passion  which  is  excited  in  us  by  that  which  appears  dangerous,  threat- 
ening, and  supernatural.  Fright,  according  to  the  same  authority,  is 
fear  carried  to  a  high  degree,  a  great  fear.  In  horse  language,  timid 
or  easily-frightened  horses  are  known  by  different  names.  The  horse 
which  is  afraid  of  his  shadow  or  of  an  object  which  surprises  him  is 
also  called  skittish.  The  timid  horse  is  one  which  is  easily  frightened  ; 
the  horse  which  is  said  to  be  watchful,  or  a  little  watchful,  is  more  or 
less  timid. 

Fear,  in  the  horse,  does  not  seem  to  be  ever  the  effect  of  a  simple 
moral  influence,  such  as  is  observed  in  some  circumstances  in  man.  In 
most  cases  the  causes  are  entirely  external ;  their  action  is  sudden, — 
one  may  say  instantaneous.  Some  act  upon  sight,  others  upon  hear- 
ing ;  most  of  them  affect  simultaneously  the  apparatus  of  vision  and 
hearing,  and  sometimes  even  that  of  olfaction.  Who  has  not  seen  a 
horse,  that  has  often  been  maltreated  by  his  driver,  prick  his  ears  upon 
the  approach  of  the  latter,  open  his  eyes  widely,  and  pull  back  or  swerve 
to  one  side,  to  avoid  the  blows  with  which  he  imagines  he  is  threatened  ? 
Another  one,  at  the  sight  of  clothing  hung  out  on  clothes-lines,  flapping 
to  and  fro,  and  blown  up  by  the  wind,  will  plunge  to  one  side  and  start 
to  run  away.  Still  another  will  suddenly  stop,  rear,  and  turn  around 
on  the  road,  alarmed  by  a  pool  of  water  reflecting  the  rays  of  the 
moon,  a  velocipede  wheeling  along  rapidly  and  silently,  a  field  laborer 
suddenly  rising  from  a  stooping  attitude,  a  dog  running  out  of  a  house 
into  the  street,  a  railroad  train  suddenly  coming  out  of  a  tunnel,  the 
bright  light  emanating  from  a  sky-rocket  sent  up  in  the  dark  by  a 
child,  etc.  How  many  horses  tied  at  the  door  of  a  blacksmith-shop 
are  frightened  by  the  sparks  which  fly  from  the  iron  hammered  on  the 
anvil,  prick  their  ears,  dilate  their  nostrils,  snort,  pull  at  the  ty ing- 
strap,  break  their  bridle,  run  away,  or  throw  themselves  down  !  How 
many,  also,  unbridled  and  quietly  eating  their  oats  as  they  stand  by 
the  sidewalk,  while  the  driver  is  taking  his  repast,  are  suddenly  seized 
with  fear  on  seeing  the  flashes  of  light  reflected  from  the  freshly-var- 


1  Bouilli,  Proverbes,  sixteenth  century. 

2  LittrS,  Dictionnaire  de  la  langue  francaise. 


VICES    PROPERLY   SO    CALLED.  877 

nished  wheels  of  passing  vehicles,  a  flock  of  pigeons  flying  to  roost 
upon  the  roof  of  a  neighboring  house,  a  drove  of  sheep  approaching 
in  a  huddled  mass  along  the  dusty  road,  etc. 

The  exciting  causes  of  fear  which  act  upon  the  sense  of  hearing 
are  perhaps  even  more  numerous  and  more  operative  than  those  which 
act  upon  the  sense  of  sight,  because  it  is  harder  for  the  horse  to  jinder- 
stand  their  nature.  We  may  mention  among  them  a  sudden  noise, 
such  as  the  report  of  a  fire-arm  or  of  a  cannon,  the  explosion  of  a 
piece  of  fireworks,  the  whistle  of  a  locomotive,  the  barking  of  a  dog, 
the  accidental  resonance  of  the  ground  over  which  the  horse  is  travelling, 
the  transition  from  a  dirt  road  to  a  pavement,  or  to  a  wooden  or  an 
iron  bridge,  the  shaking  of  the  ground  and  the  noise  produced  by  the 
passing  of  a  railroad  train,  the  swift  arrival  of  a  carriage,  the  beating 
of  a  drum,  the  sound  of  a  bugle,  etc.  "  A  good  bugler's  horse  is  not 
frightened  by  noises."  ] 

The  odor  of  wild  beasts,  certain  pungent  emanations  which  the 
animal  perceives  suddenly  when  passing  before  a  menagerie  or  a 
knacker's  establishment,  etc.,  may  also  frighten  him  .and  cause  him  to 
run  to  one  side.  But  influences  of  this  kind  are  more  rare  than  those 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  Such  horses  at  every  moment 
expose  to  great  dangers  those  who  drive  them.  Good  horsemanship 
alone  is  capable  of  inspiring  them  with  confidence  and  boldness. 

10th.  Aversion  to  Special  Objects. — We  purposely  take  up 
this  vice  immediately  after  the  preceding,  on  account  of  the  difficul- 
ties which  are  sometimes  experienced  in  distinguishing  the  one  from 
the  other.  It  is  characterized  by  the  extreme  repugnance,  mingled 
with  hatred  and  aggressiveness,  which  some  horses  manifest  for  certain 
colors,  or  towards  certain  animals.  J.-B.  Rodet2  has  given  three  re- 
markable examples,  and  we  also  have  observed  some.  The  following 
are  cited  from  Rodet : 

"  In  1806,  during  the  campaign  of  Austerlitz,  a  Piedmontese  officer  pos- 
sessed a  beautiful  mare,  a  very  good  animal  in  all  respects  with  the  exception 
of  a  vice  which  rendered  her  excessively  dangerous  as  a  saddle-mare.  This 
animal  had  a  very  decided  aversion  for  paper,  completely  losing  her  senses  not 
only  as  soon  as  she  saw  it,  but  also  whenever,  even  in  darkness,  she  heard  the 
rustle  produced  by  it.  This  effect  was  always  so  prompt  and  so  violent  that  in 
several  instances,  taken  by  surprise  as  it  were,  she  ran  away  or  dismounted  her 
rider,  and  even  at  one  time,  the  foot  of  the  latter  remaining  caught  in  the  stirrup, 
a _^____ 

1  Leroux,  Dictionnaire  comique,  t.  i.  p.  162. 

8  J.-B.  Rodet,  Doctrine  physiologique  appliqu6e  a  la  me'decine  v6t6rinaire,  p.  272,  et  suiv. 
In-8°,  Paris,  1828. 


878  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

she  dragged  him  for  some  distance  over  the  stony  ground.  A  remarkable  fact 
was  that  this  same  mare  was  very  gentle  otherwise,  and,  excepting  this  one  object 
of  her  special  terror,  she  would  ignore  all  the  causes  which  ordinarily  frighten 
most  horses :  the  noise  of  a  cannon,  the  beating  of  drums,  military  music,  the 
whizzing  of  balls  and  bullets,  the  sight  of  camp-fires,  the  smoke  and  fire  of 
small-arms  or  artillery,  the  sight  of  troops  in  battle,  the  waving  of  plumes  and 
flash  of  brilliant  arms, — none  of  these  would  give  her  the  least  fear.  And,  as 
was  several  times  observed,  she  did  not  show  the  same  fear  for  other  white 
objects  as  that  which  she  experienced  at  the  sight  or  the  noise  of  paper.  Every 
means  employed  for  the  cure  of  this  defect  proved  unsuccessful,  and  her  owner 
was  forced  to  sell  her,  not  being  able  to  use  her  as  his  mount. 

"  Deicon,  a  brown  bay  horse,  belonging  to  the  old  French  army,  was  very 
gentle  to  man,  to  other  animals,  and  to  all  horses,  except  those  with  a  more  or 
less  brilliant  light-gray  coat.  In  fact,  he  had  for  the  latter,  and  for  them  only, 
so  great  a  hatred  that  as  soon  as  he  saw  one  he  would  make  every  eifort  to  get 
to  him ;  when  he  succeeded  in  this  he  would  assail  him  with  great  violence.  He 
behaved  in  the  same  way  at  all  times  and  in  all  places, — free  or  when  mounted, 
on  the  drives,  the  roads,  on  the  march,  or  during  the  manoeuvres  or  the  halts : 
his  animosity  was  such  that  it  was  dangerous  to  put  not  only  a  stallion  but  even 
a  mare  of  a  gray  or  white  coat  in  his  stable  or  at  any  distance  away  from  this,  so 
long  as  he  could  see  them.  He  was  not  satisfied  until  he  had  broken  loose,  and 
when  he  succeeded  in  this  he  would  plunge  upon  these  animals,  kicking  and 
biting  them  with  the  greatest  fury,  usually  seizing  them  by  the  head,  often  even 
by  the  throat,  and  might  have  choked  them  had  not  some  one  promptly  come  to 
their  assistance.  As  he  grew  older  (he  was  eighteen  years  old  when  he  was  sent 
out  of  the  army),  this  furious  temper  only  slightly  abated.  In  1818  it  was  so  strong 
that  he  could  not  be  turned  out  to  grass  with  the  other  horses  of  the  regiment 
which,  like  himself,  were  in  need  of  this  diet.  For  other  white  bodies  he  did 
not  have  the  same  aversion  as  for  horses  whose  coat  approached  this  color. 

"  Dague,  a  sorrel  mare,  of  the  Norman  variety,  was,  on  the  contrary,  very 
much  afraid  of  all  inanimate  white  bodies, — that  is  to  say,  bodies  motionless  of 
themselves,  such  as  white  cloaks,  shirt-sleeves,  cross-belts,  paper,  but  especially 
white  plumes.  When  these  white  bodies,  set  in  motion  by  any  cause  whatso- 
ever, unexpectedly  met  her  gaze,  if  they  were  of  a  certain  size,  and  if  the  move- 
ment was  somewhat  rapid,  she  was  extremely  frightened  and  would  endeavor  to 
run  away.  But  if  the  white  objects  were  small  and  had  but  a  slight  degree  of 
movement,  she  would  plunge  angrily  upon  them  and  endeavor  to  bite  them  and 
strike  them  with  her  fore-feet.  No  other  color  and  no  other  bodies  produced  this 
effect  upon  her.  A  still  more  singular  circumstance  was  that  she  manifested 
neither  fright  nor  anger  in  the  presence  of  white  horses  and  white  dogs,  whilst 
she  was  always  irritated  at  the  sight  of  a  sheet  of  paper  or  a  white  plume  set  in 
motion  by  the  air  or  any  other  cause." 

We,  on  our  part,  saw  several  times  during  the  existence  of  the 
post  at  Alfort,  relays  of  gray  horses  attack  relays  of  bay  horses, 
striking  them  with  their  anterior  members  and  biting  them,  uttering  at 
the  same  time  the  most  ferocious  cries. 

One  day,  a  gray  stallion,  having  broken  his  halter-strap,  escaped 


VICES    PROPERLY   SO    CALLED.  879 

from  the  hospital  yard  of  the  school  of  Alfort,  and  with  his  teeth  and 
feet  attacked  a  bay  horse  harnessed  to  the  wagon  of  a  grocer  who 
supplied  the  establishment.  It  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the  two 
animals  were  separated  ;  the  aggressor  had  seriously  wounded  the  other 
horse  and  almost  demolished  one  of  the  shafts.1 

We  have  known  horses  which  had  the  greatest  horror  for  hogs ; 
their  ears  directed  forward,  the  expression  of  their  face,  their  snorts  of 
alarm,  their  efforts  to  run  away,  everything,  in  short,  showed  the  fear 
which  they  felt.2 

Wild  animals,  by  the  peculiar  odor  which  they  exhale,  seem  to 
provoke  identical  manifestations.  We  saw,  a  few  years  ago,  a  good 
horse  harnessed  to  an  upholsterer's  wagon  stop  suddenly,  jump  to  one 
side,  and  snort  loudly  in  the  presence  of  three  very  peaceable  bears 
which  some  gypsies  led  by  a  rope,  and  which  did  not  in  any  way 
obstruct  the  road.  But  facts  of  this  kind  are  not  rare ;  all  those  who 
have  travelled  in  countries  where  the  wolf  still  exists  have  seen  similar 
occurrences. 

llth.  Runaway  Horses. — A  horse  is  said  to  run  away  when  he 
suddenly  rushes  forward  blindly,  impetuously,  madly,  going  straight 
ahead,  heeding  nothing  but  the  irresistible  stimulus  which  impels  him, 
and  losing  even  the  instinct  of  self-preservation.  Vulgarly  it  is  erro- 
neously said  that  he  takes  the  bit  between  his  teeth,  that  he  is  seized  with 
a  short  fit  of  insanity.  In  horse  language,  the  same  thing  is  expressed 
by  saying  that  the  animal  pulls,  or  again,  the  runaway  horse  is  called 
a  lugger?  Generally,  this  vice  is  more  common  in  ardent,  very  sensi- 
tive, and  irritable  horses,  and  in  those  which  have  bad  eyesight.  It 
also  appears  to  us  more  frequent  in  warm  countries  and  during  the  hot 
seasons,  judging,  at  least,  from  the  reports  in  the  press.  But  the  usual 
causes  are  fear  and- pain.  Any  sudden  noise  inspiring  terror,  such  as 
the  report  of  a  gun,  an  explosion,  a  clap  of  thunder,  the  beating  of 
drums,  the  whistling  of  locomotives,  an  unusual  resonance  of  the 
ground,  passing  over  a  bridge  or  under  an  arch,  the  arrival  of  a  train, 
the  barking  and  attack  of  a  dog,  the  sudden  appearance  of  white  bodies 
in  motion,  such  as  clothes  flapping  on  a  clothes-line,  the  sight  of  a 


1  See,  also,  Seon  Rochas,  Hygiene  veterinairemilitaire,  p.  505,  Paris,  1844. 

2  One  of  the  authors  has  observed  in  a  parrot  the  same  aversion  for  hogs.    When  it  saw  one 
of  these  animals,  it  was  seized  with  terror,  gave  utterance  to  piercing  screams,  and  would  some- 
times tumble  from  its  perch. 

3  See,  for  further  details,  Arm.  Goubaux,  De  l'emportement  chez  les  chevaux  et  des  moyens 
de  Ic  reprimer,  in  Moniteur  des  h6pitaux  du  31  Octobre,  1855,  and  Argus  des  haras  et  des  remontes, 
annee  1856,  pp.  441  et  496. 


880  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

wild  animal,  or  the  odor  emanating  from  it,  the  breaking  down  of  a 
carriage,  the  snapping  of  the  axle-tree,  the  shaft,  the  pole,  of  some 
part  of  the  harness,  as  the  girth,  the  crupper,  the  trace,  the  lines,  the 
accidental  unfastening  of  the  collar,  etc.,  any  sudden  pain,  a  wound, 
brutal  traction  upon  the  bit,  a  violent  cut  of  the  whip,  immoderate 
use  of  the  spurs,  sometimes  the  simple  inconvenience  occasioned  by  a 
disarranged  harness,  etc., — any  of  these  circumstances,  or  many  other 
analogous  ones,  may  cause  a  horse  to  run  away. 

Often  it  results  from  a  vicious  disposition,  a  bad  education  of  the 
horse,  which,  at  the  slightest  provocation,  becomes  irritable,  defends 
himself,  and  runs  away. 

Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  the  act  implies  neither  fear,  pain,  nor 
annoyance,  and  occurs  in  animals  which  display  in  other  respects 
extreme  gentleness.  High  spirits,  the  desire  to  run,  the  need  of  exer- 
cise, a  whim,  or  some  internal  impulse  as  yet  not  satisfactorily  explained, 
leads  them  on,  intoxicates  them  little  by  little,  and  the  next  moment 
they  "  lose  their  head ;"  they  fall  a  prey  to  the  mad  impulse  and  are 
deaf  to  all  restraint.  Some  people  are  imprudent  enough  to  unbridle 
their  horses  entirely,  in  order  to  give  them  a  drink  or  to  feed  them, 
along  the  roadside  or  on  the  street,  without  keeping  a  watchful  eye  over 
them.  In  such  cases  accidents  are  not  rare.  Accustomed  to  work 
with  a  bridle  and  with  blinds,  and  thus  to  see  only  what  is  in  front  of 
them,  these  animals  become  frightened  at  the  sight  of  objects  in  motion 
alongside  of  them,  and  will  at  once  start  to  run  away.  For  this  reason 
the  use  of  blinds  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  and  especially 
should  the  bridle  never  be  taken  off  upon  the  public  road,  unless 
extreme  watchfulness  is  exercised  upon  the  vehicles,  or  the  brake 
applied  to  the  wheels,  and  the  horse's  head  tied  to  a  weight  or  to  some 
fixed  body  close  by. 

Again,  there  are  some  persons  who  will  not  allow  any  other  car- 
riage to  pass  them  on  the  road,  and  on  that  account  urge  and  excite 
their  horses  in  every  possible  way.  The  latter  at  first  quicken  their 
gait,  become  excited  by  degrees,  redouble  their  speed,  and  often  end  by 
running  away.  In  time  the  spirit  of  emulation  becomes  a  part  of  the 
horse's  disposition  and  develops  into  a  veritable  mania.  He  will  no 
longer  allow  another  horse  to  pass  him  on  the  road,  and  manifests  this 
determination,  if  needs  be,  by  indocility. 

The  animal  which  runs  away  usually  breaks  suddenly  into  a  gallop 
and  rushes  forward  headlong  with  all  the  speed  of  which  he  is  capable. 
Sometimes  the  increase  of  speed  is  gradual ;  little  by  little  the  animal 
becomes  unmanageable,  and  in  a  short  time  he  is  beyond  the  control  of 


VICES  •  PROPERLY   SO    CALLED.  881 

his  master.  Once  started,  he  no  longer  knows  what  he  is  doing,  no 
longer  sees,  hears,  or  smells ;  he  runs  away,  and  this  seems  to  be  the 
only  thing  he  has  the  desire  or  the  ability  to  do.  Nothing  calms  him  ; 
deaf  to  threats,  insensible  to  blows  and  tractions  on  the  bit,  he  no 
longer  realizes  danger.  The  efforts  made  to  stop  him,  the  obstructions 
in  his  way,  the  cries  of  alarm  which  are  raised  along  his  route,  serve 
but  to  increase  his  fright.  He  stops  only  when  utterly  worn  out  in 
strength  and  wind,  or  when  his  career  is  checked  by  collision  with  a 
house,  a  wall,  or  a  vehicle. 

During  this  senseless  run  the  horse  holds  his  head  in  a  character- 
istic manner  :  he  carries  it  either  extended  or  arched.  In  either  case  he 
takes  a  strong  point  of  support  on  the  bit  by  the  assistance  of  the  bars, 
except  when  he  is  unharnessed  or  left  to  himself.  It  is  this  that  has 
led  the  layman  to  suppose  that  the  runaway  horse  has  the  bit  between 
his  teeth.  We  know,  however,  that  this  is  not  the  case.  The  bar  of 
the  bit  can,  at  most,  scarcely  touch  the  first  molars.  This  indeed 
would  be  sufficient  to  explain  the  twisting  of  the  branches  of  the  bit 
and  the  rupture  of  the  bearing-rein,  which  sometimes  result  from  the 
violent  tractions  made  to  restrain  the  animal,  to  avoid  danger  or  pull 
him  back. 

Many  means  have  been  devised  to  prevent  runaway  accidents  or  to 
control  runaway  horses.  When  a  horse  is  running  away  on  a  level, 
unobstructed  road,  all  that  can  usually  be  done  is  to  let  things  take  their 
course ;  the  dangers  are  not  great ;  the  horse  will  stop  of  his  own  ac- 
cord when  he  becomes  too  tired  to  run  farther.  If  the  driver  feels  him 
start  suddenly  away,  pulling  every  instant  more  and  more,  especially 
if  this  is  habitual  with  him,  it  becomes  necessary  at  once  to  saw  the 
bit  (that  is,  pull  alternately  upon  each  line)  and  try  to  turn  the  horse's 
head  strongly  around  to  the  .left  or  to  the  right,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
slacken  his  gait,  hamper  his  movements,  and  produce  a  sharp  pain 
upon  the  bars ;  when  practicable,  it  would  be  well  to  turn  him  into 
ploughed  ground.  But  if  the  horse  has  become  entirely  unman- 
ageable, there  is  nothing  left  for  the  driver  to  do  but  to  use  every  effort 
to  keep  his  seat,  and  await  the  result.  To  leap  from  the  wagon  would 
be,  at  least,  equally  dangerous.  No  doubt  there  are  mechanical  arrange- 
ments which  act  in  various  ways  upon  the  mouth  and  the  eyes,  and  by 
the  aid  of  which  it  is  possible  to  prevent  a  horse  from  running  away 
altogether.  Unfortunately,  they  are  not  always  at  hand  at  the  required 
moment.  They  ought  to  be  permanently  employed  on  horses  difficult 
to  manage ;  but,  then,  what  constant  attention,  what  expenses,  what 
annoyance  they  entail  !  Besides,  however  ingenious  they  may  be,  they 

56 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

are  not  applicable  to  animals  left  unbridled  upon  the  public  road. 
There  is  only  one  way  to  manage  these  that  we  know  of:  that  is,  to 
grasp  their  heads  firmly  and  seize  them  by  the  nostrils.  On  the  whole, 
the  wisest  thing  to  do  with  reference  to  a  horse  addicted  to  running 
away  is  to  get  rid  of  him  as  soon  as  possible  ;  the  pecuniary  loss  that 
may  result  Is  not  to  be  thought  of  for  an  instant,  in  view  of  the  irrep- 
arable accidents  which  might  be  the  consequence  of  retaining  him  in 
one's  service. 

§  2.   GENERAL  CAUSES  OF  VICES  (WHETHER  ASCERTAINED,  PROB- 
ABLE, OR  SURMISED). 

The  causes  of  vices  are  as  yet  but  little  understood,  on  account  of 
their  extreme  complexity.  Their  influence  is  either  temporary  or  per- 
manent; this,  in  our  opinion,  explains  the  relative  curability  of  the 
untoward  manifestations  to  which  they  give  rise. 

Most  authors  who  have  made  a  study  of  this  question  concur  in  the 
opinion  that  heredity  is  one  of  these  causes. 

"  Every  horse,"  says  De  Lafont-Pouloti,1  "  which  is  indolent,  indo- 
cile, timid,  bad-mouthed,  balky,  stubborn,  cowardly,  skittish,  or  spite- 
ful to  man,  is  to  be  rejected,  however  perfect  he  may  be  otherwise ;  his 
get  will  have  the  same  disposition." 

Hartmann  thinks  likewise  that  the  oifspring  may  inherit  the  good 
qualities  as  well  as  the  bad  ones.2 

Brugnone  would  exclude  from  reproduction  all  horses  which  are 
skittish,  too  ardent,  ill-natured,  indocile,  kickers,  or  biters ;  also  the 
lazy,  the  irascible,  and  the  cowardly.3 

Demoussy4  asserts  that  physical  resemblance  is  not  the  only  simi- 
larity transmitted  to  the  descendants,  but  that  the  latter  inherit  also  the 
moral  qualities  of  their  ancestors.  For  example,  the  shy  horse  would 
usually  beget  timid  colts.  The  great-grandchildren  of  Cardinal  and  of 
Jaumont,  and  quite  a  number  of  the  progeny  of  Curde  would  (accord- 
ing to  him)  be  distinguished  from  their  contemporaries  by  their 
excessive  irritability  and  their  irascible  disposition. 

Professor  Grognier5  speaks  of  moral  qualities  which,  transmitted 
through  many  generations,  have  ultimately  become  race-types,  such  are 


1  De  Lafont-Pouloti,  Nouveaux  regimes  pour  les  haras,  p.  23,  Turin,  1787. 

2  Hartmann,  Trait6  des  haras,  translated  from  the  German,  2e  6d.,  p.  74,  Paris,  1788. 

8  Brugnone,  Traite  des  haras,  translated  from  the  Italian  by  Barantin  de  Montchal,  p.  53, 
Paris,  1807. 

4  Achille  Demoussy,  Traite  complet  des  haras,  p.  60,  Tulle,  1833. 

5  L.  F.  Grognier,  Cours  de  multiplication  et  de  perfectionnement  des  differents  animaux 
domestiques,  p.  239,  3e  6d.,  revised  by  Magne,  Paris,  1841. 


VICES    PROPERLY   SO    CALLED.  883 

the  gentleness  and  docility  of  the  coach-horse  of  the  Cotentin  and  the 
indocility  of  the  camargue  horse.  "  It  is  a  rare  thing/7  he  adds,  "  to 
see  balky  and  ill-tempered  colts  begotten  by  gentle  and  docile  stallions, 
whilst  every  day  we  see  young  horses  disposed  to  kick  and  bite  whose 
sires  and  dams  were  aifected  with  the  same  vices.  A  stallion  stationed 
at  Alfort  was  very  ill-tempered,  and  this  ill  temper  was  transmitted  to 
the  majority  of  his  get.  In  England  there  are  examples  of  families 
of  horses,  very  superior  otherwise,  but  vicious  from  sire  to  son,  and 
dangerous  to  the  lives  of  those  whose  lot  it  was  to  mount  them  and 
<3are  for  them." 

De  Curnieu1  recommends  the  use  of  the  half-thoroughbred  mare 
for  breeding  "  only  when  she  has  done  good  service  and  has  a  good 
temperament.  If  she  kicks,  bites,  or  is  difficult  to  harness,  to  shoe,  or 
to  groom,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  colt  will  be  like 
her,  through  heredity,  education,  bad  example.  ...  If  you  \vish  to 
produce  a  horse  for  your  own  use,"  he  continues,  "  reject  a  vicious 
broodmare,  and  try  to  obtain  some  reliable  information  concerning  the 
stallion,  but  do  not  let  yourself  be  duped,  especially  if  it  be  a  question 
of  a  thoroughbred  horse  ;  for  the  slightest  indication  of  irritability  in  an 
ordinary  mare,  a  shadow  of  an  inclination  to  kick,  laying  down  of  the 
ears,  all  this  becomes  a  downright  vice  when  it  is  increased  from  the 
father's  blood,  especially  if  he  has  defects  of  the  same  nature.  No 
mare  should  be  used  as  a  broodmare  unless  she  is  perfectly  known." 

All  these  statements  are  of  great  importance  in  guiding  the  breeder 
in  the  choice  of  the  stallion  and  the  mare.  All  vicious  stallions  of 
studs  should  be  banished  from  the  breeding  farm. 

Excessive  impressionability  and  innate  irritability  also 
often  give  rise  to  serious  vices,  because  they  occasion  violent  reactions 
in  the  presence  of  the  simplest  methods  of  leading,  driving,  or  restrain- 
ing the  animal,  and  will  soon  provoke  indocility,  anger,  aggressiveness, 
and  a  spirit  of  revenge. 

Bad  education,  resulting  from  a  bad  example  set  by  the 
mother  and,  especially,  by  the  attendants,  has  an  undeniable  influence. 
How  many  horses  are  known  to  be  kickers,  biters,  rearers,  runaways, 
irascible,  or  timid,  which  have  learned  these  vices  from  their  mothers  or 
have  contracted  them  by  degrees  through  the  provocations  and  continual 
teasing  of  man  himself! 

Interference  with  already  acquired  habits  sometimes  ren- 
ders the  horse  ill-tempered.  Some  horses,  for  example,  will  not  toler- 

1  De  Curnieu,  Lemons  de  science  hippique  generate,  3e  partie,  p.  313,  Paris,  1855. 


884  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

ate  the  rider's  mounting  on  the  right  side  or  leading  them  from  this 
side  ;  others,  worked  in  a  team,  will  work  only  when  they  are  placed 
on  the  right  side  or  on  the  left  side ;  still  others  will  work  only  in 
the  shafts  or  in  file  ;  some  saddle-horses  will  not  work  in  harness, 
and  vice  versa;  some  become  indocile  when  the  rider  or  driver  is 
changed,  etc. 

But  there  is  no  cause  more  important  or  more  common  than  bad 
treatment.  It  rebukes  the  horse,  frightens  him,  and  disposes  him  to 
resist  and  to  attack.  Carters,  coachmen,  grooms,  blacksmiths,  riders, 
and  brutal  masters  are  in  most  instances  primarily  culpable  and  respon- 
sible for  the  vices  which  follow  bad  treatment, 

Pain,  resulting  from  wounds  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  from  a 
defective  fitting  and  application  of  the  harness,  or  from  the  use  of 
brushes  and  curry-combs  whose  stiffness  is  out  of  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  sensibility  of  the  skin,  etc.,  produces  the  same  effects  upon 
the  disposition,  and  often  renders  the  animal  intractable.  Thus,  the 
wounds  in  the  region  of  the  loins  occasioned  by  the  saddle  are  usually 
so  painful  that  the  animal  cannot  be  used,  and  kicks,  rears,  defends 
himself,  and  absolutely  refuses  to  allow  his  rider  to  mount  him. 

During  warm  seasons  the  horse  is  more  frequently  vicious  than 
during  cold  weather.  The  heat  enervates  him,  the  cutaneous  secretions, 
being  more  abundant,  irritate  his  skin,  and  the  insects  especially  con- 
stantly annoy  him.  Certain  insects  belonging  to  the  diptera,  as  the  gad- 
fly and  spider-fly,  for  example,  torment  him,  stinging  him  sometimes  in 
the  most  sensitive  regions ;  he  is  very  apt  to  become  indocile,  irritable, 
and  -even  unmanageable  when  he  is  not  accustomed  to  these  annoyances. 

The  influence  of  diverse  physiological  states  should  also  be 
mentioned.  Some  are  connected  with  the  function  of  reproduction  ; 
such  are  the  sexual  desires  and  maternity.  Others  depend  upon  a 
defective  conformation  of  the  eyeballs. 

In  the  entire  horse  the  sexual  desires  manifest  themselves  especially 
in  the  spring  and  during  the  heated  term  of  summer.  At  these  two 
periods  of  the  year  horses  which  at  other  times  are  gentle  and  docile 
suddenly  become  excitable  and  stubborn.  They  have  frequent  erections, 
neigh,  plunge  upon  their  grooms,  and  furiously  kick  and  bite  neighbor- 
ing horses.  Castration  is  often  the  only  means  of  remedying  this 
condition,  which,  in  certain  cases,  may  have  very  serious  consequences. 

Demoussy l  says  that  "  the  mare  also  shows,  by  unequivocal  signs, 
the  want  of  satisfying  the  desires  of  nature.  The  sexual  organs 

1  Demoussy,  loc.  cit.,  p.  64,  et  suiv. 


VICES    PROPERLY   SO    CALLED.  885 

become  tumefied  ;  the  vaginal  membrane  is  congested  ;  there  is  a  copi- 
ous discharge  of  a  mucous,  tenacious,  whitish  fluid  from  the  vulva  ;  the 
animal  frequently  stretches  out  to  urinate;  the  temperature  of  the 
perineal  region  is  raised,  the  neighing  becomes  more  frequent  than 
usual,  the  eyes  are  more  expressive,  the  physiognomy  more  animated. 
When  she  is  in  the  stable,  she  is  more  restless ;  she  trembles  _at  the 
slightest  noise,  and  her  uneasiness  ceases  when  she  is  taken  out.  The 
saddle-mare,  when  she  is  mounted,  no  longer  responds  to  the  spurs. 
Far  from  considering  their  effect  a  punishment,  as  in  other  seasons  of 
the  year,  their  pressure  upon  the  flanks  no  longer  quickens  her  step  ; 
she  stops,  on  the  contrary,  and  stretches  out,  separating  the  abdominal 
members.  Sometimes  she  resents  the  correction  inflicted  upon  her ; 
she  kicks,  and  in  the  act  of  raising  her  hind-quarters  discharges 
several  jets  of  urine.  If  she  is  then  vigorously  spurred,  she  defends 
herself  to  the  utmost.  .  .  .  However,  the  most  irascible  disposition 
and  the  greatest  ill  temper  yield  sometimes  to  the  powerful  influence 
which  dominates  them.  I  have  seen  the  most  savage  mares  allow 
themselves  to  be  led  with  the  greatest  docility  at  the  time  of  rutting, 
because  they  were  in  hopes  of  being  taken  to  the  stallion,  but  such  an 
occurrence  is  very  rare." 

After  parturition,  many  mares  which  until  then  had  been  very 
gentle,  suddenly  become  aggressive  and  vicious.  Always  watchful  that 
nobody  should  touch  their  foal,  they  then  display  extreme  irritability 
and  must  be  approached  with  great  caution. 

An  abnormal  conformation  of  the  eye,  considered  as  a  dioptric 
apparatus,  results  especially  from  an  aberration  in  its  spherical  shape 
or  in  the  curvature  of  the  cornea.  From  this  there  results,  as  we 
have  already  shown  on  page  71,  a  defective  vision  which  gives  rise  to 
presbyopia  and  myopia.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that 
myopic  animals  are  more  timid  and  more  liable  to  shy  than  others,  and, 
on  this  very  account,  dangerous  to  those  who  have  charge  of  them  or 
who  employ  them. 

Insanity  has  been  admitted  by  J.-B.  Rodet1  and  Pierquin2  to  be 
a  possible  cause  of  ill  temper.  And,  truth  to  say,  we  are,  in  spite  of 
ourselves,  apt  to  find,  in  several  vicious  manifestations  in  the  horse, 
something  analogous  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the  fits  of  unreasoning 
passion  observed  in  man.  How  can  we  explain,  for  example,  the  sin- 
gular condition  of  horses  which  kick  at  night  when  in  the  stable  with- 


1  J.-B.  Rodet,  Inc.  cit.,  p.  254. 

2  Pierquin,  De  la  folie  chez  les  animaux. 


886  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

out  any  appreciable  motive  ?  How  can  we  account  for  those  sudden 
attacks  of  terror  which  are  witnessed  in  some  horses  in  the  midst  of 
the  greatest  external  quietude,  and  which  so  closely  resemble  halluci- 
nations ?  To  what  are  we  to  attribute  the  caprices,  the  stubbornness, 
of  the  balky  horse,  and  the  occasional  fury  of  the  dumminess?  What 
significance  are  we  to  attach  to  the  last  period  of  excitement  of  the 
runaway  horse  ?  What  are  we  to  think  of  the  feeling  of  aversion  or 
anger  displayed  towards  the  colors  white  and  red,  or  towards  certain 
species  of  inoffensive  animals  ?  Why,  in  a  word,  may  not  the  horse, 
which  also  has  intelligence,  be  liable  to  perversions  of  judgment,  dis- 
turbances of  intellectual  sensibility,  or  other  moral  perturbations,  re- 
sembling human  mania,  dementia,  delirium,  and  insanity  ?  In  domestic 
animals,  says  Littre  and  Robin,1  cases  of  idiocy  and  imbecility,  either 
congenital  or  consequent  upon  diseases  of  the  brain  or  its  meninges, 
have  been  observed.  To  say  nothing  of  ordinary  delirium,  horses  labor- 
ing under  hallucinations  and  others  which  had  lost  the  consciousness 
of  their  bodily  wants  have  been  met  with.  Aside  from  cases  of  acute 
disease,  there  are  well-attested  instances  in  which  the  mental  states  of 
dogs  were  similar  to  those  of  insane  persons.  There  are  hallucinations 
during  the  whole  of  the  hydrophobic  stage. 

We  take  this  opportunity  to  raise  the  interesting  question  of  in- 
tellectual aberrations  in  the  horse,  and  propose  it  to  our  colleagues  as 
a  subject  of  study  which  up  to  this  time  has  been  almost  unexplored, 
although  very  worthy  of  being  investigated.  It  would  be  instructive 
to  determine  by  the  autopsies  of  balky,  runaway,  and  other  vicious 
horses  whether  there  exist  any  alteration  of  the  brain  and  its  envelopes, 
in  relation  to  weight,  form,  volume,  blood-vessel  supply,  intimate  struct- 
ure, etc.  Perhaps  we  should  find  lesions  like  those  which  have  been 
met  with  in  the  human  species,  and  also  in  cases  of  immobility. 


CHAPTER    III. 

CHOICE   OF   THE   HORSE. 


BEFORE  proceeding  to  the  choice  of  the  horse,  the  reader  should  be 
acquainted  with  certain  facts  which  concern  the  seller  and  the  pur- 
chaser, in  order  that  he  may  have  a  correct  idea  of  the  difficulties 


1  Littr6  et  Robin,  Dictionnaire  de  m£decine,  etc.,  p.  629, 14e  ed.,  Paris,  1878. 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  887 

which  the  latter  will  experience  in  his  transactions  with  the  former.  It 
is  not  sufficient  to  go  to  the  dealer  and  ask  him  to  show  what  he  has  to 
sell :  in  order  to  buy  as  a  skilful  connoisseur  it  is  necessary  to  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  habits  and  business  ways  of  a  trader  whose  every 
interest  is  to  deceive  and  swindle  the  buyer ;  besides,  it  is  important  to 
know  what  precautions  are  needed  in  dealing  with  him.  These  ideas 
will  form  the  subject  of  the  two  following  sub-chapters. 

§  1.  THE  SELLER. 

The  seller,  as  is  known,  is  a  breeder  or  a  horse-dealer ;  more  rarely 
he  is  a  private  gentleman.  But  we  will  lay  no  stress  upon  these  distinc- 
tions, since  any  man  who  sells  horses,  whatever  his  social  status,  tries  to 
present  them  in  the  best  possible  conditions,  in  order  to  reap  the  greatest 
profit  from  the  sale.  Trickery,  fraud,  and  deception  seem  in  this  con- 
nection to  be  inherent  in  the  very  nature  of  things.  The  diiference 
between  one  seller  and  another  will  be  merely  a  diiference  in  degree. 
Even  the  most  scrupulous  will  acknowledge  only  certain  defects  in  their 
horses;  the  discovery  of  the  others  they  will  leave  to  the  sagacity  of 
the  purchaser.  As  to  those  who  are  less  honest,  they  conceal  every- 
thing except  the  qualities  which  they  exaggerate  and  even  improvise 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case.  To  declaim  against  these 
tendencies  would  be  a  waste  of  time.  The  best  thing  to  do  is  to  guard 
against  being  deceived  by  making  one's  self  acquainted  with  the  tricks 
resorted  to  by  horse-dealers.  These  consist  in  the  employment  of  a 
special  diet  and  of  certain  attentions  and  certain  hygienic  conditions  in 
the  dressing,  in  a  special  toilet,  in  clipping,  and  in  appropriate  shoeing. 

a.  By  diet,  the  horse-dealer  can  easily  manage  to  increase  or  dimin- 
ish the  size  of  the  abdomen  and  render  the  development  of  this  region 
proportional  to  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  body.     Thus,  by  giving 
watery  food,  such  as  hay,  grass,  etc.,  he  can  modify  the  shape  of  the 
so-called  narrow-gutted  horse  ;  by  substituting  for  the  ration  of  hay  a 
larger  quantity  of  oats,  he  will  cause  the  cow-belly  to  disappear,  and  at 
the  same  time  will  render  the  coat  less  coarse  and  more  glossy. 

b.  By  regulating  the  light  in  the  stable  and  slightly  increasing  the 
temperature,  the  coat  will  be  made  to  assume  brighter  shades  and 
to  reflect  a  more  brilliant  lustre. 

c.  By  covering  the  body  with  blankets,  and  keeping  a  hood  upon 
the  head,  neck,  shoulders,  and  breast,  the  coat  is  rendered  cleaner,  more 
glossy,  more  supple,  and  more  smooth.     But  it  is  especially  by  the  aid 
of  good  grooming,  frequently  repeated,  that  the  coat  is  beautified. 
By  means  of  the  curry-comb,  a  wisp  of  straw,  a  brush,  and  a  sponge, 


888  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

all  the  excretory  products  which  accumulate  on  the  skin  are  removed, 
and  the  hairs  are  cleansed  of  all  foreign  bodies  that  may  adhere  to 
them. 

d.  Again,  training,  or  dressing,  constitutes  an  important  means 
of  preparation  for  the  sale.  By  gentleness,  caresses,  and  appetizing 
delicacies  the  dealer  by  degrees  teaches  the  horse  to  allow  himself  to  be 
approached,  to  be  harnessed,  to  have  his  members  touched  and  his  feet 
raised ;  thus,  also,  his  disposition  is  rendered  more  docile,  he  becomes 
accustomed  to  his  master's  voice  and  person.  The  dealer  leaves  no 
means  untried  :  patience,  kind  treatment,  intimidation,  rebukes,  brutal 
blows,  and  narcotics,  successively  employed  to  tame  him,  if  he  be  ill- 
tempered,  irascible,  or  vicious,  and  to  dominate  him  by  the  mere  fact 
of  his  trainer's  presence. 

When  the  training  is  completed,  the  most  intractable  animal  has, 
usually,  become  docile  and  obedient,  is  easily  harnessed,  saddled,  bri- 
dled, and  mounted ;  he  no  longer  manifests  fear  of  noises,  people,  and 
things,  simply  because  of  the  fear  which  the  sight  of  his  master  awakens 
in  him.  When  he  passes  into  other  hands,  however,  often  everything 
changes  its  aspect :  the  defects  reappear,  and  are  the  more  readily 
attributed  to  the  unskilfulness  of  the  purchaser,  as  the  latter  had  not, 
by  his  own  showing,  suspected  them  at  the  time  of  the  sale.  Fortu- 
nately, these  dishonest  tricks  are  not  resorted  to  by  dealers  who  have 
any  regard  for  reputation.  The  good  effects  of  the  training  which 
they  give  to  their  horses  are  permanent,  and  many  dealers  will  take 
back,  without  objection,  animals  which  do  not  suit  their  customers.  In 
such  cases,  however,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  if  the  seller  con- 
sents to  take  back  the  animal,  it  is  upon  the  well-understood  condition 
that  the  purchaser  shall  not  go  to  his  neighbors  for  one  that  suits  him 
better.  The  exchange  which  is  offered  to  him  always  deprives  him  of 
much  of  the  self-confidence  which  he  felt  before  he  made  his  first  mis- 
take, and  it  is  then  that  he  should  be  especially  cautious  in  his  selec- 
tion, so  that  the  second  transaction  be  not  unsatisfactory,  for  he  is  at 
the  mercy  of  the  man  with  whom  he  deals. 

It  is  by  training  that  the  pleasure-horse  acquires  the  swan-like  curve 
of  the  neck  which  is  so  much  admired  in  such  animals.  An  instrument 
of  torture,  called  the  cavalier  de  bois,  is  employed  for  this  purpose.  It 
consists  of  two  bars  of  wood  crossed  thus,  X,  consequently  diverging 
above  and  below  from  their  point  of  intersection,  and  held  in  place 
upon  the  back  by  means  of  an  ordinary  surcingle.  It  is  so  arranged 
that,  when  the  animal  is  bridled,  the  reins  can  be  attached  to  a  buckle, 
by  means  of  which  they  can  be  shortened  at  will.  Nothing  is  then 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  889 

easier  than  to  force  the  neck  to  maintain  the  desired  degree  of  flexion. 
The  first  applications  last  from  five  to  ten  minutes ;  they  would  seem 
to  be  painful,  from  the  evident  fatigue  which  they  occasion.  As 
the  lessons  increase  in  length,  they  give  less  fatigue  to  the  animal, 
which  soon  becomes  so  accustomed  to  them  that  every  feeling  of  un- 
easiness disappears  ;  he  is  walked  and  trotted  as  before  the  habit  is 
acquired  ;  the  neck  and  head  will  hereafter  be  carried  in  the  desired 
position. 

With  the  pleasure-horse,  training  does  not  stop  here.  It  is  always 
supplemented  by  daily  drives,  in  which  he  is  driven  on  the  near  side 
of  a  horse  already  thus  trained,  if  he  is  intended  for  a  double  team. 
During  these  drives  he  is  accustomed  to  walk,  trot,  turn,  back,  step 
forward,  and  stop,  so  that  he  can  easily  execute  these  manreuvres  in  the 
hands  of  the  dealer  and  under  the  eyes  of  the  purchaser  at  the  time 
of  the  sale. 

e.  The  toilet  is  a  device  the  object  of  which  is  to  give  a  horse 
a  fine  and  distingue  look.  It  is  practised  only  upon  light-draught 
and  heavy-draught  horses,  and  upon  those  of  good  breeding,  some  of 
whose  parts  are  somewhat  too  coarse.  It  consists  in  removing  or 
shortening,  by  various  means,  the  hairs  scattered  over  the  face,  around 
the  mouth,  the  nostrils,  the  eyelids,  along  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  the  inter- 
maxillary space ;  in  diminishing  the  thickness  and  length  of  the  fore- 
lock, the  mane,  the  tail,  the  thickness  of  the  canon,  the  fetlocks,  the 
pasterns,  and  the  coronets ;  finally,  in  cutting  the  hairs  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  ears. 

The  toilet  is  said  to  be  complete  when  it  is  practised  upon  all  the 
parts  ;  it  is  incomplete  or  partial  when  one  or  several  of  them  are  thus 
treated.  In  the  latter  case  the  operation  is  designated  by  a  special 
term. 

The  hairs  scattered  over  the  head  in  the  places  of  which  we  have 
just  spoken  are  removed  by  being  cut  with  the  scissors,  extracted,  or 
singed.  Extraction  is  done  with  the  hand,  as  in  plucking  a  fowl,  and 
is  a  somewhat  painful  procedure,  the  pain  even  continuing  for  some  days 
after  the  operation.  Singeing,  when  it  is  well  done,  is  greatly  prefer- 
able. It  is  done  with  a  candle,  a  small  bundle  of  lighted  straw,  or  an 
alcohol  lamp.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  burn  the  sur- 
rounding hairs  or  the  skin.  As  the  singeing  proceeds,  the  dog-grass 
brush  is  passed  over  the  surface  of  the  skin  to  remove  the  carbonized 
parts  which  still  adhere  to  the  hairs.  The  removal  of  the  hairs  of  the 
ears,  a  somewhat  difficult  procedure,  is  practised  only  upon  common 
horses,  in  order  to  give  greater  neatness  and  make  their  heads  look 


890  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

lighter.  First  the  hairs  which  surround  the  external  orifice  of  the  ear, 
and  then  those  on  the  inner  face  of  the  auricular  cartilage,  are  cut 
with  the  scissors,  care  being  taken  to  leave  no  visible  traces  of  the 
cutting. 

We  have  seen  that  the  mane  and  the  forelock  are  plaited  in  order 
to  give  them  a  good  direction,  and  that  the  thickness  of  the  hairs  of 
the  former  is  diminished  by  means  of  a  comb  or  a  special  clutch,  which 
pulls  out  a  certain  number. 

As  to  the  arrangement  of  the  tail,  it  is  done  in  the  same  manner 
whenever  it  is  deemed  desirable  to  make  it  smaller.  Very  often,  how- 
ever, the  hairs  are  cut  transversely.  They  are  grasped  firmly  with  one 
hand  near  their  extremity,  and  with  the  other  are  cut  evenly  with  the 
scissors  or  a  knife,  either  at  the  level  of  the  point  of  the  hocks,  or 
higher  up  or  a  little  lower  down. 

Light-draught  horses  and  (in  France)  army  horses  are  the  only  ones 
in  which  the  hairs  of  the  members  are  cut ;  in  well-bred  horses  the 
hairs  of  the  members  are  usually  so  short  that  such  a  procedure  is  not 
necessary ;  in  the  heavy-draught  horse  they  are  arranged  in  a  particular 
way,  of  which  we  will  speak  farther  on. 

To  dress  the  hairs,  a  horn  comb,  or,  better  still,  a  comb  made  of 
brass,  and -a  pair  of  curved  scissors,  are  employed.  The  operator  pro- 
ceeds in  the  same  way  as  a  barber  in  cutting  a  person's  hair.  He  intro- 
duces the  comb  between  the  hairs  from  below  upward,  commencing  at 
the  coronet  and  passing  upward.  The  difficulty,  which  is  considerable, 
consists  in  thus  dressing  the  coronet,  the  pastern,  the  fetlock,  and  the 
canon  without  leaving  any  traces  of  the  cuts  of  the  scissors.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  wound  the  skin  with  the  teeth  of  the  comb, 
and  it  is  important  not  to  remove  the  hairs  around  the  coronary  band, 
nor  to  shorten  them  too  much  in  the  fold  of  the  pastern,  where  they 
protect  these  parts  against  the  irritating  action  of  dust  and  mud. 
Dealers  are  not  only  skilful  in  dressing  the  hairs  artistically  and 
shortening  them  to  a  suitable  degree,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
subjects,  but  they  also  excel  in  concealing,  by  cutting  them  obliquely, 
below  the  knee,  the  defect  which  results  from  a  feeble  development  of 
the  tendons.  A  practised  eye  will  readily  detect  this  fraud ;  it  can  only 
deceive  the  inattentive  or  the  inexperienced. 

In  certain  heavy-draught  horses  the  hairs  of  the  extremities  are  so 
abundant  and  of  such  length,  thickness,  and  coarseness,  that  it  is  often 
found  necessary  to  shorten  them  so  as  to  render  the  inferior  part  of 
the  animal's  members  less  heavy.  With  this  object  the  dealer  makes 
use  of  a  very  sharp  triangular  and  short  knife.  The  member  to  be 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  891 

dressed  being  raised,  the  blade  of  the  instrument  is  introduced  into  the 
mass  of  hairs  and  part  of  their  length  cut  away.  This  operation 
should  be  done  quickly,  and  its  good  execution  depends  much  upon 
the  amount  of  practice  possessed  by  the  person  who  performs  it.  It  is 
sometimes  done  with  the  members  resting  on  the  ground. 

/.  Clipping  consists  in  cutting  the  hairs  over  the  entire  surface  of 
the  body.  It  has  some  advantages  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  since 
by  diminishing  the  thickness  of  the  coat  it  lessens  the  perspiration  to 
which  the  slightest  exertion  gives  rise  during  the  winter,  in  work- 
horses, and  which  often  occasions  chills  leading  to  serious  reflux  of  the 
blood  into  the  respiratory  or  the  digestive  organs.  But  it  is  not  with 
any  intention  of  guarding  the  animals  against  diseases  that  the  dealer 
clips  his  horses.  Rather  it  is  to  give  them  an  appearance  of  lightness 
and  fineness  and  to  conceal  a  coarse  conformation,  when  they  have  an 
unattractive  look,  a  lymphatic  temperament,  and  a  clumsy  and  common- 
looking  form.  The  instrument  used  everywhere  at  present  for  clipping 
horses  is  the  clipper,  or  clipping-machine.  "  It  is  generally  composed 
of  two  comb-like  metallic  plates  which  move  one  upon  the  other.  The 
lower  plate,  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  skin,  is  a  kind  of  comb, 
whose  short  teeth  insert  themselves  between  the  hairs  and  thus  straighten 
them  up.  The  upper  plate,  set  in  motion  by  means  of  a  handle  which 
acts  as  a  lever-arm,  glides  upon  the  lower  plate  in  such  a  manner  that 
its  sharp  teeth  move  from  side  to  side  in  relation  with  the  fixed  lower 
teeth  and  cuts  the  straightened  hairs  close  to  the  skin.  As  soon  as  one 
becomes  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  clipper,  the  operation  is  performed 
without  any  difficulty." l 

g.  Shoeing,  recently  and  properly  done,  has  a  certain  value  as  a 
means  of  adornment.  It  improves  the  appearance  of  the  feet,  rectifies 
their  equilibrium,  lessens  their  size,  and  corrects  several  of  their  defects. 
It  also  often  serves  as  a  pretext  for  various  manoeuvres  which  bespeak 
anything  but  honesty  on  the  part  of  the  seller.  Is  it  not  well  known 
that  it  is  possible  by  shoeing,  if  not  to  prevent  overreaching,  at  least  to 
cause  the  noise  resulting  from  the  habit  to  disappear  ?  Is  it  not  well 
known,  also,  that  the  defect  of  interfering  may  be  thus  concealed ;  that 
by  diverse  means,  such  as  the  application  of  gutta-percha,  a  corn,  toe- 
cracks,  and  quarter-cracks  can  be  hidden ;  that  with  the  rasp,  a  hoof 
which  has  been  deformed  by  a  chronic  laminitis  can  be  restored  to  its 
normal  appearance,  etc.?  These  are  frauds  of  which  the  purchaser 


i  Magne  et  Baillet,  Trait6  d'agriculture  pratique  et  d'hygtene  veterinaire  g<§n6rale,  4e  <§d.,  t 
iii.  p.  587,  Paris,  1883. 


892  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

should  be  aware,  for  the  unscrupulous  dealer  will  not  hesitate  to  resort 
to  them  whenever  he  thinks  it  to  his  interest  to  do  so. 

h.  When  the  horse  is  ready  to  be  sold,  he  is  either  placed  in  a 
special  stable  or  is  taken  to  a  public  market.  Here  the  seller  will 
spare  no  device  of  ornamentation  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  visitor. 
All  his  animals  are  covered  with  similar  blankets,  more  or  less  rich- 
looking,  with  wide  colored  borders,  and  each  bearing  his  monogram. 
Every  animal  is  provided  with  a  variegated  girth,  as  well  as  a  leather 
halter,  white,  yellow,  red,  green,  or  blue,  its  shade  contrasting  strongly 
with  that  of  the  coat.  Ribbons  of  glaring  colors  are  sometimes  attached 
to  the  halter  or  the  bridle,  the  forelock,  the  mane,  and  the  base  of  the 
tail.  Bands  of  linen  regularly  rolled  around  the  canons  and  the  fet- 
locks, knee-caps,  and  ear-caps  of  linen  or  netting  are  also  seen.  It  is 
customary,  in  the  market  or  on  the  exhibition  ground,  to  fasten  a  bunch 
of  straw  to  the  mane  and  one  to  the  base  of  the  tail  to  indicate  that  the 
horse  is  for  sale.  This  display  is  by  no  means  always  a  mere  advertise- 
ment. It  is  much  more  likely  to  be  a  blind  to  conceal  various  defects 
and  irregularities  of  conformation.  The  ear-caps  straighten  the  ears, 
the  blinds  of  the  bridle  conceal  the  eyes,  the  blankets  bring  the  shade 
of  the  coat  into  strong  relief,  hide  defects  of  conformation,  and 
diminish  the  apparent  length  of  the  body,  the  knee-caps  conceal  the 
knees,  the  bands  cover  splints,  windgalls,  etc.  On  several  occasions 
we  have  seen,  in  the  Paris  market,  intractable  or  vicious  horses  sub- 
dued and  rendered  docile  by  use  of  a  small  twitch  supported  behind 
one  of  the  branches  of  the  bit,  or  attached  to  the  side  of  the  bridle  or 
the  halter.  The  best  way  to  protect  one's  self  against  all  these  tricks 
is  to  examine  the  horse  with  the  blanket  and  all  other  appurtenances 
removed,  and  to  pay  no  attention  to  the  dealer's  talk. 

§  2.  THE  PURCHASER. 

The  purchaser  should,  above  all,  know  exactly  what  he  wishes  to 
buy, — that  is,  he  should  know  the  kind  of  service  the  horse  is  intended 
for,  the  animal's  gaits,  size,  conformation,  sex,  age,  and  coat,  and  the 
price  which  he  is  willing  to  pay  for  him.  It  is  also  important  that  he 
should  have  been  prepared  for  the  making  of  his  purchase,  either  by 
long  practice,  great  ability,  an  old  routine  or  by  study  aided  by  obser- 
vation, for  the  time  has  come  when  he  must  avail  himself  of  all  the 
special  knowledge  he  possesses.  • 

The  most  elementary  prudence  at  once  commands  him  to  purchase 
only  a  healthy  horse,  or,  at  least,  one  with  no  diseases,  either  acute  or 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  893 

chronic,  that  are  capable  either  of  endangering  his  life  or  of  impairing 
his  usefulness. 

Further,  he  should  endeavor  to  ascertain  in  this  connection  the 
following  points : 

1st.  Does  the  horse  answer  to  the  service  required  of  him  : 
By  his  conformation  (ensemble,  size,  general  symmetry). 
By  his  general  physiognomy  (breeding,  temperament,  race,  coat). 
By  his  action  (heaves,  roaring)  ? 

2d.  Is  he  fitted  for  it  both  by  training  and  by  disposition  ? 

3d.  Is  he  close  to  or  far  from  the  age  of  his  full  usefulness  ? 

4th.  Is  he  affected  with  diseases,  vices,  and  defects,  and,  if  so,  how 
far  do  they  interfere  with  his  usefulness  ? 

5th.  Finally,  is  the  price  asked  in  accordance  with  his  intrinsic 
value  ? 

If  the  purchaser  does  not  feel  himself  capable  of  judging  of  these 
points,  he  should  not  hesitate  to  call  in  the  aid  of  an  expert.  What- 
ever the  expense  of  consulting  a  professional  man,  it  is  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  loss  which  would  result  from  a  wrong  selection. 
Veterinarians  will  be  found  the  safest  guides  in  such  matters.  Their 
special  studies  and  their  knowledge  enable  them  more  especially  to  give 
the  best  advice  and  to  judge  of  the  qualities,  defects,  and  blemishes  of 
the  animal  presented  and  of  his  state  of  health  or  of  disease. 

We  must  not  forget  that  the  purchase  of  a  horse  is  a  difficult  and 
delicate  matter  ;  but  the  trouble  increases  still  more  when  one  is  pur- 
chasing for  others.  In  this  case,  it  is  important  to  be  well  informed 
as  to  the  tastes  and  requirements  of  the  person  for  whom  the  choice 
is  to  be  made,  and  also  as  to  the  limits  of  the  price  to  be  given.  A 
saddle-horse  is  desired,  for  example.  It  is  well  to  know  if  the  person 
who  employs  us  is  a  sportsman  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  or  if, 
on  the  contrary,  he  possesses  only  elementary  notions  of  horsemanship  ; 
because  the  animal  chosen  for  the  latter  should  not  have  the  energy, 
ardor,  breeding,  and  action  of  a  horse  selected  for  the  former.  The 
true  sportsman  would  find  no  pleasure  in  mounting  a  horse  which, 
though  well  formed,  was  sluggish,  lazy,  irresponsive  to  the  spurs,  heavy 
on  the  hand,  and  without  action,  whilst  another  individual  might 
appreciate  these  as  qualities  likely  to  add  to  his  safety  and  satisfy  his 
wishes.  The  same  thing  is  true  as  to  driving-horses  and  draught- 
horses.  The  particular  conditions  of  their  utility  should  be  con- 
stantly kept  in  view,  so  as  to  adapt  them  as  exactly  as  possible  to 
the  requirements  of  the  service  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  owner 
himself. 


£94  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

§3.  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  examination  of  the  horse  cannot  always  be  made  at  one's 
leisure,  although  enough  time  should  be  taken,  if  possible,  to  make 
the  examination  thorough.  This  depends  upon  the  place  where  the 
purchase  is  made.  As  a  rule,  purchases  are  made  at  the  horse-market 
or  at  the  horse-show,  and  very  often  at  the  dealer's  stable. 

We  will  say  a  few  words  upon  the  plan  to  be  followed  in  each  of 
these  circumstances. 

1st.  Examination  of  the  Horse  at  the  Horse-Market. — 
When  a  horse  which  seems  to  answer  the  requirements  has  been  found, 
he  should  be  brought  out  of  the  stall,  taken  away  from  the  other 
horses,  and,  if  .possible,  led  to  a  quiet  place,  where  he  can  be  easily 
observed.  It  will  then  be  seen  at  once  whether,  by  his  size,  weight, 
and  general  development  he  fulfils  the  required  purpose.  At  the  same 
time  it  will  be  well  to  determine  his  age  and  his  race.  Finally,  his 
price  should  be  asked.  If  these  first  conditions  are  not  favorable,  or 
if  the  price  is  too  high,  it  is  useless  to  proceed  further  with  the  exami- 
nation. Only  a  general  inspection  of  the  whole  animal  will  be  made, 
by  a  glance  of  the  eye  ;  either  he  pleases  or  he  displeases.  That  should 
suffice. 

When  the  impression  is  favorable,  a  more  minute  examination  of 
the  mouth,  eyes,  nostrils,  and  intermaxillary  space  is  indispensable,  and 
this  should  be  made  according  to  the  rules  we  have  indicated,  so  as  not 
to  omit  anything  that  is  important.  Then  the  horse  should  be  placed, 
and  a  careful  survey  made  of  him  both  in  general  and  in  details,  em- 
bracing his  equilibrium,  his  gaits,  etc.,  all  this  in  accordance  with  the 
instruction  which  we  shall  now  give. 

2d.  Examination  of  the  Horse  at  the  Dealer's.— At  the 
dealer's,  the  purchaser  can  take  his  time,  and  it  is  there  especially  that 
he  will  find  what  he  wishes  as  to  kind,  nature,  quality,  and  price; 
provided,  always,  that  the  dealer  is  one  whose  reputation  is  made  and 
whose  honesty  is  well  known.  The  animal  should  be  seen  in  the  stable, 
and  in  action  on  the  show-ground. 

a.  Examination  in  the  Stable. — Passing  through  the  stable, 
the  purchaser  will  examine  the  horses  with  attention,  and  as  soon  as  his 
choice  is  fixed  upon  one  of  them,  he  will  note  the  manner  in  which  the 
animal  is  tied  to  the  manger,  how  he  stands  in  the  stall,  the  way  in 
which  he  carries  his  head,  the  expression  of  his  countenance,  and  the 
movements  of  his  ears ;  this  is  the  time  also  for  him  to  observe  the 
conformation  of  the  hind-quarters,  the  hocks,  the  fetlocks,  etc. 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  895 

Then  he  will  order  the  horse  to  be  taken  out  of  his  stall.  At  once 
the  dealer  or  the  stable-man  will  take  off  the  blanket,  run  the  brush 
over  the  horse's  coat,  and  comb  his  mane  and  tail.  During  these 
preparations  the  traditional  piece  of  ginger  is  introduced  into  the  anus, 
as  has  been  seen.  Then  the  horse  is  turned  round  in  his  stall,  and  the 
strap  of  the  halter  is  placed  in  his  mouth,  or  a  bridle  is  put  on  his 
head,  according  to  circumstances.  The  purchaser  observes  the  way  in 
which  the  animal  has  turned,  if  he  has  backed  easily,  and  what  his 
general  attitude  was  while  being  groomed.  Before  taking  him  out  into 
the  yard,  an  examination  must  be  made  of  the  eyes,  the  nostrils,  the 
submaxillary  glands,  the  pulse,  the  age,  the  mouth,  and  the  poll,  the 
horse  being  in  the  door-way. 

b.  Examination  on  the  Show- Ground. — The  show-ground  is 
a  flat  patch  of  ground  situated  in  front  of  a  wall  painted  or  papered 
green  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  off  the  animal  to  the  best  advantage ; 
it  is  usually  situated  on  a  higher  level  than  the  surrounding  parts,  in 
order  to  give  more  prominence  to  the  height  of  the  horse.  The  horse 
having  been  led  there,  the  stable-man,  standing  in  front  of  him,  makes 
him  step  forward  or  backward  until  his  fore-feet  and  hind-feet  are 
respectively  on  a  line  with  each  other ;  after  which  the  head  is  kept  in 
a  fixed  position. 

The  dealer  should  be  told  not  to  place  the  animal  in  the  camped  or 
stretched-out  position,  so  that  his  equilibrium,  the  axis  of  the  members, 
may  be  appreciated  ;  then  the  animal  should  be  examined  as  a  whole 
and  in  detail  by  successive  inspections  in  profile,  on  both  sides,  in 
front,  behind,  and  obliquely  from  in  front  and  from  behind.  This 
survey  should  be  made  at  a  distance  of  four  or  five  steps,  while  walking 
around  the  animal  slowly,  stopping  for  an  instant  at  each  of  the  points 
which  we  have  just  enumerated. 

In  judging  of  the  whole,  of  the  ensemble,  we  should  take  into  account 
the  general  harmony  of  the  great  lines,  the  height,  the  length,  the  size, 
the  relative  development  of  the  upper  and  lower  parts, — that  is,  of  the 
body  and  the  members  ;  the  equilibrium,  the  expression  of  the  head, 
fineness,  temperament,  race,  and  breeding  should  all  be  studied 

In  judging  of  the  details,  one  should  begin  with  the  limbs  and  end 
with  the  trunk.  Comparing  the  horse  to  a  locomotive,  M.  Sanson 
says,  very  appositely,  that  the  former,  like  the  latter,  consists  of  a 
generator  of  force  and  a  mechanism  which  is  the  machine  properly 
so  called.  In  the  first  place,  then,  we  should  examine  the  organs  of 
locomotion  or  of  movement,  the  wheels,  the  cranks,  the  rods,  and  the 
pistons,  then  the  generator  of  steam,  the  boiler,  and  fireplace.  It  is 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

evident  tjiat,  however  perfect  this  generator  may  be,  however  great  the 
amount  of  steam  or  of  heat  that  it  produces,  if  the  organs  of  the  ma- 
chine consume  too  great  a  part  of  it,  or  are  liable  to  break  within  a 
short  time  under  its  impact,  the  locomotive  cannot  be  considered  fit  for 
service.  The  solidity  and  good  arrangement  of  these  motor  organs, 
then,  are  essential,  since  without  them  the  generator  of  force  cannot  be 
used,  for  the  expansive  power  of  steam  is  available  only  through  the 
medium  of  the  mechanism  which  it  moves. 

"  It  is  the  same  with  the  animal  machine,  in  which  the  motor 
organs  are  represented  by  the  members,  whilst  the  generator  of  force 
is  represented  by  the  trunk.  The  latter,  in  fact,  contains  all  the 
organs  for  the  nutrition  of  the  machine,  the  digestive  and  the  respira- 
tory apparatus  through  which  are  introduced  the  solid,  liquid,  and 
gaseous  articles  of  food  indispensable  to  the  display  of  organic  power 
and  the  manifestation  of  movement." l 

The  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  one  is  obliged  to  begin  the 
examination  with  the  hoof,  whose  good  integrity  and  conformation  are 
of  so  much  importance.  In  order  that  another  examination  may  not 
be  necessary,  one  should  make  sure  at  once,  by  raising  each  of  the  four 
feet,  that  the  animal  will  offer  no  resistance  to  this  manoeuvre,  and  by 
striking  upon  his  shoes,  that  he  will  allow  himself  to  be  shod  without 
difficulty.  The  upper  parts  of  the  members  should  then  undergo 
ocular  inspection,  either  by  comparing  the  analogous  parts  in  the  two 
anterior  and  the  two  posterior  members,  or  by  analyzing  them  as  com- 
pared with  those  which  are  above  or  below  them  in  the  line  of  the 
same  member.  In  the  first  case,  the  horse  is  divided  into  imaginary 
horizontal  sections  (feet,  pasterns,  fetlocks,  canons,  knees,  and  hocks ; 
forearms  and  legs ;  arms  and  thighs  ;  shoulder  and  croup),  as  recom- 
mended by  Captain  Rivet;2  in  the  second,  we  proceed  vertically  in 
such  a  way  as  to  recognize  the  harmony  of  adjacent  regions  (canon  and 
forearm ;  arm  and  forearm ;  shoulder  and  arm).  In  our  opinion,  the 
eye  of  the  examiner  should  take  in  the  animal  in  both  of  these  two 
ways,  for  each  will  give  valuable  information. 

The  body  is  to  be  examined  in  the  same  way  (neck,  shoulder, 
withers,  back,  croup,  chest,  abdomen,  and  flank).  While  inspecting 
the  flanks,  the  movements  of  which  are  of  great  importance,  the  geni- 
tal organs  should  be  examined,  the  loins  pinched,  and  the  tail  raised  to 
examine  the  anus. 


1  A.  Sanson,  Trait4  de  zootechnie,  t.  iii.  p.  179,  2e  6d.,  Paris,  1878. 
8  A.  Rivet,  Guide  pratique  de  1'acheteur  de  chevaux,  p.  108. 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  897 

As  to  the  head,  it  is  to  be  reserved  for  the  last,  because  the  eyes,  nos- 
trils, age,  mouth,  and  intermaxillary  space  should  be  particularly  exam- 
ined a  second  time  in  full  daylight.  While  the  head  is  being  inspected, 
the  larynx  should  be  compressed  with  the  intention  of  provoking  a 
cough.  The  healthy  condition  of  the  two  jugular  veins  should  also  be 
determined  at  this  time. 

The  examination  of  which  we  have  spoken  should  be  made  as  much 
as  possible  without  touching  the  horse.  The  purchaser  should  have 
sufficient  experience  to  recognize  at  a  glance  whatever  blemishes  may 
exist.  If  there  be  any  doubt  in  his  mind,  he  should  remove  it  by 
examining  the  parts  with  the  hand.  Should  he  suspect  a  splint,  a 
spavin,  etc.,  he  has  the  right  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  actual 
state  of  affairs  by  every  proper  means.  The  error  once  committed,  it 
is  too  late  to  repair  it ;  this  should  never  be  forgotten  at  the  time  of 
the  sale. 

c.  Examination  of  the  Horse  in  Action. — It  is  important, 
after  this,  to  exercise  the  animal  at  the  walk,  the  trot,  and,  in  certain 
cases,  the  gallop,  in  order  to  judge  of  the  beauty  of  his  gaits.  In 
these  exercises,  except  the  last,  he  will  be  led  by  the  halter,  and  the 
intending  purchaser  must  see  to  it  that  the  hand  does  not  furnish  a 
point  of  support  for  the  head.  With  this  object,  the  stable-man  is  to  be 
instructed  to  allow  considerable  freedom  to  the  horse's  head,  and  as  he 
always  holds  a  whip  in  his  left  hand,  the  dealer  should  be  requested  to 
abstain  from  all  extraneous  means  of  excitement,  such  as  cracking  the 
whip,  striking  his  hat,  shouting,  gestures,  etc.  It  is  indispensable  that 
the  trial  should  take  place  on  a  paved  surface,  this  being  the  best  way 
to  detect  any  existence  of  lameness.  Finally,  in  these  manoeuvres,  the 
horse  should  be  examined  in  profile,  from  the  left  and  the  right,  in 
front  and  from  behind,  either  by  running  him  successively  from  one 
side  of  the  yard  to  the  other,  or  by  making  him  turn  around  in  a  circle. 
This  will  give  an  opportunity  of  noticing  how  he  turns  and  how  he 
backs.  After  this  preliminary  examination,  the  animal  should  be  seen 
in  the  trial,  mounted  or  harnessed,  according  to  the  service  for  which 
he  is  intended.  Light-draught  horses,  as  well  as  driving-horses,  are, 
however,  often  mounted,  in  order  to  show  better  the  extent  of  their 
movements,  their  nimbleness,  and  their  speed. 

The  trial  of  the  mounted  horse  should  always  be  made  with  the 
saddle  and  bridle,  in  the  case  of  a  saddle-horse.  It  will  be  well, 
indeed,  for  the  purchaser  to  mount  him  himself,  after  the  boy,  to  judge 
of  the  sensitiveness  of  the  animal's  mouth,  his  reactions,  ardor,  tracta- 
bility,  dressing,  etc.  He  will  see  at  the  same  time  how  the  animal 

57 


398  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

allows  himself  to  be  bridled  and  saddled,  how  he  bears  the  pressure 
of  the  girth,  and  how  he  behaves  when  the  foot  is  put  in  the  stirrup. 
Here,  again,  the  horse  should  be  seen  in  profile,  right  and  left,  in  front 
and  from  behind. 

The  trial  of  the  draught-horse  cannot  always  be  made  under  favor- 
able conditions  at  the  time  of  the  sale,  for  example,  at  a  fair  or  in  the 
horse-market,  because  the  necessary  appliances  are  often  lacking.  Some- 
times, however,  this  inconvenience  is  obviated  by  harnessing  the  animal 
to  a  cart,  and  in  a  few  minutes  blocking  the  wheels,  so  as  to  ascertain 
his  energy,  vigor,  and  strength,  the  ease  with  which  he  pulls,  and  his 
manner  of  pulling.  In  the  Parisian  market,  a  special  track,  the  trial 
track,  is  reserved  for  this  purpose,  and  heavy  vehicles,  easily  stopped, 
as  well  as  sets  of  harness,  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  public. 
Unfortunately,  these  harnesses  are  neither  so  numerous  nor  so  varied 
that  they  can  be  properly  fitted  to  any  horse.  Many  of  the  animals, 
worried  by  a  poorly-fitting  collar,  make  a  noise  similar  to  that  of 
roaring,  an  affection  from  which,  in  reality,  they  are  entirely  free. 

As  to  driving-horses,  they  are  not  shown  in  the  same  way;  the 
dealer  harnesses  them  and  drives  them  to  various  vehicles  which  the 
purchaser  can  mount,  and  where  he  also  has  the  privilege  of  driving 
them,  if  he  chooses.  But  before  doing  this,  he  should  ascertain,  by 
observing  every  detail  around  the  stable,  how  the  animal  allows  him- 
self to  be  harnessed  and  led,  how  he  trots,  turns,  stops,  backs,  and 
starts  off.  He  should  ascertain,  also,  that  he  is  good  in  his  wind, 
that  he  is  gentle  and  tractable,  and  that  he  does  not  become  frightened 
at  unfamiliar  objects  or  noises. 

Besides  the  ascertaining  of  the  fitness  and  qualifications  of  the 
horse,  another  object  of  the  trial  is  the  testing  of  his  respiratory  organs. 
Whether  the  horse  be  harnessed  or  mounted,  one  should  always,  as 
soon  as  he  is  stopped, — that  is  to  say,  after  a  sufficient  amount  of  exer- 
cise,— listen  attentively  to  the  sound  of  his  respirations,  to  see  if  he  is 
a  roarer,  and  to  examine  the  movements  of  his  flanks,  to  be  sure  that 
he  is  not  heavy  and  short-winded.  In  some  countries  the  law  allows 
a  trial  of  nine  days  for  the  detection  of  the  so-called  redhibitory  vices, 
but  much  trouble  will  be  avoided  by  finding  them  out  at  the  time  of 
the  sale. 

We  recapitulate,  in  the  following  table,  the  order  in  which  to  pro- 
ceed in  the  examination  of  the  horse.  After  practising  with  this  table 
a  few  times  the  beginner  will  rapidly  become  expert  in  the  somewhat 
complicated  operations  which  are  asked  of  him. 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE. 


899 


SUMMARY. 


The  purchaser  should  examine  the  horse  : 


In  the  Stable : 


On  the  Show-Ground 


In  Action : 


r      1st.  In  place  i  method  of  harnessing,  general  attitude,  the 
ears,  grooming,  ginger,  turning,  backing,  docility. 

2d.  In  the  door-way :  eyes,  nostrils,  age,  mouth,  inter- 
l  maxillary  space,  pulse,  poll. 

Inspect  the  horse:  in  profile,  right  and  left ;  obliquely, 
forward  and  backward  ;  from  in  front  and  from  behind. 
His  attitude  and  his  equilibrium  then  should  be  examined  : 

1st.  The  whole  conformation :  general  harmony,  height, 
bulk,  body  and  members,  physiognomy,  temperament, 
race,  and  breeding. 

2d.  Details :  the  animal  must  be  viewed  from  all  sides, 
following  the  order  given  below. 

a.  Members — Examine  them  separately  and  from  below 
to  above :  foot,  fetlock,  canon,  knee,  and  forearm  ;  hock, 
leg,  etc. 

View  them  together  and  horizontally :  fore-foot  and  hind- 
foot,  knee  and  hock,  forearm  and  leg,  arm  and  thigh. 

b.  Body. —  Upper  zone:  neck,  withers,  back,  loins,  croup. 
Lower  zone:  breast,  shoulder,  chest,  abdomen,  flank. 

Explore  the  groin  and  the  genital  organs,  pinch  the  loins, 
raise  the  tail  (anus  and  vulva),  docility. 

c.  Head. — Expression,  proportions ;    examine    again  the 
eye,  nostrils,  mouth,    age,  intermaxillary  space;    excite  a 
cough,  inspect  the  jugular  veins. 

View  the  horse  in  all  possible  aspects  and  take  note  of  his 
gaits,  speed,  nimbleness,  elegance,  endurance.  Make  him 
stop,  back,  turn,  etc.  Respiration  and  flank  (roaring  and 
heaves).  Dressing,  docility,  etc. 

The  trial  will  take  place  : 

1st.  Led  by  the  hand :  walk  and  trot ;  on  hard  road  and 
paved  road.  Lameness  ;  flank. 

2d.  Mounted:  saddle,  bridle,  girth,  disposition,  docility, 
dressing,  gaits,  trot  and  gallop.  Respiration,  flank. 

3d.  Harnessed :  harness,  bridle,  docility,  disposition, 
dressing,  force,  speed,  walk  and  trot,  etc. 


Taking  Notes. — If  only  one  horse  is  to  be  purchased,  it  is  not 
worth  while,  as  a  rule,  to  determine  his  relative  value  by  concrete  notes, 
expressing  the  sum  total  of  the  aptitudes  he  has  shown.  But  it  is  very 
different  when  a  considerable  number  of  animals  are  to  be  bought  or  to 
be  compared.  In  such  cases,  the  jotting  down  of  notes  is  indispensable 
not  only  to  establish  and  facilitate  their  classification,  but  also  to  enable 
the  expert  to  furnish  exact  information  concerning  them.  In  this  con- 
nection every  man  is  at  liberty  to  take  notes, — that  is  to  say,  to  group 
as  he  chooses  the  different  elements  which  he  has  observed,  after  his 


900 


THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 


own  ideas,  and  to  give  them  the  relative  importance  which  he  con- 
siders they  ought  to  have.  The  following  is  the  scheme  we  use  011 
competition  committees  when  we  deal  with  horses  already  grouped  by 
categories,  according  to  their  height,  weight,  and  age. 


EXAMPLE   OF   NOTES. 


Coefficients.   Marks. 


Conformation 


/    General 

I    Details  (members,  body,  head) 


1  4 

1  4 

Equilibrium 1  5 

Gaits •    •  1  5 

Race  and  endurance 1  4 

Trial,  disposition,  docility,  dressing '.    .- 1  1 

Number  of  notes 6  23 

Aptitudes  resulting  from  the  average  (total  of  the  points  divided  by  six) .  3.83 

NOTE. — The  scale  of  marks  which  we  employ  to  note  each  subject  is  from  0  to  5r 
but  it  can  be  modified  at  will.  We  reject  every  horse  that  does  not  obtain  the  average 
of  3.  If  many  horses  are  to  be  judged,  it  is  well  to  take  down  the  information  in  a 
note-book  having,  for  example,  the  following  formula : 


MODEL   OF   PURCHASE   MEMORANDUM-BOOK. 


CONFOR- 

n 

2 

MATION. 

3 

ft  Z       Q.--JH-C5 

z  <  i      S  E  SB 

ri 

NAMES  OR  NUMERICAL 
ORDER. 

g 

0  05 

<liS 

J 

1 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Gen- 

De- 

o 

<! 

g  O  O  05 

eral. 

tails. 

£ 

O 

5W 

H  &HQQ 

0 

H 

^ 

Bijou  

3 

4 

4 

2 

3 

4 

20 

3.33 

Ambler. 

Coco 

4 

4 

5 

4 

4 

5 

26 

4.33 

"VVeak  loins 

Pompier    

3 

2 

1 

2 

3 

1 

12 

2.33 

Old  and  worn  out. 

To  simplify  and  hasten  the  evaluation  of  any  horse  whatsoever, 
Professor  Tabourin,1  in  1877,  devised  for  beginners  a  system  of  nota- 
tion the  essential  character  of  which  was  the  estimating  in  figures  of 
the  beauties  of  some  regions  only,  considered  as  of  predominant  impor- 
tance, deducing  from  the  sum  total  of  the  marks  obtained  an  estimate 
of  the  general  value  of  the  animal. 

Professor  Baron2  has  recently  attempted  to  revive  the  same  idea, 
under  the  name  method  of  judging  by  marks,  but  with  a  much  more 

1  Tabourin,  La  connaissance  ext6rieure  du  cheval  rSduite  a  l'<§tude  d'un  petit  nombre  de 
caracteres.    Methode  synthStique  a  1'aide  de  laquelle  on  petit  juger  de  la  valeur  d'un  cheval 
expose  en  vente,  pour  la  forme  et  pour  le  fond;  in  Recueil  de  medecine  vete>inaire,  1877,  pp.  710 
et843. 

2  R.  Baron,  Appreciation  de  la  vache  laitiere  par  la  m6thode  des  points,  in  Recueil  de  mede- 
cine vet£rinaire,  1888.  p.  797.    Extension  et  generalisation  complete  de  la  methode  des  points,  in 
Recueil  de  medecine  veterinaire,  1889,  pp.  33, 105, 185,  262,  326,  et  379. 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  901 

judicious  selection  of  the  parts  upon  which  he  bases  the  result  of  his 
examination.  For  this  purpose  our  colleague  has  endeavored  to  formu- 
late for  each  type  of  utilization  a  special  table,  on  which  the  particular 
aptitudes  to  be  noted  are  enumerated  and  numbered  according  to  their 
relative  importance. 

It  is  evident  that  every  experienced  horseman  will  have  his  own 
way  of  interpreting  different  things.  But  as  in  such  cases  opinions 
%are  always  divergent,  we  shall  not  enter  into  the  details  of  the  pro- 
posed systems,  their  value  depending,  in  our  opinion,  on  the  judicious 
use  which  is  made  of  them. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  methods  of  notation  applied  by  begin- 
ners to  a  single  individual  do  not  seem  to  have  given  the  results  that 
had  been  hoped  for. 

The  reason  is  first  that  they  are  not  in  vogue  in  our  present  prac- 
tice, the  fact  of  taking  notes  upon  a  horse  on  the  show-ground  being 
looked  upon,  and  not  without  reason,  as  a  sign  of  inexperience. 

Finally,  they  are  still  open,  for  aught  we  know  to  the  contrary,  to 
one  or  the  other  of  these  two  objections  : 

Either  they  have  a  tendency  to  limit  the  examination  to  too  small 
a  number  of  regions,  or,  on  the  contrary,  they  make  it  cover  too  com- 
plicated groups  of  parts  or  of  characters. 

In  the  first  case,  aiming  at  excessive  simplification,  they  become 
manifestly  insufficient,  inasmuch  as  they  expose  one  to  neglect  a  certain 
number  of  important  beauties  or  defects,  and  thus  lead  to  erroneous 
conclusions.  In  the  second  case,  they  embrace  too  many  points,  and 
thus  lose  their  simplifying  character,  leaving  the  student  as  much 
puzzled  as  he  was  originally. 

The  difficulty,  then,  is  to  find  a  system  free  from  these  exaggera- 
tions. 

But,  however  perfect  a  method  of  notation  may  be,  it  cannot  prove 
a  substitute  for  a  thorough  analysis  of  the  parts.  To  render  it  useful, 
it  is  necessary  to  practise  it  often,  and  consequently  to  observe  much, 
and  to  go  patiently  through  the  different  operations  which  it  implies. 
This,  above  all,  should  never  be  forgotten. 


§  4.  HORSES  MATED  OR  PAIRED. 

When  horses  are  chosen  with  a  view  $o  forming  harmonious  and 
identical  groups,  at  least  with  reference  to  form,  height,  weight  and 
bulk,  breeding,  coat,  and  age,  they  are  said  to  be  mated  or  paired  ;  and, 
as  breeders  and  dealers  experience  much  difficulty  in  obtaining  horses 


902  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE. 

that  can  be  thus  paired,  the  absolute  price  of  one  of  these  groups  is 
always  much  greater  than  would  be  the  total  amount  of  the  separate 
individual  values. 

In  most  cases  horses  are  matched,  in  couples  or  pairs,  for  pleasure 
teams ;  for  heavy  work  one  is  much  more  easily  pleased  than  when 
elegance  and  fashion  are  in  question  ;  besides,  even  fashionable  people 
are  not  always  sufficiently  fastidious  to  demand. an  absolute  resemblance 
between  the  horses  of  the  same  pair,  and  thus  the  price  of  the  pair  is 
lowered  in  proportion. 

From  these  data  it  will  be  understood  that  mated  teams  are  prin- 
cipally sold  only  in  those  high-life  centres  where  there  is  a  demand  for 
them.  The  purchases  are  usually  made  at  the  stable  of  the  regular 
dealer. 

On  his  arrival,  the  customer  is  at  first  invited  to  look  at  the  differ- 
ent teams  which  the  dealer  has  in  his  stable,  and  it  is  business  for  him 
to  show  what  animals  suit  him,  as  to  height,  age,  race,  and  coat,  accord- 
ing to  the  team  of  horses  he  wishes  to  have.  His  selection  being 
made,  the  horses  should  be  examined,  their  value  determined,  both 
separately  and  as  a  pair,  and  the  question  of  price  decided. 

They  are  then  taken  out  of  the  stable.  The  first  point  to  be  ascer- 
tained is  whether  the  mating  is  real,  for,  should  it  not  be  so,  it  would 
be  useless  to  proceed  with  the  examination.  It  is  easy  to  judge  of  the 
height,  the  coat,  and  the  general  proportions  by  placing  the  horses  side 
by  side,  first  in  the  usual  way,  and  then  facing  in  opposite  directions. 
Afterwards  they  are  inspected  separately  ;  they  are  examined  in  detail, 
at  rest,  at  a  walk,  at  the  trot,  led  by  hand;  and  even  now  it  is 
possible  to  place  them  mentally  side  by  side  and  thus  ascertain  if  the 
differences  between  them  are  sufficiently  marked  to  cause  them  to  be 
rejected.  For  example,  when  the  difference  of  age  amounts  to  several 
years,  the  purchaser  should  hesitate  to  make  the  bargain,  for  a  short 
time  afterwards,  whereas  one  of  the  horses  will  still  be  vigorous  and 
fit  for  service,  the  other  will  be  worn  out  and  unable  to  travel  with 
his  mate.  The  presence  of  serious  blemishes  is  a  good  reason  for 
declining  to  purchase. 

Lastly,  the  general  examination  of  the  animal  is  resumed  with  the 
utmost  care.  There  should  be  the  desired  degree  of  equality  in  height, 
length,  carriage,  bulk,  weight,  direction  of  the  members,  temperament, 
energy,  and  coat.  The  two  animals  should  be  capable  of  being  har- 
nessed to  the  carriage  indifferently  to  the  right  or  the  left,  and  no  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  the  observations  of  the  dealer,  who  may  explain 
how  they  have  been  accustomed  to  be  always  driven  on  the  same  side, 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  903 

and  who,  as  a  rule,  will  harness  the  better  one  of  the  two  on  the  left 
side  and  the  poorer  one  on  the  right.  In  this  manner  it  will  be  easy 
to  find  out  if  there  is  between  them  a  great  disproportion  in  vigor  and  in 
the  gait,  a  difference  which  would  perhaps  not  have  been  otherwise  per- 
ceived. The  horses  are  held  by  an  assistant  standing  between  them, 
who  makes  them,  according  to  the  orders  of  the  purchaser,  successively 
walk,  back,  turn  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  after  which,  if  the  trial 
is  satisfactory,  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  done  but  to  hitch  the  horses 
to  the  carriage.  This  is  the  most  difficult  and  most  important  pro- 
cedure of  all,  and  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  it.  All  dealers 
possess  vehicles  of  various  sorts  intended  to  train  and  to  exhibit  mated 
horses.  The  purchaser  makes  the  pair  pass  before  him  in  every  direc- 
tion ;  finally,  he  gets  on  the  seat  and  drives,  or  employs  some  trust- 
worthy person  to  drive  for  him. 

The  following  qualifications  must  be  found  in  horses  that  are  to  be 
mated  :  1st,  identity  of  race,  energy,  and  temperament ;  2d,  equality 
of  age  ;  3d,  equality  of  height,  form,  and  length ;  4th,  harmony  of 
the  gait ;  5th,  the  same  quantity  of  force  and  good  breeding ;  6th, 
the  same  kind  of  coat.  The  last  point,  which  is  really  only  a  matter 
of  fashion  and  taste,  is  at  present  sometimes  waived.  Often,  not  to 
mention  little  details  which  cannot  be  absolutely  alike  in  the  two 
horses  of  one  pair,  such  as  white  feet,  or  some  peculiar  mark  on  the 
head,  a  radical  difference  of  the  coats  is  accepted,  and  very  fine  coach 
teams  are  to  be  seen  composed  of  a  dapple-gray  and  a  bay.  Of  course 
this  combination  will  not  give  the  perfection  of  elegance  which  would 
result  from  absolute  similarity  in  the  two  subjects,  but  with  respect  to 
their  value,  such  a  pair  will  frequently  be  better  mated  and  more  easily 
found,  and,  therefore,  will  cost  much  less. 

§  5.  HORSES  WHICH  MAY  BE  MOUNTED  OR  DRIVEN  AT  WILL. 

There  are  horses  which  may  be  indifferently  driven  to  a  carriage  or 
mounted,  according  to  the  pleasure  of  the  owner.  Let  us  here  remark 
that  the  advantages  of  this  double  utilization  are  less  absolute  than 
relative,  and  more  imaginary  than  real.  A  good  saddle-horse  always 
loses  in  value  by  being  driven  much,  just  as  the  driving-horse  makes 
an  indifferent  saddle-horse.  In  this  respect,  it  is  with  horses  as  with 
hunting  dogs*  If  the  latter  are  indifferently  employed  as  bird-dogs 
or  rabbit-dogs,  etc.,  they  will  soon  lose  their  good  qualities  for  either 
service,  but  afterwards  will  tend  to  return  to  the  special  use  for  which 
they  have  the  greatest  aptitude ;  the  true  sportsman  will  have  none  of 
them,  and  he  is  right. 


904  THE    EXTERIOR    OF    THE    HORSE, 

This  ostracism  which  banishes  from  the  stable  of  the  wealthy  the 
"  double  -purpose"  horse  is  justified  by  the  peremptory  reason  that  the 
true  rider  is  averse  to  mounting  an  animal  which  has  not  been  dressed 
and  trained  with  a  view  to  saddle- work.  How,  indeed,  can  this  animal 
act  properly  and  balance  himself,  if  he  has  not  been  initiated  into  the 
means  that  will  be  used  to  guide  him,  if  he  is  incapable  of  understand- 
ing the  meaning  of  the  indications  given  by  the  legs  and  hands,  and 
if  he  cannot  draw  himself  in  or  gather  himself  up  readily,  an  attitude 
indispensable  to  most  of  his  manoeuvres?  The  saddle-horse  which 
has  been  satisfactorily  trained  understands  a  special  language,  that  of 
the  hands  and  legs,  and  his  conditions  of  equilibrium  are  changed.  A 
part  of  his  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  haunches,  as  the  riding-master 
says,  because,  in  his  case,  the  centre  of  gravity  has  been  displaced 
backward  and  brought  nearer  the  posterior  quarters.  This  result  is 
evidently  obtained  by  education,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
new  aptitudes  acquired  by  a  subject  are  transient  and  require  a  daily 
practice  if  it  be  desired  to  preserve  them. 

On  the  contrary,  the  driving-horse  or  light-draught  horse  is  the 
outcome  of  an  entirely  different  training,  if  not,  indeed,  of  a  quite 
opposite  training.  Accustomed  to  bear  against  the  collar,  he  soon 
carries  his  head  and  his  neck  more  horizontally  in  order  to  displace  the 
weight  forward  upon  the  harness,  which  relieves  him  very  much.  The 
animal  is  balanced  upon  the  shoulders,  and  not  upon  his  haunches,  as  in 
the  preceding  case.  Besides,  the  action  of  the  driver  is  different ;  the 
hands  no  longer  give  the  same  indications,  and  the  legs  are  here  out  of 
the  question.  In  this  condition  the  head  and  the  neck  are  always  but 
little  "  drawn  in  •"  as  to  the  "  gather"  attitude,  it  no  longer  exists.  It 
is  therefore  natural  that  the  animal  should  be  less  supple,  harder  on 
the  hand,  less  manageable,  and  that  the  means  of  utilizing  him  should 
be  fewer  and  less  diversified. 

How,  then,  can  he,  if  he  be  constantly  worked  in  the  shafts,  acquire, 
in  a  lasting  degree,  the  attitude  and  qualities  required  for  the  riding  ser- 
vice ?  All  attempts  made  in  this  direction,  meaning  confusion  for  him, 
will  succeed  only  in  spoiling  him,  so  that  the  time  will  come  when  in 
all  respects  he  will  only  be  an  ordinary  horse ;  not  only  will  he  have 
learned  almost  nothing,  but  he  certainly  will  have  lost  with  regard  to 
the  aptitude  in  which  he  formerly  gave  the  most  satisfaction.  We 
understand  and  approve  the  sportsman  who  refuses  to  lend  his  favorite 
horse  to  others,  and  who  obliges  his  servant  to  lead  him  by  the  hand 
when  any  accidental  occurrence  prevents  his  customary  outing  with  the 
owner  on  his  back.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  notice,  in  the  case  of  a 


CHOICE    OF    THE    HORSE.  905 

well-trained  horse,  that  a  stranger  has  ridden  him  even  for  a  short 
while ;  much  worse  will  be  the  results  should  he  be  used  for  a  different 
service. 

For  enthusiastic  horsemen  the  "  double-purpose"  horse  is  therefore 
a  myth ;  they  will  not  hear  of  him.  But  real  horsemen  are  not  the 
only  people  who  employ  the  saddle-horse.  The  majority  of  riders 
have  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  horsemanship,  and  many  are  satis- 
fied with  the  merest  inkling.  Provided  that  the  horse  which  they 
hitch  to  their  carriage  to-day  will  on  the  next  day  allow  himself  to  be 
mounted,  walked,  trotted,  and  galloped,  if  need  be,  and  will  turn  to 
the  right  or  the  left,  this  is  sufficient  for  them ;  they  ask  nothing 
more.  Those  are  the  people  who  seek,  purchase,  and  utilize  the 
"  double-purpose"  horse ;  nor  is  the  latter  as  common  nowadays  as  it 
was  formerly. 

The  general  form  of  this  horse  is  that  of  the  saddle-horse  with  vari- 
ations in  height,  weight,  bulk,  and  breeding,  according  to  the  case.  A 
saddle-horse,  if  he  be  not  vicious,  may  always  be  driven  to  a  vehicle 
adapted  to  his  conformation,  whilst  it  is  not  correct  to  say  that  a  driving- 
horse  or  a  light-draught  horse  will  be  sure  to  be  suitable'  for  the  saddle. 
Some  special  defect  might  greatly  detract  from  his  value  for  the  latter 
service,  while  it  might  be  of  no  consequence  in  the  case  of  the  former. 

Still,  if  we  wish  to  choose  a  subject  partaking  of  the  type  of 
saddle-horses,  we  must  not  be  too  exacting  upon  this  point.  And  in 
truth  it  would  be  out  of  the  question  to  seek  the  perfection  of  the 
type  in  him,  since  it  is  known  that,  from  the  very  character  of  the 
proposed  service,  the  individual  chosen  will  never  be  perfect.  One 
must  be  contented,  therefore,  with  a  short  body,  not  plump,  although 
rather  ample,  a  head  somewhat  large,  a  shorter  neck,  a  withers  less 
prominent,  a  croup  somewhat  oblique  ;  but  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
should  be  regular  and  well  supported ;  the  members  should  be  strong 
and  well  poised,  even  though  they  lack  fineness ;  there  should  be  a  cer- 
tain distingue  look  in  the  general  appearance ;  the  actions  should  be 
free  and  easy ;  there  should  be  more  endurance  than  speed  and  more 
firmness  of  the  members  than  brilliancy. 

Large  coach-horses  and  heavy-draught  horses  are  the  only  ones 
that  cannot  be  mounted  :  the  first  because  they  are  almost  always  too 
heavy  and  too  long,  the  second  because  of  their  weight  and  their  abso- 
lute lack  of  breeding.  All  other  horses,  after  a  short  training,  can  be 
used  either  under  the  saddle  or  in  harness. 


INDEX. 


Abdomen.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical 
base,  beauties,  defects,  volume,  149 ;  form, 
150;  diseases  and  blemishes,  151;  grey- 
hound-like, dropping,  pendulous,  cow's,  151 ; 
horse  which  has  too  much  air  passing  under- 
neath the,  151. 

Age.  The  parts  to  be  examined  for  the  de- 
termination of,  645 ;  characters  of  the  age 
furnished  by  the  teeth,  648 ;  rising,  having, 
past  such  age,  649 ;  marking  no  more,  656. 

Albugo,  56. 

All-flower,  781. 

Amaurosis,  56. 

Amble,  505;  definition,  505;  characters, 
506;  notation,  trail,  displacements  of  the 
centre  of  gravity,  length  of  the  step,  507, 
508 ;  speed,  disadvantages,  conformation, 
508,  509 ;  broken  amble,  509. 

Anorchid,  179. 

Anterior  quarters,  22. 

Anus.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
174;  form,  diseases,  blemishes,  174. 

Aqueous  humor,  50. 

Arborizations,  779. 

Arm.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  b/ise, 
form,  movements,  214;  length,  215;  direc- 
tion, 216;  muscularity,  diseases,  and  blem- 
ishes, 219  ;  point  of  the  arm,  201. 

Arthrogoniometer,  375. 

Articular  angles  (angles  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  locomotory  segments).  Orien- 
tation, 190 ;  extent  of  the  space  or  field  of 
oscillation  of  their  segments,  191 ;  limit  of 
extension  and  flexion,  191 ;  measurement, 
375 ;  value,  377 ;  photography  applied  to 
the  measurement,  377 ;  influence  of  the  in- 
clination of  the  bones  upon  speed,  382. 

Articular  movements,  limits,  190. 

Artificial  eye,  51. 

Attitudes,  38. 

Avalure,  339. 


Aversion  to  special  objects,  877. 
Axes.     Regular,  irregular,  line  of  axis  of  a 

member,  442  ;  of  the  anterior  members,  443 ; 

of  the  posterior,  456. 
Axilla.     Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 

147;  diseases,  147;  fraying,  147. 
Axis.    Of  figure  of  a  bone,  365 ;  of  movement 

of  a  bone,  365 ;  of  rotation  of  the  bones, 

371 ;  direct  axis  of  a  member,  193. 


Back.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
116;  direction,  117;  form,  119;  length,  120; 
width,  121;  diseases  and  blemishes,  122; 
straight,  convex,  concave,  roach,  sway,  hol- 
low-backed, 1 17 ;  dipped,  double,  119 ;  sharp, 
long,  120  ;  short,  121. 

Backing,  541 ;  vicious  habit,  874. 

Balky  horses,  869. 

Bar  (part  of  the  hoof),  317. 

Bar  (region  of  the  mouth).  Situation,  limits, 
anatomical  base,  form,  beauties,  diseases, 
blemishes,  74. 

Barb  (barbillon),  75. 

Base,  of  support,  10  ;  form,  439. 

Bay  (coat),  776. 

Bean,  770. 

Beat,  474. 

Beating  of  the  parotid  glands,  84;  of  the 
lips  (vicious  habit),  72,  619. 

Beauties.  Definition,  31;  divisions,  31; 
absolute  and  relative,  31. 

Begu,  729;  false,  733. 

Beguite,  729;  false,  733. 

Bidets,  530. 

Billarder,  586. 

Bishoping,  767. 

Bistournage,  178,  814. 

Bistourne,  178. 

Bit.     Description,  use,  80  ;  action,  82. 

Biters,  872. 

Bitting,  82. 

907 


SOS 


INDEX. 


Black  (coat),  773. 

Blaze  (mark  of  the  head),  794. 

Blindness,  blind  horse,  57. 

Blinkers,  51. 

Blood.  Opinion  of  the  laity,  397;  origin 
of  the  word,  398 ;  definition  and  nature,  400  ; 
whence  derived,  401;  artificial  transmissi- 
bility,  401 ;  index  of  the,  402  ;  horse  which 
has  blood,  399;  pure-blooded,  399;  horse 
which  has  too  much,  411 ;  in  which  the  com- 
mon element  predominates,  412. 

Body,  divisions  of,  21 ;  and  members,  395  ; 
ciliary,  48. 

Bordered,  793. 

Bounding,  575. 

Bow-legged,  269,  462. 

Brachygnathism,  736. 

Brand  (mark  of  identification),  of  the  thigh, 
243. 

Breast.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
form,  width,  144;  blemishes,  147;  sharp,, 
hollow,  sunken,  144. 

Breeding,  403. 

Broken-down,  288. 

Broken  trot,  522. 

Bruised  sole,  388. 

Brushing,  506. 

Bucking,  575. 

Butteris.     Cuts  with  the  butteris,  336. 

Buttock,  237  ;  point,  angle,  fold,  238  ;  long, 
well  descended,  short,  round,  salient,  242 ; 
sharp,  well  furnished,  243. 

c. 

Calf  of  the  leg,  248. 

Calluses,  108. 

Camper.     Horse  camped  in  front,  448. 

Canker,  337  ;  behind,  459. 

Canon.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
279 ;  r&le  and  action,  281 :  form,  direction, 
283;  length,  284;  width,  thickness,  285; 
fineness,  neatness  of  outline,  286,  287 ;  dis- 
eases, blemishes,  287;  meagre,  narrow, 
round,  slender,  286 ;  overreaching,  striking, 
287,  fractures,  290. 

Canter,  527. 

Capellet,  270. 

Carcinoma,  181. 

Cataract,  56. 

Cavalry  horse,  844;  staff  horse,  845; 
troop  horse,  846. 

Cavity,  external  dental,  597,  603;  irregu- 
larities of  depth,  729  ;  internal  dental,  600. 

Cement,  608;  radical,  610,  635. 


Centre  of  gravity.  Determination  in  the 
horse,  3 ;  experiments  of  Raabe  and  Bonnal, 
6  ;  of  Morris  and  Baucher,  6  ;  of  Morris  and 
Bellanger,  8 ;  Goubaux  and  Barrier,  9 ;  dis- 
placements, 478. 

Certificate  of  description,  813;  order 
to  be  followed,  831 ;  enumeration  of  points, 
831 ;  models,  819. 

Chain,  807. 

Champignon,  181. 

Character,  403. 

Cheek.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base; 
beauties,  defects,  58 ;  blemishes,  59 ;  raising 
of  the  skin,  645. 

Chest.  Definition,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
function,  157;  beauties,  height,  158;  width, 
159;  depth,  defects,  161;  well  descended, 
158;  narrow,  long,  161. 

Chestnut,  anterior,  227;  posterior,  279. 

Chin.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
diseases,  blemishes,  68. 

Choice  of  the  horse,  886. 

Choroid  coat  of  the  eye,  48. 

Ciliary  process,  48;  body,  48. 

Circled  hock,  279. 

Circles,  of  the  hoof,  339. 

Claudication,  558. 

Close  hocks,  463. 

Closed  (horse),  in  front,  146,  454 ;  behind, 
462. 

Coach-horses,  833;  large,  834;  small,  836. 

Coats,  division,  772  ;  primitive,  simple,  773  ; 
composite,  775 ;  mixed,  777 ;  derived,  778  ; 
conjugate,  782;  spotted,  778;  synoptical 
table,  784;  peculiarities,  786;  of  the  head, 
794;  of  the  body,  796;  of  the  members, 
797 ;  synoptical  table,  800 ;  causes  of  the 
modifications  of  the  coat,  799 ;  index  fur- 
nished by  the  coat,  803. 

Coffee-and-milk  (coat),  774. 

Collar,  application  of,  214. 

Common  horse,  399. 

Compass  of  thickness,  373. 

Compensations,  430;  examples,  431. 

Conjunctiva,  50. 

Contact,  474;  period  of  exchange  of,  476, 
phase  of,  195. 

Contraction  of  the  hoof,  337. 

Coom,  182. 

Cord  of  the  testicle,  177. 

Corded  lymphatics,  109. 

Cornea,  48. 

Corners  (incisor  teeth),  597;  rasping  of  the 
superior,  770. 

Corns,  dry,  moist,  suppurating,  338. 


INDEX. 


909 


Coronary  band,  315. 

Coronet.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical 
base,  309 ;  width,  fineness,  absence  of  blem- 
ishes, diseases,  blemishes,  310;  mange,  311. 

Costal  region,  152. 

Cover  his  steps,  474.  •» 

Cow-hocked,  268,  463. 

Cowlick,  792. 

Crapaudine,  310,340. 

Cream-color,  774. 

Cremaster  muscle,  176. 

Crescent,  deformity  of  the  sole,  339. 

Cribber,  753. 

Cribbing,  752,  865;  with  or  without  mark- 
ing the  teeth,  752 ;  with  a  point  of  contact 
or  in  the  air,  753. 

Crop-eared,  44. 

Cross-footed,  in  front,  455;  behind,  464. 

Croup.  Situation,  limits,  123;  anatomical 
base,  124;  length,  125;  thickness,  128; 
width,  129;  direction,  130;  forms,  140; 
diseases  and  blemishes,  141;  long,  short, 
125  ;  horizontal,  130  ;  oblique,  137 ;  sharp, 
almond-shaped,  mule-like,  140;  narrow, 
pointed,  hen-tailed,  cut-off,  low,  slanting, 
double,  angular,  oscillating,  141. 

Crown  of  tooth,  597. 

Crowned,  of  knee  and  fetlock,  234. 

Cryptorchid,  179. 

Crystalline  lens,  49. 

Curb,  273. 

Cutaneous  envelope  of  foot,  314;  po- 
dophyllous  tissue,  315;  velvety  tissue,  316; 
plantar  cushion,  316. 

Cutidure.     (See  Coronary  band.) 

Cutigeral  cavity,  318. 

Cyst  (soft  tumor  filled  with  liquid),  of  the 
false  nostril,  64 ;  of  the  testicle,  181. 


Dartos,  44,  169. 

Deafness,  45. 

Decubitus,  466. 

Defects.    Definition,  divisions,  32 ;  absolute, 

relative,  congenital,  acquired,  32. 
Dejuger  (se),  475. 
Dental  star,  614,  616,  654. 
Dental  table,  successive  forms,  64;  details 

according  to  age,  615. 
Dentine,  612. 
Depiste  (se),  475. 
Discharge,  of  the  nose,  63. 
Docked,  44,  169. 
Docking,  169. 


Double  expiration,  166. 
Dourine  (maladie  du  coit),  184,  186. 
Draught-horse,    slow   heavy-,  851; 'fast 

heavy-,  852 ;  light  heavy-,  855. 
Dry  spavin.     (See  Stringhalt.) 

£. 

liar.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical^  base, 
length,  41 ;  thickness,  movements,  42 ;  de- 
fects, blemishes,  43 ;  fraudulent  means  em- 
ployed, 44;  bold,  42;  restless,  swine-ear, 
43 ;  crop-eared,  44. 

Ear-cutter,  45. 

Early  eruption  of  the  permanent 
teeth,  causes  of,  638. 

Eczema,  288. 

Elbow.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
length,  219 ;  direction,  diseases,  blemishes, 
220 ;  on  the  body,  220 ;  turned  outward  or 
inward,  220. 

Elevation  (place  of  oscillation  of  a  mem- 
ber in  the  air),  475. 

Emphysema  (infiltration  of  air  into  the 
connective  tissue),  pulmonary,  166. 

Enamel,  611;  germ,  606;  peripheral,  612; 
central,  615. 

Endurance.  Opinion  of  the  laity,  412;  in 
different  kinds  of  animal  motions,  416;  ex- 
ternal form  as  an  index,  418 ;  practical  de- 
termination, 420 ;  examples  of,  421 ;  of  a 
troop  in  campaign,  424. 

Ensemble  (word  which  signifies  the  man- 
ner of  existence  of  the  proportions  of  a 
given  animal),  385. 

Entire  horse,  178. 

Equilibrium,  10,  473. 

Ergot,  297. 

Evacuator,  174. 

Eventration,  151. 

Examination  of  the  horse,  894;  at  the 
horse-market,  894;  examples  of  notes,  900; 
in  the  stable,  894 ;  in  action,  897 ;  trial,  897 ; 
model  of  purchase  memorandum-book,  900 ; 
on  the  show-ground,  895 ;  summary,  899 ; 
taking  notes,  899. 

Excision  of  the  submaxillary  gan- 
glia, 69. 

Excitability,  411. 

Exomphalus,  151. 

Exterior.    Definition,  object,  end,  utility,  2. 

Eye.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base,  48; 
eye-globe,  48;  media,  49;  compartments, 
50 ;  protective  organs,  50  ;  ocular  sheath, 
50  ;  apparatus  of  lubrication,  51 ;  examina- 


910 


INDEX. 


tion,  51 ;  beauties,  53 ;  defects,  55  ;  diseases, 
blemishes,  56 ;  artificial,  57 ;  small,  con- 
cealed, bovine,  bordered,  unequal,  myopic, 
hypermetropic,  hollow,  wall-eyed,  fawn- 
eyed,  55. 

Eyebrows,  47. 

Eyelids,  51;  thin  eyelid,  54. 

r. 

Face.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
38 ;  divisions,  direction,  width,  39  ;  diseases 
and  blemishes,  40. 

False  nostril,  61. 

Fatigue.     Definition,  causes,  414. 

Farriery,  335. 

Faults,  33. 

Fetlock.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
290;  mechanism,  290;  form,  width,  293; 
thickness,  direction,  fineness,  294;  diseases 
and  blemishes,  295 ;  small,  round  horse  with 
light  wrists,  weak  in  the  pins,  294 ;  puffy, 
295. 

Fici,  295. 

Figure,  403. 

Fissures,  of  the  pastern,  309. 

Fistula,  of  the  withers,  116;  of  the  back 
122 ;  of  the  anus,  175 ;  artificial,  of  the  anus, 
175. 

Fitness,  31. 

Flank.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
divisions,  form,  162;  extent,  163;  move- 
ments, 164;  examination,  165;  diseases, 
blemishes,  167 ;  hollow,  cord,  movable  por- 
tion, 162 ;  hollow,  corded,  tucked  up,  grey- 
hound, short,  narrow,  163  ;  horse  which  has 
two  fingers'  width  of  flank,  164. 

Flea-bitten  (coat),  781. 

Fly-specks,  789. 

Flying  trot,  522. 

Foot.  Definition,  organization,  312;  inter- 
nal parts,  cutaneous  envelope,  313;  differ- 
ences between  fore  and  hind,  right  and  left, 
321 ;  elasticity,  323  ;  beauties,  characters  of 
the  unshod  foot,  327 ;  defects  of  volume, 
proportion,  328 ;  conformation,  329 ;  equi- 
librium, 332;  quality  of  horn,  335;  acci- 
dents from  shoeing,  335  ;  diseases,  336 ;  large, 
small,  328 ;  narrow,  unequal,  flat,  329  ;  full, 
pumiced,  with  bunions,  330 ;  with  high 
heels,  low  heels,  sloping  heels,  331 ;  outbow- 
footed,  cross-footed,  crooked-footed,  332; 
pincard,  club-foot,  333;  soft,  dry,  broken, 
334 ;  with  weak  heels,  335 ;  accidents  from 
pricking,  335 ;  compression  by  the  nail,  by 


the  shoe,  heated  sole,  burnt  sole,  excessive 
paring,  cuts  from  hoof- knife  and  butteris, 
336 ;  diseases  of,  336. 

Force,  moment  of  a,  12;  horses  of,  405; 
of  a  horse,  405  ;  of  a  muscle,  405. 

Forearm.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical 
base,  form,  221 ;  movements,  length,  222 ; 
width,  224 ;  thickness,  direction,  225 ;  dis- 
eases, blemishes,  227;  muscularity,  224; 
slender,  225. 

Forehead.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical 
base,  width,  36 ;  direction,  peculiarities,  dis- 
eases, blemishes,  38. 

Forelock,  110. 

Forging,  582. 

Founder,  338. 

Fox-nosed,  796. 

Fraying  of  the  axilla,  147. 

Frog,  319;  frog-stay,  319;  median  lacuna, 
lateral  lacuna,  branches,  319  ;  point,  glomes 
of,  320. 

Frosted,  63. 

Furrow  of  misery,  238. 


G. 

Gaits*  Divisions,  472 ;  diverse  qualifica- 
tions, 473  ;  play  of  the  members,  474 ;  speed, 
477 ;  displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity, 
478  ;  reactions,  479  ;  analysis,  479  ;  systems 
of  notation,  490  ;  synthetical  study,  496  ;  the 
gaits  in  particular,  503 ;  transitions  between 
the  different  gaits,  568  ;  defects,  576. 

Gallop.  Definition,  544 ;  to  the  right,  to  the 
left,  545 ;  true,  false,  diagonal,  lateral,  546 ; 
disunited,  547;  play  of  the  members,  547; 
number,  nature,  succession,  duration  of  the 
bases  of  support,  549 ;  duration  of  the  con- 
tacts of  the  feet,  and  the  projection,  549; 
effort  of  the  members,  association  of  the 
members,  and  attitudes  of  the  body,  552 ; 
transition  from  station  and  the  walk,  555 ; 
varieties  and  trails,  556;  length  of  the 
stride,  speed,  displacement  of  the  centre  of 
gravity,  559 ;  reactions,  561 ;  conformation, 
uses,  562. 

Gallop,  slow.  Definition,  notation,  563; 
trail,  length  of  the  stride,  565. 

Garniture  (edge  of  the  shoe  projecting  be- 
yond the  wall),  328. 

Gelding,  178. 

General  causes  of  vices,  882;  bad  edu- 
cation, 883 ;  excessive  impressionability, 
883 ;  interference  with  habits  already  ac- 
quired, 883  ;  insanity,  885  ;  pain,  884  ;  phys- 


INDEX. 


911 


iological  states,    884;    sexual    desires    and 

maternity,  884;  defective  conformation  of 

the   eyeball,  884;   parturition,   885;   warm 

seasons,  884. 
Gland  in  the  intermaxillary  space, 

168. 
Glands,  Meibomian,  51;  lachrymal,  51; 

excretory  canals,  51. 
Glaucoma,  56. 
Golden  (reflection  of  coat),  786. 
Goutte  seriene,  56. 
Granary,  58. 
Grapes,  295. 
Gray,  778 ;  temples,  47. 
Grease,  228,  295,  310. 
Groin.     Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 

167;  examination,  diseases,  167,168. 
Gums,  73. 

H. 

Halter-cast,  308. 

Halter-strap,  308. 

Haunch.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
142;  well  detached,  angular,  low  dropped, 
low,  142 ;  long,  short,  narrow,  wide,  straight, 
oblique,  143 ;  horse  upon  his  haunches,  562. 

Head.  Divisions,  34;  regions,  35 ;  harmo- 
nious relations,  86 ;  length,  volume,  87 ; 
direction,  88  ;  forms,  92  ;  attachments,  move- 
ments, 95  ;  fine,  coarse,  fleshy,  plain,  senile, 
sharp,  87,  88;  horizontal,  89 ;  vertical,  91; 
straight,  conical,  arched,  hare-faced,  ram's 
head,  93 ;  snub-nosed,  rhinoceros,  94 ;  the 
head  as  a  unit  of  measure,  359  ;  proportions, 
361. 

Heavy  (affected  with  heaves),  166. 

Heel  of  the  wall,  317. 

Height  of  horse,  at  the  withers,  386 ;  at  the 
croup,  386;  relation  to  length,  391. 

Hermaphrodite,  814. 

Herminures,  789. 

Hernia,  umbilical  or  exomphalus,  151 ;  ven- 
tral, 158,  inguinal,  168,  181. 

Hippiatrique  (name  formerly  given  to  all 
that  pertains  to  the  medicine  of  the  horse). 

Hippobosca  equina,  175. 

Hippometric  cane,  841. 

Hip- shot  (fracture  of  the  haunch),  horse, 
143. 

Hock.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
253  ;  external  conformation,  255  ;  examina- 
tion, 257 ;  movements,  255 ;  beauties,  neat- 
ness of  outline,  260  ;  width,  261 ;  thickness, 
262  ;  direction,  268  ;  diseases  and  blemishes, 


269 ;  extent  of  the  tibio-tarsal  angle,  263 ; 
fold  of  the,  255 ;  point,  cord,  hollow  of  the, 
256;  rotating,  258,  581;  fat,  full,  doughy, 
wide,  narrow,  slender,  261 ;  straight,  264 ; 
close,  crooked,  268,  463 ;  too  open  behind, 
268 ;  the  hock  as  a  centre  of  amortisse- 
ment  and  impulsion,  258. 

Hood  (for  ears),  45,  83. 

Hoof.  Definition,  form,  316;  division,  317; 
growth  and  wear,  323 ;  concussion,  338. 

Hoof-knife,  336. 

Hooped  knee,  236. 

Horn.  Structure,  properties,  origin,  color, 
consistency,  332. 

Horns,  frontal,  38. 

Horse-pox.     (See  Variola  equina.) 

Horses,  of  industry  and  commerce,  849; 
difficult  to  approach  or  to  groom,  870  ;  diffi- 
cult to  harness  or  to  mount,  871 ;  mated  or 
paired,  901;  which  back,  874;  which  eat 
earth,  864;  which  may  be  mounted  or 
driven  at  will,  903 ;  which  paw  in  the  stable, 
864;  which  rear  and  strike  with  the  fore- 
feet, 873  ;  which  rest  one  hind-foot  upon  the 
other,  861 ;  which  rub  the  lower  extremity 
of  the  head  against  the  manger,  or  the  tail 
against  surrounding  objects,  860;  which 
suck  wind  or  swallow  air,  865  ;  which  strip 
their  halter,  862 ;  which  tear  their  blankets, 
861 ;  which  weave,  864. 

Hunter,  841. 

Hydrocele,  181. 

Hydropsy,  of  the  eye,  56. 

Hygroma  (serous  effusion  into  the  connective 
tissue),  of  the  knee,  235 ;  of  the  hock,  270. 

Hypospadia,  814. 


Immobility,  73,  886. 
Impressionability,  411. 
Imprint,  of  the  foot,  474. 
Impulsion,  from  behind,  522;  mechanism 

of,  189. 

Inbornness,  309. 

Incisor  teeth,  of  the  first  dentition,  597; 
second,  601  ;'"structure,  606  ;  direction,  616  ; 
eruption,  637. 

Inclined  plane.  R61e,  19;  application  to 
animal  mechanics,  19 ;  of  surface  and  of  seg- 
ment, 20. 

Indurations,  287. 

Inferior  maxillary  region.  Situation, 
limits,  anatomical  base,  beauties,  67;  dis- 
eases and  blemishes,  dressing  of  the  hair,  68  ; 
examination,  645. 


912 


INDEX. 


Interaxilla.     Situation,  limits,  anatomical 

base,  147. 

Interfering,  586,  587. 
Intermaxillary  space.    Situation,  limits, 

anatomical  base,  defects,  65;   diseases  and 

blemishes,  66. 
Iris,  48. 
Irregularities,  of  number,  721,  722;  form, 

726 ;   fusion,   726 ;  excessive  or  insufficient 

wear,   738 ;    cribbing,    752 ;    extraction   of 

milk-teeth,  762. 
Irritability,  411. 
Isabella  (coat),  775. 
Ivory,  612  ;  germ,  606. 

J. 

Jarde,  275. 
Jet  black,  786. 

Jointed,  long,  short,  300,  450 ;  straight,  low, 

304,  450. 
Juger  (se),  474. 
Juniper.     (See  Leaper.) 

K. 

Keraphyllocele   (horn  tumor  on  the  in- 
ternal face  of  the  wall),  339. 
Keraphyllous  tissue,  315. 
Kickers,  874. 

Kicking,  471 ;  like  a  cow,  874;  vicious  habit? 

874. 
Knee.     Situation,    limits,   anatomical  base, 

227  ;  movements,  228  ;  form,  229 ;  fineness, 

thickness,  width,  230 ;  height,  direction,  231 ; 

clearness  of  outline,  diseases  and  blemishes, 

234. 

Knee-action  (high),  22. 
Knee- sprung,  acquired,  congenital,   231, 

450. 
Knuckling,  297,  450. 


Lachrymal,  gland,  caruncula,  puncta,  ducts, 
sac,  canal,  51,  61. 

Lameness.  Definition,  588;  recognition 
of,  589 ;  acute,  recent,  chronic,  591 ;  con- 
tinued intermittent,  cold,  warm,  592 ;  horse 
which  limps  on  all-fours,  589. 

Laminar  tissue,  315. 

Lampas,  79;  burning  of,  791. 

Lanky,  395. 

Leaper,  575. 

Leaping.  Definition,  divisions,  569 ;  varie- 
ties, 570  ;  trail,  572 ;  notation,  573 ;  con- 
formation of  leapers,  575. 


Leg.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
form,  246  ;  movements,  length,  247  ;  width, 
248;  thickness,  249;  direction,  250;  dis- 
eases and  blemishes,  252 ;  long,  247  ;  thin, 
lean,  fat,  250 ;  fracture,  252. 

Length  of  the  body,  387. 

Leprous  spots,  793. 

Leucoma,  56. 

Levelling,  of  the  incisors,  615. 

Lever.  Definition,  equilibrium,  11;  lever- 
arm,  12 ;  direction  of  the  forces,  13 ;  dif- 
ferent classes,  16;  fixed,  inter-resisting,  16  j 
inter-puissant,  17. 

Life.     Duration  of  the  life  of  the  horse,  642. 

Limp,  on  all-fours,  583;  at  ear,  43. 

Lines.  (Synonyrne  for  length  and  direction 
of  the  regions.)  Horse  which  has  beautiful 
lines  is  symmetrical  in  his  lines,  343. 

Lingual  canal,  75. 

Lippitude,  56. 

Loins.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
width,  length,  form,  direction,  122;  exami- 
nation, diseases,  blemishes,  123 ;  low,  weak, 
false,  dipped,  narrow,  feeble,  123  ;  flinching 
over  the  loins,  123 ;  strain,  123,  585. 

Lop-eared,  43. 

Louvet  (coat),  773. 

Louveture,  790. 

Luxation  of  the  patella,  245. 

Lymphangitis  (inflammation  of  the  lym- 
phatic vessels),  295. 

M. 

Magpie,  798. 

Maladie  du  coit,  184. 

Malanders,  235. 

Mammae  (region  of  the  wall  on  each  side  of 
the  toe),  317. 

Mammae  (glands  secreting  the  milk).  Situ- 
ation, limits,  anatomical  base,  external  char- 
acters, diseases,  blemishes,  186. 

Mane.  Situation,  limits,  form,  109 ;  simple, 
double,  109 ;  cutting  of,  110 ;  washed,  mixed, 
797. 

Mange,  of  the  neck,  109. 

Marbled,  791. 

Mark,  white  mark  of  the  head,  794. 

Martingale,  92. 

Mechanics,  principles  of,"  11 ;  muscular,  14. 

Mecouvrir  (se)  (overchecking),  475. 

Meibomian  glands,  51. 

Melanosis,  of  the  eyelids,  56;  of  the  tail, 
174;  of  the  anus,  180;  of  the  sheath,  182; 
of  the  penis,  184;  of  the  mammary  gland, 
186. 


INDEX. 


913 


Members.  General  considerations,  186; 
function,  186;  mechanism  of  impulsion, 
189  ;  orientation  and  play  of  the  locomotory 
angles,  190;  space  of  oscillation,  191  j  mode 
of  evolution  during  progression,  193;  sys- 
tematic analysis  of  the  play  of  the,  195  ;  re- 
gions of  the  anterior,  200  j  the  posterior, 
237 ;  body  and  members,  395 ;  direct  axis  or 
line  of  direction,  441 ;  line  of  axis  of  a,  442  ; 
axes  of  the  anterior,  443  ;  the  posterior,  456 ; 
horse  straight  in  the  members,  294. 

Molars.  Supplementary  premolars,  622; 
posterior  supplementary  molars,  636 ;  first 
dentition,  636 ;  second  dentition,  625 ;  pre- 
molars, 625 ;  hind  molars,  626 ;  develop- 
ment, 631;  structure,  633;  eruption,  640. 

Moment,  of  a  force,  12;  of  a  muscle,  15. 

Monorchid  (without  visible  testicles),  186. 

Moor-faced,  796. 

Moor-headed,  796. 

Mounted  upon  matches,  397. 

Mounting  side,  22. 

Mouse-color,  778. 

Moustaches,  796. 

Mouth.  Situation,  divisions,  69;  tempera- 
ment, 81 ;  bitting,  action  of  bit,  82  ;  steady, 
sensitive,  tender,  delicate,  easy,  strong, 
hard,  thick,  spoiled,  fresh,  active,  81; 
mouth  made,  655. 

Mule  ray,  797. 

Mule's  foot,  337. 

Muscle.  Insertion,  14;  intensity  and  ex- 
tent of  contraction,  14;  moment,  15;  con- 
traction, 414. 

Muscles,  superficial,  28,  29,  30. 

N. 

Near  side,  22. 

Neck,  of  tooth,  597. 

Neck  (region  of  body).  Situation,  limits, 
anatomical  base,  divisions,  98;  form,  99; 
direction,  carriage,  100;  volume,  102; 
length,  103  ;  attachments,  105  ;  movements, 
106 ;  diseases  and  blemishes,  107 ;  arched, 
swan-necked,  stag-like,  ewe-necked,  re- 
versed, 99;  vertical,  100;  horizontal,  101; 
oblique,  102 ;  supple,  100 ;  slender,  thick, 
103. 

Necrosis,  of  the  poll,  83;  of  the  nuchal 
ligament,  108. 

Neurotomy  (section  of  the  digital  nerves), 
309,  578. 

Nicking,  of  the  depressor  muscles  of  the 
tail,  169. 

Nictitans  membrane,  51. 


Nose.  Extremity  of,  situation,  limits,  ana- 
tomical base,  40  ;  blemishes,  41. 

Nostril  s.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
form,  divisions,  59  ;  beauty,  movements,  60 ; 
examination,  61 ;  expression,  blemishes,  64. 

Notation  (of  the  gaits),  490 ;  reproduction 
of,  500  ;  model  for,  500. 

Nuage,  56. 

O. 

CEdema  (exudation  of  serum  into  the  con- 
nective tissue),  of  the  abdomen,  151 ;  of  the 
scrotum,  180;  of  the  sheath,  182. 

CEstrus  hsemorrhoidalis  (insect  whose 
larvae  inhabit  the  digestive  canal  of  the 
horse),  175. 

Off  side,  22. 

Olecranon  (head  of  the  elbow),  56. 

One-eyed,  57. 

Onglet,  56. 

Open  (horse),  in  front,  146,  451 ;  behind,  268, 
461. 

Ophthalmia,  56. 

Orbital  cavity,  50. 

Orchitis  (inflammation  of  the  testicle),  181, 

Osselets,  of  the  knee,  236;  of  the  fetlocks,, 
297 ;  of  the  pastern,  309. 

Outbow-footed,  in  front,  454;  behind, 
463. 

Ovariotomy,  185. 

Overreaching,  587. 

Overstretching,  288. 


P. 

Pacing,  504. 
Paddling,  586. 

Palate.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
diseases,  83. 

Paries.     (See  Wall.) 

Parotid  region,  84. 

Paring,  of  the  foot;  foot  too  much  pared, 
336. 

Parrot  mouth,  740. 

Parrot-toed,  in  front,  455. 

Pastern.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
298 ;  movements,  form,  299 ;  width,  thick- 
ness, length,  300 :  direction,  303 ;  neatness 
of  outline,  307;  diseases,  blemishes,  308; 
fold  of,  300 ;  exostosis,  309. 

Patella  (bone  of  the  stifle).  Fractures, 
luxations,  245. 

Patinenr,  530. 

Peach-blossom,  781. 

Pedigree,  818. 

Pegiicd  shoulders,  203,  578. 


58 


914 


INDEX. 


Pendulum,  184. 

Penis.  Anatomical  base,  beauties,  defects, 
183;  diseases,  blemishes,  184;  paralysis  of, 
184. 

Perched  high,  397. 

Performances,  818. 

Perineum,  175. 

Periodic  fluxion,  56. 

Periople,  320. 

kjerioplic  band.     (See  Periople.) 

Phlebitis,  109. 

Piebald,  782. 

Pincard  foot,  333. 

Pissy  (mare),  185. 

Pituitary  membrane,  62. 

Placer  (attitude  of  the  horse),  442. 

Plantar  cushion,  313,  316. 

Podophyllous  tissue,  315. 

Point,  439,-  589. 

Pointed  haunch,  140. 

Pointing.     (See  Point.) 

Poll.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
diseases,  blemishes,  83. 

Pommele  (dapples),  787. 

Posterior  quarters,  22. 

Pricking  of  the  foot,  335. 

Prognathism,  736. 

Projectile,  479. 

Proportions.  Definition,  relation  of  re- 
gions, 341 ;  harmony  and  discord,  propor- 
tion and  disproportion,  342  ;  the  agreeable, 
the  beautiful,  and  the  good,  344;  history, 
344;  object  and  utility,  357  ;  points  of  view 
from  which  the  proportions  are  studied,  357 ; 
relations  of  dimensions  between  the  parts, 
358 ;  of  the  man  and  the  horse,  364 ;  angu- 
lar relations  of  the  osseous  segments,  365 ; 
theory  of  the  similitude  of  the  angles  and 
the  parallelism  of  the  bony  segments,  365 ; 
determination  of  the  articular  angles,  371 ; 
influence  of  the  inclination  of  the  bones 
upon  speed,  382;  general  relation  of  the 
whole  organism,  385;  height,  386;  length, 
387 ;  width,  395 ;  relations  between  the  body 
and  the  members,  395 ;  relations  of  the  or- 
ganism with  the  nervous  system,  397 ;  iso- 
lated effects  of  beautiful  proportions  upon 
the  animal  machine,  404 ;  conditions  of  the 
motor  en  mode  de  masse,  or  of  force,  405 ; 
en  mode  de  vitesse,  or  of  speed,  407 ;  of  the 
mixed  motor,  408 ;  excitability,  impression- 
ability, irritability,  410  ;  result  of  beautiful 
proportions  upon  the  mechanism,  endurance, 
412 ;  definitive  synthesis,  429 ;  proportions 
viewed  in  profile,  360;  of  the  head,  361. 


Pulmonary  emphysema,  116. 
Pulp  cavity,  of  tooth,  600. 

Pulp  (dental),  600. 
Pupil,  of  eye,  48. 


Quarter,  of  hoof,  317;  false,  339. 
Quitter,  310,  339. 

R. 

Race,  403. 

Race-horses,  826. 

Racking,  522. 

Raising  of  the  skin,  660. 

Rammy  foot,  339. 

Rampin.     (See  Pincard.) 

Raph6,  175. 

Rassembler  (attitude),  440. 

Reactions,  of  the  body,  479. 

Rearing,  468. 

Regions,  of  the  horse  (table),  23 ;  in  profile, 

in  front,  behind,  24,  25,  26,  27. 
Reflex  power,  400. 
Retina,  49. 
Ribs,  152. 
Ridgeling,  179. 
Ring-bones,  311. 
Ringed,  185. 
Roan  (coat),  782. 

Roarer  (horse  affected  with  roaring),  64, 
Rubican,  788. 
Runaway  horse,  879. 
Running-horse,  826. 
Rusty,  791. 


Sallenders,  270. 

Sarcocele,  181. 

Sclerotic  coat,  of  the  eye,  48. 

Scrotum.     Anatomical  base,  176;  beauties, 

177. 
Seams,  of  the  quarter,  the  toe,  337;  the  bar 

so  barred,  338. 

Seat  (of  the  rider),  553,  576. 
Seedy-toe,  of  the  wall,  339;   of  the  sole, 

339. 
Seller,  887;  tricks  resorted  to  by,  clipping, 

891;  diet,  887;  grooming,  887;   light,  887; 

shoeing,   891 ;    training   or   dressing,    888 ; 

toilet,  889. 

Shaft-horses,  852. 

Sheath.     Anatomical  base,  diseases,  blem- 
ishes,   182;    horse   which    urinates    in    his 

sheath,  184. 


INDEX. 


915 


Shoe,  335;  wide-webbed,  328;  semi-covered, 
329 ;  covered  (width  of  the  branches  of  the 
shoe),  329. 

Shoe-boil  (fibrous  tumor  of  the  elbow),  221. 

Shoeing,  335;  accidents  from,  335. 

Short-winded,  165. 

Shoulder.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical 
base,  form,  201;  movements,  202;  length, 
205 ;  length  in  relation  to  the  arm,  205 ;  di- 
rection, 207;  scapulo-humeral  angle,  209; 
position,  muscularity  or  volume,  212;  dis- 
eases, blemishes,  213;  crest,  point,  201; 
angle  blemish,  202;  pegged,  203;  long, 
short,  oblique,  204;  vertical,  205;  well 
placed,  forward,  212 ;  well  outlined,  meagre, 
lean,  atrophied,  massive,  fleshy,  thick,  213; 
cold  or  pegged,  578 ;  horse  upon  his  shoul- 
ders, 562. 
.  Shyers,  876. 

Side  (mounting,  left  side  of  the  horse),  22. 

Sides.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
form,  movements,  beauties,  152  ;  round,  flat, 
incurvation,  153 ;  length,  154 ;  defects,  dis- 
eases, blemishes,  156. 

Silver  (reflection),  786. 

Similitude  of  the  angles,  theory  of 
(General  Morris),  365. 

Skipping,  527. 

Skittish,  43. 

Sneezing,  64. 

Snowballs  (spots),  788. 

Snow-flakes,  788. 

Sole,  of  the  foot,  378;  bruised,  338;  burnt, 
336 ;  heated,  336. 

Solid-colored,  787. 

Soot-balls,  of  the  eye,  49. 

Sorrel  (coat),  773. 

Sound  of  the  frog,  182. 

Spavin,  273. 

Speed,  condition  of  the  motor  for  speed,  407. 

Splints,  288;  chained,  pegged,  simple, 
spindle-shaped,  289. 

Square  horse,  391. 

Standard,  809. 

Station  (attitude  of  the  horse),  438 ;  forced, 
camped,  gathered  up,  440. 

Steeple-chaser,  827. 

Step,  475  ;  length,  476  ;  periods,  476. 

Stifle.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
244 ;  neatness  of  outline,  direction,  diseases, 
blemishes,  245 ;  fold,  244. 

Strain,  of  the  coxo-femoral  articulation,  141 ; 
of  the  loins,  585 ;  of  the  shoulder,  214 ;  of 
the  tendons,  288. 
Striking,  587. 


String-halt,  272,  579,  592;  in  front,  be- 
hind, 580. 

Strong-limbed,  243. 

Stud-book,  818. 

Stumble,  230,  577. 

Supernumerary  digits,  281. 

Support,  base  of,  10. 

Supra-orbit.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical 
base,  beauties,  fraudulent  practices  upon,  47. 

Surfeit,  110. 

Suspension,  of  the  body,  478. 

Sway-backed,  117. 

Swine-ear,  43. 

Switching  of  the  tail,  173. 

Symmetry?  beautiful,  343. 

Synovia  (viscid  fluid  lubricating  the  articu- 
lators). 

Synovia!  dilatations,  of  the  hock,  271, 
272 ;  of  the  knee,  236 ;  of  the  stifle,  245. 


T. 

Tail.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base,  di- 
visions, attachment,  carriage,  168 ;  state  of 
stump  and  hairs,  170  ;  forms,  171 ;  dressing, 
172;  movements,  173;  diseases,  blemishes, 
174;  frauds,  173;  entire,  with  shortened 
hairs,  170;  short,  full,  banged,  171;  bushy, 
club-tail,  rat-tail,  172 ;  docked,  169 ;  washed, 
mixed,  797 ;  examination  of  the  nodes,  646. 

Teeth.  Definition,  number,  distribution, 
594;  incisors,  597;  canines,  619;  molars, 
621 ;  eruption,  637 ;  examination,  646 ; 
characters  furnished  by  the  teeth.  648; 
irregularities,  722  ;  of  number,  722  ;  of  form, 
726 ;  of  fusion,  726 ;  form  of  central  enamel, 
727 ;  depth  of  infundibulum  and  its  exter- 
nal dental  cavity,  729 ;  defect  of  length  or 
excess  of  width  of  one  of  the  jaws,  736  ;  ex- 
cessive or  insufficient  wear,  738;  cribbing, 
752  ;  fraudulent  means,  762. 

Teeth,  foetal,  milk,  deciduous,  597 ;  virgin, 
603 ;  wolf,  622. 

Temple.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
distinctness,  freedom  from  blemishes,  dis- 
eases, blemishes,  46 ;  gray  temples,  47. 

Tendon,  283;  well  detached,  283;  strains, 
288 ;  horse  which  has  snapped  a  tendon,  288  ; 
weak  tendons,  285. 

Testicles.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical 
base,  176;  examination,  177;  beauties,  178; 
diseases,  blemishes,  180. 

Thigh.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
form,  237  ;  movements,  238  ;  direction,  239  ; 
length,  242;  width,  thickness,  peculiar 


916 


INDEX. 


markings,  243 ;  diseases,  blemishes,  244 ; 
flat  of  the  thigh,  238 ;  flat,  lean,  froggy, 
sharp,  243. 

Throat.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
beauties,  defects,  examination,  diseases, 
blemishes,  85. 

Thrombus,  109. 

Thrush,  337. 

Time,  474. 

Timid  horses,  876. 

Toe  (of  the  wall),  317. 

Tongue.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
examination,  76;  beauties,  defects,  blem- 
ishes, 78 ;  horses  which  loll  the  tongue, 
double  it  up,  or  protrude  it  from  the  mouth, 
859. 

Trachea  (windpipe),  99. 

Tracheotomy,  108. 

Track  (succession  of  footprints),  475. 

Trail.   '(See  Track.) 

Trichiasis,  56. 

Troop  horses,  846. 

Trot.  Trails,  varieties,  571;  play  of  the 
members,  513 ;  rhythm  of  the  beats,  time, 
projection,  tracing,  and  notation,  574;  dis- 
placements of  the  centre  of  gravity,  reac 
.  tions,  517;  length  of  the  stride,  velocity, 
579 ;  beauties  and  defects,  521 ;  horse  which 
trots  in  the  stable,  863 ;  broken  trot,  flying 
trot,  racking,  522. 

Trotter,  in  harness,  829 ;  under  the  saddle, 
832. 

Trunk,  inferior  line  of,  396 ;  superior  line  of, 
396. 

Tuft  of  the  chin,  68. 

U. 

Under  himself  (horse),  in  front,  448;  be- 
hind, 458. 

Urethra,  183;  fissure  of,  814. 

Urethrotomy  (incision  of  the  urethra  to 
remove  stone  (calculi)  from  the  bladder), 
175. 

Uvea,  49. 

V. 

Vaginal  sheath,  of  the  testicle,  177. 
Varicocele,  181. 
Variola  equina,  186. 


Velvety  tissue,  316. 

Vices  of  character,  857. 

Vices  properly  so  called,  869;  general 

causes  of,  882. 

Vicious  habits,  enumeration  of,  858. 
Vicious  horses,  857. 
Vitreous  humor,  50. 
Vulva.     Situation,   limits,   anatomical  base, 

external  characters,  185 ;  diseases,  blemishes,. 

186;  rupture,  186. 

w. 

Walk.  Definition,  play  of  the  members,  530  ; 
order  of  beats,  tracing,  and  notation,  532 ; 
varieties  of  the  rhythm,  536;  trails  of  the 
walk  and  their  varieties,  537  ;  length  of  the 
step,  speed,  540 ;  displacements  of  the  centre 
of  gravity,  reactions,  confirmation,  541 ; 
running,  529. 

Wall  of  the  hoof,  316. 

Wall-eye,  55,  796. 

Wanting  in  form  and  symmetry,  343. 

Warts,  of  the  eyelids,  of  the  sheath,  of  the 
vulva,  186. 

Washed,  793. 

Wavy  (water)  (reflection  of  coat),  787. 

Well  lumped,  of  horse,  243. 

Whip,  808. 

White-feet,  798. 

White  markings,  of  the  coat,  789. 

Width  of  body,  395. 

Winded,  165. 

Windgalls,  296. 

Wind-sucker,  753. 

Wine-colored,  791. 

Withers.  Situation,  limits,  anatomical  base, 
beauties,  defects,  form,  111 ;  height  and  ex- 
tent, 112;  thick,  low,  sharp,  112;  promi- 
nent, 113;  muscular,  effaced,  114;  mode  of 
suspension,  114;  diseases  and  blemishes,  116. 


Xiphoid  region.      Situation,  limits,  ana- 
tomical base,  diseases,  blemishes,  148. 


z. 


Zebra  marks,  799. 


THE '  END. 


LD 


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